Stokes, Donald - Simon Fraser University：斯托克斯唐纳德西蒙·弗雷泽大学

Stokes, Donald - Simon Fraser University：斯托克斯唐纳德西蒙·弗雷泽大学 Canadian Public Policy Analysis and Public Policy Programs in a Comparative Perspective Iris Geva-May, Simon Fraser University Allan Maslove, Carleton UniversityPubic Policy Analysis: Trends and Developments This chapter seeks to place Canadian Public Policy programs in a comparative perspective and analyze perspective shifts in the adoption of policy analysis studies which can facilitate student immersion in the policy analysis profession. We acknowledge that instruction plays an important role in the training of policy analysts and we provide a general comparative overview that allows us to identify the status of Canadian public policy analysis and public policy programs in view of local and global developments. Nevertheless, we recognize the fact that a comparison of individual schools and practices within Canada or between Canada, U.S. and Europe require a long-term in-depth separate study. Consequently, in this chapter we will mainly discuss a) the characteristics and training needs of policy analysis as understood by tracking the needs of the profession; (b) the development of the field leading to the present status of the profession; (c) orientations tailoring public policy institutional formation, curriculum orientations and practices in Canada, U.S. and Europe in light of conceptual and historical developments in those countries (d) implications and lessons from other developments and contexts for the Canadian circumstances. a.The Policy Analysis Profession: Characteristics and Needs Lets first identify the fields of policy studies and policy analysis. Public policy is both an academic and professional field. Within this context policy analysis is a type of professional practice like medicine, psychology, or law. In law, medicine, psychology and law the concept of practice is associated with clinical reasoning, i.e., problem identification within a given context, diagnosis, and iterative cognitive problem solving processes – all leading to tacit knowledge that can be taught and learned through practice and experience (Reiner and Gilbert 2000; Gigerenzer 1999; Sternberg 1985; et al. 2000; Polanyi 1966, Collins 2001). One learns to “think like a lawyer,” to “think like a doctor” or to “think like an economist,” and significant emphasis is placed on clinical training. To think like a policy analyst implies developing epistemological knowledge…(and) of 1becoming a member of that professional community. It implies sharing common “tricks of the trade” at various degrees of mastery and a tacit, invisible inner curriculum, which includes rules, perceptions, conceptual inferences, simulators, visual symbols and schemas. This tacit knowledge, when coupled with logical processes, is unconsciously recruited to generate 2new knowledge and new states of knowing. (Geva-May 2005, p. 17) Like other clinical professional fields, policy analysis is related to a problem presented by a client where it is necessary to provide advice to the client/decision-maker about best strategic procedures leading to the resolution of the problem. In policy analysis the clinical reasoning process is intensified by political and economical considerations, agendas, actors’ interests and stakeholders. Hence, the need for instruction in the art and craft of the policy analysis profession in appropriately tailored programs of public policy or policy analysis is at least as acute as training doctors, lawyers, or psychologists by professional schools of law, medicine, or psychology (Geva-May, 2005). In these professions students are expressly preparing for careers that have norms and conventions, and whose work has impacting outcomes. It should be noted that in these professions, however, unlike policy analysis, there are clear guidelines and 3requirements for practitioners licensing. Studies on the influence of learning styles on knowledge and mastery acquisition in the public sector emphasize the important role of training institutions in providing effective training. The traditional role of instructors as providers of knowledge and skills for competent practitioners, or of a purely theoretical academic curricula 1 And yet there really is no professional association for policy analysts’ equivalent to that for lawyers, doctors and other professional groups—one that sets out a code of professional ethics and standards, and specifies duties and rights. 2 See Miriam Reiner 1998. 3 For discussion on licensing see Conclusions in this chapter. because “this is the learners’ only chance to be exposed to scholarly work,” runs contrary to studies which clearly show that learning is more effective in informal settings and that practice leads to a higher level of tacit knowledge acquisition that can be then adapted to individual styles and varieties of contexts (Anis, Armstrong and Zhu, 2004; Geva-May 2005). For policy analysis, the acquisition of tacit knowledge, innate learned responses regarding strategies and procedural tools (Simon 1956) or “decision frames” leading to mastery (Tversky and Kahneman 1981), 4distinguish the future skilled technician or expert from the impostor (Meltsner 1976). At the core of policy studies oriented programs the shared goal should be to provide knowledge, skills and an understanding of the craft of policy analysis. Active student participation is key in learning theories (Bruner 1963; Dewey 1933, 1938; Lewin 1938; Piaget 1953, 1977, 1985). This is the approach taken in other areas of clinical training such as medicine, for instance, and which means learning to apply theory under the supervision of practitioners and exposure to problem solving and practice. Given the blurry borderlines between policy analysis, public administration and public management it is important to make the distinction between these fields and related types of instruction: while in business and public administration the concept of practice is associated with behaviors and attitudes in policy analysis skill and reasoning are associated with clinical diagnostic processes which require innate knowledge and practice. Policy analysis instruction within theoretically oriented institutions such as political science, or public administration usually do not provide exposure and opportunity of acquiring practical policy analytical skills. For this reason, most policy analysis programs in the U.S., for instance, recognize the value of introducing learners to professional (as opposed to purely academic) reasoning, and assisting them in acquiring at least entry-level practice skills. Students are exposed to case studies, capstone projects, internships, real policy analysis projects and other professional experience. How can knowledge and mastery be acquired? How can institutions provide fluent practitioners to public policy systems? Michael Luger (2005) accounts that scholars within the fields of public policy and public administration have asked at regular intervals over the past several decades if the curriculum in schools that belong to the 4 See Arnold Melsner’s four types of policy analysts and their characteristics. Association for Public Policy and Management (APPAM) keep up with changes in the profession. Don Stokes reflects on “successive waves of educational innovation.” in his 1995 presidential address and tracks changes in curricula over five waves of 5educating people for public service, dating back to the post-WWII period. Don Kettle (1997), and Larry Lynn (1998, 1999) among others, write about the “revolution” in public management, and what that implies for curricula. Among others, Ed Lawler (1994), and Larry Walters and Ray Sudweeks (1996) shed light on changes in the theory and practice of policy analysis, with related consequences for curriculum development. In the 1980s, APPAM leaders met in South Carolina to discuss and compare curriculum 6issues. A recent book by Geva-May (2005) hosts a distinguished number of scholars sharing their views on policy analysis instruction. European public administration and public affairs scholars met for seven consecutive years since 1997 in various European cities to share the same concerns. The result of their deliberations was the foundation of the European Association for Public Administration Accreditation, following the NASPAA model, in order to promote and coordinate public administration programs in 7Europe (EAPAA, 2003). In Canada, like Europe’s EGPA (European Group of Public Affairs) we witness the (CAPPA) Canadian Association of Programs of Public Administration focusing on issues related mainly to promoting public administration. Notwithstanding, neither in Europe nor in Canada do we find an oversight organization coordinating the nature and quality of the public policy programs or a research association of scholars devoted to policy analysis such as the American Association of Public Policy Analysis and Management - APPAM. APPAM, nevertheless, is not an accreditation association and NASPAA, like the EAPPA offer accreditation for public administration and public affairs. They do not represent public policy studies or policy analysis programs. The emergence of modes of instruction related to developments in the perception of policy analysis practice are presented in the following sections. 5 published in the Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 1996. 6 See a full account in Michael Luger, 2005. 7 EAPAA Accreditation Criteria, June 2003, p.2. b) The Development of the Profession To trace the development of the policy analysis profession we will acknowledge and contrast the assumptions of the early 1960s with those prevalent today in terms of historical, political or other contextual triggers; will relate to the scale and location of policy analysis, and finally, we will identify the types of instructional programs proposed to assign and disseminate policy analytic methods. The field of policy analysis is widely influenced by its developments in the U.S. Some may comment on a somewhat parochial American mode of practice and instruction, commitment, and attitude. When we compare the development of the field of policy studies and policy analysis in various countries we detect attempts to adopt “normative” policy analysis as developed in the U.S. or to use normative American policy analysis methods as benchmarks for systematic policy analysis. The increased adoption of this systematic approach to policy making is driven by accountability, transparency, and proof of efficiency and corruption deterrence. Interestingly, in the last decade, policy analysis studies have been adopted even more aggressively in Central and Eastern European countries than in Western Europe. The fact is that the development of the programs of public policy started in the U.S. and they coincide with developments in the conceptualization and practice in the field. Studies by Gow and Sutherland (2004) in Canada, Cleary (1990), Henry (1995) and Breaux et al. (2003) in the U.S. present an in-depth account of the development of schools of public policy. DeLeon’s “stages” (1989) and a decade later, Beryl Radin’s presidential address (1996) and her Beyond Machiavelli (2002) provide a comprehensive account of shifts in the development of the field of policy studies and policy analysis. So does the more finessed account of policy analysis frameworks by Mayer, Van Daalen and Bots (2001). There is no major comparative study of programs of public policy in Europe although the EAPAA, European Public Administration Network - EPAN and Network of Institutes and Schools of Public Administration in Central and Eastern Europe - NISPAee have been producing valuable information. The new process of developing associations among universities and an accreditation benchmark for programs of public management/administration will inevitably lead to such comparisons. As part of this trend, at the 2003 Swiss Political Science Annual Conference the working group on public policy chose the topic of comparing the state 8of the art in policy analysis across Switzerland, Germany and France. A general study of trends in Canada, the U.S. and Europe show that while the field of policy analysis is becoming more established in North America after half a century, the last APPAM presidential address called for more attention to public management and 9its inherent inter-relation to policy analysis. Hence, while in Canada and Europe programs are slowly moving away from affiliations with political science and public administration departments and establish public policy programs (mainly in Germany and the UK), in the U.S. we observe a slight swing in the opposite direction. It is characterized by re-examination of a more holistic approach, which recognizes the symbiosis between the fields of management, public administration and policy analysis. In Europe these are mainly the public management programs in business schools, political science departments, and public administration schools that host policy studies, and some, though few, provide core courses in policy analysis. In the last half-decade, following international trends and mainly the established policy analysis field in the U.S., some Canadian institutions have added the “label” of policy studies to their existent programs. Such an example is the School of Public Policy and Administration at Carleton University (“public policy” recently added). Nevertheless, except for Simon Fraser University’s new Public Policy Program initiated in 2003, there is no other institution entirely devoted to public policy studies in Canada. Guelph-McMaster and Regina combine Pubic Administration or management with Public Policy. Concordia includes Public Policy in its Political Science Department. The Political Science Department and the Business School share UBC’s policy group.The field of policy studies was first defined by Lasswell in 1951 and provided the perception of an applied area of inquiry within social sciences. This development was layered on the 1912 decision of the American Political Science Association, which set up a committee on public service training. These developments had significant 8 Our main database on developments and trends in Europe is based on the various programs’ websites and interviews with leading scholars. There is no literature per se in this regard. Hence that the comparative study decision is an important step towards a more scholastically oriented discourse.9 See Howlett and Linquist (2004) for insightful definitions distinguishing between public management, public administration and public policy. consequences on the way policy studies and policy analysis developed in the U.S. vis a vis Europe or Canada. First, as a result, in early 20th century in the U.S is characterized by the first programs that addressed issues of public policy. They were started in departments of political science and in public administration schools. Those programs traditionally focused on training how to administer and implement government decisions rather than train for a practical clinical profession such as policy analysis. Policy analysis studies in Europe and in Canada started in the last decade present similar institutional arrangements and confines. In the 1960s and 1970s with the wartime planning activities - large-scale social and economic planning processes in defense, urban re-development and welfare, and thbudgeting, and with the ‘scientific management’ thinking of the mid-20 century, policy analysis takes a major leap forward. An important stepping-stone was the initiation of the Planning Programming Budgeting System (PPBS) in the U.S. and similar developments in Canada and in other countries (Heineman et al 1990; Garson 1986; Lindblom 1958; Dobuzinskis 1977; Wildavsky 1979; Starling, 1979; Radin 2000; Howlett and Linquist 2004). Mintrom’s chapter in this book provides a detailed account of these developments. The emerging field of policy analysis also coincided with the rhetoric (or the belief) in performance oriented efficient governments and with the faith in rational decision-making, on objectivity, systematic policy analysis, and in “speaking truth to power,” i.e., affecting policy making (Radin 1996, 2002). The notion of policy analysis as craft driven stemmed from both positivist social science and normative economic models with the economic models providing the clearest and most powerful basis for an improvement and change orientation (Aaron 1989; Radin 1996). Policy analysts were short-term experts from universities or research centers and their background expertise was usually in economics or operations research – as is the case today in many European countries and in Canada. Clients provided the perspective, values and agenda for the analytic activity, while policy analysis was supposed to contribute to the improvement of effective, scientifically assessed and transparent policymaking (Dror 1971; Meltsner 1990; and Wildavsky 1979). As Radin explains, the American 10 provided a fertile soil for development of policy analysis because pragmatic tradition it promoted the social and democratic goals of improving efficiency in the way that resources were allocated and implemented; of increasing the use of knowledge and information in the actual making of decisions; and finally, allowing for control by top agency officials over fragmented and diffuse organizational and program units. These developments throughout the 1960s enhanced the creation of public affairs programs that focused on policy problems and best alternatives. They were led by economists and political scientists who worked to refine the methods used to promote optimal choices made by governments. The U.S. federal government increasingly utilized these services and the demand for experts in analysis methods increased, the public policy market demanded more people to be trained in policy analysis techniques. As a result public policy programs proliferated. Some schools of public administration or public affairs converted into public policy programs, other public policy programs were created from scratch. Others, kept their public administration or public affairs title, but changed their curriculum to include. In the 1970s interest in implementation led public management programs in business schools to include public policy programs, or public policy and policy analysis curricula. Four decades later, this stage in the policy analysis development is comparable to what is happening in Canada today, and to what seems to be emerging in Europe. With the demand for policy analysis experts due to developments in those regions, public administration, political science and business schools have started to change their orientation and increasingly include public policy studies and policy analysis. Some have created or are in the process of creating overt public policy programs. Including policy studies in business schools is highly visible in the UK today. Canada’s UBC offers a similar orientation. Most of the programs in Europe and Canada are included in public administration and political science schools. The key direction shift in the field of policy studies and policy analysis took place in the U.S. 1980s and mainly in the 1990 influenced by the widespread development of policy analysis units both in the government and at the periphery (think tanks, policy 10 This tradition was defined by John Dewey and presented belief in scientific study of social problems and in objectivity. analysis centers, analysts used by NGOs, interest groups, etc). The proliferated but diffused influence held by analysts led to the realization that policy analysts were no longer able to speak truth close to power (Radin 1996; Rivlin, 1984; Lynn, 1989). At the methodological level they gradually realized that there were other factors beyond objective systematic analysis such as performed by economists, for instance, affecting 11recommendations. Historical factors have increasingly impacted the development of the public policy and policy analysis field in Europe in the last decade. The challenge has been to promote harmonization and unification within the EU. This has brought about the need for a common denominator in policy making. Hence, an attempt at tracing developments in Europe shows that in the last decade the traditional schools of political science, public management and administration have gradually started to provide programs in (mainly comparative) policy studies, policy analysis, or common core curricula in public administration and public policy. Accreditation, following the NASPAA template is highly sought. In this climate, the old good systematic policy analytic techniques seem to gain ground. Central and Eastern Europe where the fall of the previous regimes has created a void in the perception of good practice in public administration and public policy, move more aggressively than any other regions towards the adoption of policy analytic practices and the initiation of public administration, policy studies and policy 12analysis programs. In Canada the shift towards adopting policy analytic methods in the curriculum is also particularly visible in recent years. The geo-political proximity to the U.S. makes this development understandable. In fact one would wonder why it took so long for the policy analysis field and policy studies to reach Canadian higher education institutions. On the other hand the inherent Commonwealth Westminster administrative tradition, and its implications for policy analysis as a profession, seems to place developments in Canada somewhere between the U.S. and the European approaches to policy studies and policy analysis instruction. 11 See Beryl Radin’s outstanding account in her Presidential address, 1996. 12 See, for instance NISPAcee and EPAN websites. See also websites of various schools and programs in the EU. For more details see section on the EU below. I thank Monika Steffen, Jann Werner, Colin Talbot, Frans vanNispen, Geert Bouckaert, Salvador Parrado Diez, Stephen Osborne, Christine Rothmayr, Bruno Dente and others for their invaluable comments and explanations. In the following sections we will relate to Canadian, U.S. and European developments leading to a penchant towards policy analysis, albeit featuring different institutional and instructional approaches, and to lessons drawn for the Canadian context. 13c) Institutional Developments in Canada, U.S. and Europe Policy Analysis in Canadian Universities University involvement in policy analysis is multi-faceted. Universities are simultaneously think tanks conducting research on public policy issues and techniques, consultants undertaking contract policy analysis for governments or other organizations, producers of human capital in the form of future policy analysts, and consumers of analysis as inputs in their own decision-making. In this discussion we focus primarily on how universities train policy analysts, and secondarily on universities as think tanks and research consultants. The latter activities are included in the discussion because of the overlap between them and the training function.In Canada, the training of policy analysts occurs mostly in graduate and undergraduate programs with labels such as “Public Policy”, “Public Administration”, and “Policy Studies”. Generally speaking there are three types of programs. In the first group are those programs that are wholly or largely within departments of political science (Concordia, Manitoba/Winnipeg, McMaster). This is the oldest model, though there are such programs in some universities that are relatively recent. In this model public administration is regarded as one of the sub-fields of the discipline; the study of public administration is about what governments do, how they decide and how they carry out their decisions, and is thus an inherent part of political science. These programs are essentially uni-disciplinary, though some – especially new or newly revised ones – draw on other fields to a limited extent. These programs are sometimes offered alongside programs in international studies or international relations, being identified in effect as two sub fields of the discipline that have most become professionally oriented.13 While we focus on the policy schools, we also recognize that policy analysts are also trained elsewhere in universities, often with a focus on a particular sector or policy area. Thus, policy analysis training occurs, for example, in units such as economics, social work, environmental studies, international studies and so forth. These programs tend to study the institutions and processes of governing and decision-making, intra- and inter-organization relations, values and ethics, the history of policy fields, and politics. More of these programs have some to include analytical methods courses such as quantitative and qualitative analysis and survey techniques.The second model is the (small) group of programs (UBC, York) that are located within schools or faculties of business. While the discipline of political science dominates in the first group, it is all but absent in the second. These programs tend to reflect the perspective that management is generic, and that all organizations – public and private – must undertake similar activities such as financial management, human resource management, planning and budgeting. These programs tend to share a common core with MBA programs that dominate these schools in terms of enrolments and curricular design. It is usually only in the latter part of these programs that “the public sector” is explicitly introduced through specialized courses for students in this particular stream of management studies. The third model – and the one that constitutes the mainstream approach - is the group of stand-alone schools of public administration or public policy (Carleton, Dalhousie, Queen’s, Simon Fraser, Victoria). These schools, for the most part, offer comprehensive programs. All offer degrees at the Master’s level and some at the doctoral level. These programs are all based on a view that public policy analysis must necessarily draw on methodologies and techniques from several of the traditional disciplines, with economics and political science being the core foundation disciplines but with significant contributions from at least some or all of law, sociology/organization studies, accounting and finance, and quantitative analysis. Ideally these programs are inter-disciplinary in that students are taught in a way that more or less simultaneously integrates the insights and techniques of the underlying disciplines. In practice, some turn out to be multi-disciplinary, teaching the disciplinary contributions separately and leaving it to the students to discover the integration themselves. Gow and Sutherland note that Canadian programs of public administration tend to include more on public policy than do public administration programs in the U.S. and are light on management material in comparison with the NASPAA accredited schools and programs. Canadian programs are also much more likely to include a course on the theory of public policy and/or public administration. While often one cannot uniquely link a single cause and effect (an important lesson of policy analysis perhaps!), it is fair to say that a major impetus for policy analysis training in Canada came in the late 1960s when Pierre Trudeau became the Prime Minister. Trudeau was very dissatisfied with the process of policy formation in Ottawa, believing it was insufficiently systematic and rational and too political. He was determined to make policy formation in the federal government more analysis driven, more scientific and 14more rational. Trudeau's demands created a market for more analytically trained civil servants to staff the new branches of policy analysis and program evaluation that were established in virtually every government department and agency, led by the Treasury Board. The first steps were to look to university economics departments, and it is still the case today that economics methodology and analysis play a major role in policy analysis (reflected in a continuing high demand for people with economics training and the strong representation of microeconomics in public policy programs). But a demand was also created for graduates who possessed a broader background than the economists typically offered (especially as many economics departments became increasingly more mathematical and theoretical). This was a key impetus for the new public policy programs and for the older traditional public administration programs to become more policy analysis oriented. While some of the institutions interpret their missions, at least in part, as educating future academic researchers and teachers (especially those with doctoral programs), it is fair to say that the schools and programs attending to policy studies view themselves primarily as professional programs, preparing the great majority of their graduates for careers in government or other organizations that participate in some fashion in the public policy arena. This orientation is perhaps best expressed by certain properties that are often (though not universally) associated with these programs. First, these programs are likely to include a co-op or internship placement component (Carleton, Dalhousie, 14 Brooks' chapter in this volume provides a historical overview of the policy analysis profession in Canada, which he dates from the early years of the previous century. Brooks also notes the beginning of the Trudeau years as one of the watersheds in this history. Similarly, McArthur's contribution in this volume draws attention to the Trudeau period. Queen’s, Simon Fraser, Victoria), which is highly recommended or required of all students except those already having professional experience. Second, many of these programs have executive programs alongside their regular master’s degrees. In some cases these are executive degree programs, while in other cases they offer specialized certificate or diploma programs. These programs are intended for “mid-career” public servants or others who view the programs as vehicles to hone their policy analysis skills and, relatedly, to enhance their prospects for promotion or other employment opportunities. The executive and certificate programs, in recognition of the constraints under which their clients take these programs, are often offered in various non-standard formats (e.g., intensive weekends once per month, summer sessions, online teaching).A current issue that relates to the idea of professional training is the accreditation of 15schools and programs. The public administration and public affairs schools in the U.S. have established a national accreditation program (National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration - NASPAA), which operates a periodic accreditation system albeit not to programs of policy studies per se. This model of professional self-regulation has not been adopted in Canada to date, but the issue has actively been considered with some advocates seeing the Canadian Association of Programs in Public Administration (CAPPA) as being the forerunner of an accreditation body. Among the issues to be addressed if Canadian universities were to move in this direction would be the content of the various curricula. In particular the question to be addressed is whether there is a standard model to which all accredited institutions should adhere that would deliver a recognized set of core competencies and skills. If so, what should that content be? Some universities also house units that practice the art of policy analysis. These units, often structured as research units with links to their respective academic programs in policy analysis, are in a sense “think tanks” and policy analysis consultants. They undertake and publish research on a wide range of public policy issues depending on their respective mandates; while some are quite broad in the range of issues they investigate others focus on a specific policy area or sector. The activities of these units constitute another avenue of university participation in the policy analysis community, 15 James I. Gow and Sharon L. Sutherland, “Comparison of Canadian Master’s Programs in Public Administration, Public Management, and Public Policy,” Canadian Public Administration, 2004. v. 47, No. 3, pp. 379-405. usually in the public domain. These units, in part, function like think tanks insofar as they undertake and publish self-initiated research, and partly as consulting firms when they undertake research on a contract basis for governments or other clients. Despite the fact that core policy analysis courses as offered in the U.S. schools and in some European Schools, they are not explicitly provided in the majority of Canadian programs, Canadian university research units provide a laboratory for the institutions’ students of policy analysis through direct participation in policy analysis activities, as do a number of policy research centers such as the C.D. Howe Institute, the Institute for Research on Public Policy, The Fraser Institute, The Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives, and the Caledon Institute. They are thus a bridge between the academic training of future analysts and the “real world” analysis that occurs in governments and elsewhere among policy communities. The chapters by Abelson and by Dobuzinskis included in this book provide a wider perspective on the work of think tanks and research centers and their contribution to policy analysis in Canada. Finally, in recent years universities have themselves become much more intensive consumers of policy analysis. In an environment characterized by tighter financial constraints, and increased competition for students and faculty, universities have become more involved in strategic planning. That has led them to seek more and stronger analytical insights into prospective students and faculty decisions, to accord increased attention to government (provincial and federal) policy formulation processes, and to seek more effective methods of intervening in those decision-making processes (lobbying). What has not developed thus far is any significant feedback from the universities as consumers of policy analysis to universities as producers of future policy analysts. For example, there does not appear to be significant curricular changes to focus on the issues of post-secondary education, or on the analysis of policy analysis.Policy Analysis in American Universities When tracing the development of the field, we have already discussed the circumstances that triggered the development of policy studies and policy analysis in the U.S. Indeed, when comparing the policy analysis activity in Canadian and American universities, one is immediately struck by the differences in size and breadth between the two systems. Even accounting for population size differences, the number of policy analysis schools in universities in the U.S. is far larger than in Canada as is the variety of specialized programs. In addition, the American universities have addressed and resolved several issues with which Canadian institutions are still grappling. For the most part, these revolve around the question of accreditation, which we discuss shortly. First, however, there are a number of other differences worthy of comment. As is often the case, with larger scale comes more specialization. While, as in Canada, there are American programs grounded in political science and programs that are structured to be inter-disciplinary, there is also considerable specialization by policy field and sector. In addition to general programs in policy analysis and public administration, the American schools offer a variety of specialized programs in areas such as health policy/administration, education, urban government, and the non-profit sector. Among many others, the School of Public Policy at Berkeley for instance, offers a program in housing and urban policy, the Graduate School of Public Policy Studies at the University of Chicago offers a program in child and family policy, and the Kennedy School at Harvard offers (among others) a program in technology and economic policy. Many schools, certainly the larger ones tend to offer degree programs at all three levels (undergraduate, Master’s and Ph.D.) and as well, a range of specialized certificate and executive programs. While one can see evidence of this variety in Canada as well, the U.S. has a much more extensive range of offerings (again even taking into account the population size difference). American schools of public policy are often located in private universities and are thus more connected to private support and less dependent on government funding than is the case in Canada or Europe (for instance the well known Kennedy School at Harvard). At the same time, however, they appear often to be more closely linked to governments in terms of the two-way flow of expertise. It is quite common for faculty members to work for a time in government, and for people who have held senior government positions (both appointed and elected) to move to academe. Such cross-fertilization occurs in Canada as well but to a lesser extent than in the U.S. In part, this may be the consequence of the American political system where senior bureaucrats come and go with presidents and governors. In part, it is also the result of a more open and welcoming environment in U.S. universities towards individuals who do not regard academics as their lifetime vocation. How might this difference impact the nature of policy analysis training? One area of difference might be in the formal curricula and in styles of teaching and training. American schools tend to put somewhat more emphasis on management and analytical techniques, while Canadian programs tend to contain more theory, and are perhaps more abstract. While programs in both countries offer internship terms, these placements tend to be emphasized somewhat more in the American context. NYU’s Wagner School, for instance, requests a capstone course as part of the program requirements; the Public Policy Program at the University of Chapel Hill, North Carolina, sends students to Washington DC on a regular basis for internships, and the same is the case in the large majority of policy studies programs. Probably the major difference in policy analysis education between Canada and the U.S. is the system of accreditation in the U.S. This occurs through a voluntary association of American schools and programs, the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA). The NASPAA, which welcomes memberships from institutions, whether accredited or not, also represents a large majority of the U.S. programs that offer policy analysis. It accepts affiliate memberships from non-American universities. It is worth noting nevertheless, that there is no accreditation provided to schools of public policy or policy analysis per se. Associations such as APPAM or PSO regard themselves as research forums. Nor is there any attempt by schools of public policy to initiate an accreditation threshold in policy analysis. The NASPAA accreditation process, which dates from the mid-1970s, has settled debates in the U.S. that are still on going in Canada. European programs appear to be somewhere between Canada and the U.S. but moving towards an accreditation system at least partly patterned on NASPAA. There are the benefits flowing from a formal accreditation process: the appearance to the external world as a “profession” which, like most professions, establishes standards for training and, in a sense for admission to the profession. For an individual institution, the system offers recognition and seal of approval, which in the first instance benefits the graduates of the program, but which ultimately, enhances the reputation of the institution and its faculty. On the other side is the concern for autonomy and the right of each university to determine what its faculty collectively decides is an appropriate curriculum and standard of performance. The latter argument is predominantly heard when raising the issue of accreditation with programs of policy analysis in the U.S. The American schools opted for the enhanced professionalism associated with program accreditation, though the regime employed does not prevent school from designing a diverse set of offerings. Master’s programs, which are seen as “the professional degree”, were accredited against a set of standards, which largely focused on defining a core. Guidelines were developed for undergraduate programs, and doctoral programs, where the arguments for academic independence and unconstrained inquiry are strongest, are left unregulated. The NASPAA move to accreditation was influenced by the much larger community of business schools and their system of MBA accreditation. On the one hand, the NASPAA initiative was in part to confront a movement by the business schools to extend their reach to the public affairs and public administration programs. As was noted with respect to the Canadian scene, there is a view that management is management, that is, the skills, techniques, issues and sensitivities are essentially the same across the two broad sectors. A separate and independent accreditation system was in part intended to ensure that a distinction between these two sectors was maintained. At the same time, there was a desire to gain a professional status similar to that accorded to the MBA degree; it was at least a tacit goal to create for the MPA (and similar designations) a perception of professional training comparable to that of the MBA. Finally, also consistent with the move towards professional education, the NASPAA engages in a range of other activities that one would expect in a professional association. For example, it stages an annual conference and publishes the Journal of Public Affairs Education (J-PAE). It also includes and active international program that helps to “export” the American model of public affairs/policy analysis education to other countries. In general, American universities actively engage in doing as well as teaching policy analysis through research centers attached to their policy analysis schools. Virtually every US program of Policy Analysis has a research center attached to it and in most cases there are several. These centers cover a wide range of areas, focusing on federal, state and local government in one dimension and on an array of policy fields (defense and national security, health, education, government-business relations, environment, poverty, etc.). At least in some cases these institutes are more publicly recognized than are their Canadian counterparts and actively participate in American public policy debates through their publications, conferences, media contributions, and so forth. But they are comparable to the university-based centers in Canada in their contribution to policy analysis and in providing policy analysis laboratories for students in training. Policy Analysis research centers are also much more widely spread than in Canada also at the government, state, and NGO level. To enumerate only a few which serve also as internship venues we could mention for instance the Urban Institute. Mathematica, the Brookings Institute, the RAND Institute, the American Enterprise Institute, and many others. Policy Analysis in European Universities The discussion on developments in the EU includes a wide range of European countries and hence we will address general common trends. In the EU context it is mainly important to understand the reasons for the emerging policy analysis. The key factor in the gradual adoption of policy analysis seems to be the increasing recognition of the importance of this systematic mode of policy making, and mainly the need for harmonization of varied styles of policy making influenced by a range of traditions and cultures that have increasingly intensified since the 1950’s (Van Gunstreren, 1998). Given the various cultures, the united Europe policy field is marked, as Borow and Dryzek (1989) advise, by an “extraordinary variety of technical approaches.” They list a variety and sub-variations of analytic methods inspired from these traditions and applied to social science fields. By March and Simon (1958) this suggests that standards differ in EU organizations and so are the analyses of those who provide analytic skills. Hood’s (1998) major study on the impacts of political cultures within European institutions reinforces this assumption. Relating to policy making and policy analysis awareness in Europe Hoppe (2002) points to the increasing belief in the importance of acquiring maximum rational judgment and of producing viable policy recommendations (Hoppe 1999, 201). But, in the same breath he also points to studies showing great pluralism in the way policy 16analytic aspects are handled among the EU states. He advises that the challenge in the EU in this regard is to “cope intelligently and creatively with pluralism and diversity.” (2002, 235). Therefore, with the unification of Europe, the main challenge has been to move from largely diverse culturally driven analytic traditions to a more uniform common-core method of policy analytic work. Since the mid-1990s this new vision has brought significant changes in the way policy analysis infiltrates European bureaucracy. Subsequently, similar to developments that took place in the 1980s in the U.S., the demand for public administration and public policy training programs with common core curricula in policy studies and policy analysis has been steadily increasing. A comparison between the American and the EU policy oriented approaches is rather striking. Indeed, many of the policy-oriented courses in the European programs are comparative in nature (especially among the Erasmus intra-universitary coordinated 17programs) but most compare fields of public policies within Europe. Most of the programs do not overtly train students in applied public policy analysis practica and internships are not as widespread. As opposed to the U.S. common practice in policy studies which promotes capstone projects, internships, and reflective thinking courses (de Leon 2005; Smith 2005), in Europe practice rather refers to final dissertations based on social science inquiry methods applied to public administration or public policy and 18not necessarily to internships. Policy analysis seems to filter more significantly in the programs offered in the new Central and Eastern European programs of public 19administration (NISPAcee). It is difficult to highlight “an European approach” to policy analysis and therefore we will note some variations among countries in the EU. Notably, only a handful of European institutions offer explicit policy analysis or policy studies programs. A visible shift towards the establishment of Schools of Public Policy can be observed mainly in 16 See also Van Gunstreren, 1998; Beck, 1992; Hoppe and Grin 1999, 2000. 17 See EAPAA at www.eapaa.org 18 As defined for instance by the EAPAA 19 See NISPAcee at www. nispa.sk the UK and Germany. Similar to the developments of the policy analysis field in the U.S. and the key models of instructions of the 1970s and 1980s, most public policy instruction in Europe is included in Schools of Public Administration, Business, Economics or Political Science where social science oriented curricula such as welfare economics, public choice, social structure, political/legal philosophy, systematic programming and comparative European policies are offered. The main models of instruction of policy studies and policy analytic skills in the various European countries include policy studies curricula offered (1) in public management departments within business schools (among others in the UK Universities of Aston, Glasgow, Sussex, Manchester; Bocconi University Center for Applied Social Studies of Management, Italy (2) in schools of economics: Erasmus, Rotterdam with its School of Economics and Management; University of Minho, Portugal within the School of Economics (3) in departments of political science (LSE, UK; six Institutes of Political Sciences in France and political science departments in Switzerland. (4) In schools of public administration - ENA, Ecole Nationale d'Administration, France; Department of Public Administration at the University of Leidan, Belgium; eight Erasmus universities throughout Europe (EMPA). Another characteristic among the policy-oriented programs in Europe is the wide range of policy specializations. This trend is similar to the U.S. orientation and is missing in Canada. For instance, the London School of Economics’ Department of Social Policy offers eighteen different fields ranging from in criminal justice policy, gender and social policy, health and international health policy, social policy, social policy and planning in developing countries, to youth policy and education policy. The University of Namur, Belgium; Maastricht, the Netherlands; East London; Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg, France; Universidad del Pais Vasco/Euskal Herrico Unibersitatea, Bilbao, Spain; University of Madrid; University of Lisbon; University of Oslo - all offer policy studies with an orientation towards science and technology. In France, policy studies are also often included in faculties of law. An additional orientation in some European institutions is towards urban planning. We note the Ecole Polythechnique Federale de Lausanne, Switzerland, Lund University, Sweden with a joint program conducted by the Institute of Housing and Urban Development (HIS) Rotterdam, the Netherlands. In most institutions policy analysis is not offered as a particular core course but rather as “policy studies” with a strong penchant towards European governance, organization, management and administration. The EMPA which is part of an intra-universitary joint enterprise headed by the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium, includes a series of 20core courses in comparative European policy studies. A common core Master of European Politics and Policies was initiated by Twente University and EGPA and involves several EU institutions that offer policy oriented courses dealing with decision making in Europe, comparative federalism, public policy and public management, and comparative public administration, and aspects of European integration. The University of Nottingham offers a Public Policy program and the National University of Ireland offers policy analysis in the context of European integration. The only school of public policy in Switzerland is the IDHEAP, the Swiss Graduate School of Public Administration, in Lausanne which offers explicit policy analysis courses; University of 21Oslo’s MESPA has an overt orientation towards policy analysis. Several German universities offer clearly stated policy certificates: the Erfurt School of Public Policy – Masters in Public Policy, the University of Potsdam - Masters of Global Public Policy (Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences); University of Konostanz - Public Policy and Management; Public Policy and Evaluation (Department of Politics and Management); the Austrian Institute for International Affairs (OIIP) - Masters in Public Policy, Public Administration and International Development. Among the more interesting developments in Germany is the privately funded school (the Hertie School of Governance) that is aggressively recruiting and planning curricula to start public policy programs within a year. Central and Eastern Europe offer a particularly interesting intellectual arena for policy analysis in the last decade because of the challenge to transform perceived obsolete government, public administration and policy making practices and to fill in a void. Like in the case of Western Europe the challenge was multiplied by the fact that Eastern Europe includes different regional histories and variations of organizational 20 Including Leiden University, Erasmus University Rotterdam, the Netherlands, Hochscule fur Verwaltungswis Senschaften (Speyer, Germany) and the University of Economic Sciences, Budapest, Hungary. 21 Masters Program in European Social Policy Analysis autonomy. Nevertheless, unlike Western Europe, most of the countries do not have the critical mass of public policy and public administration, management, and policy experts. This has led to the need for a new orientation, new programs, new curricula in teaching and training public administration, and in recruiting. For instance, Budapest University of Economic Sciences (formerly Karl Marx University) initiated a Centre for Public Affairs Studies in 1991, merged with the College of Public Administration and is now called Budapest University of Economic Sciences and Public Administration and offers public affairs degrees. The National Academy of Public Administration, Kyiv, Ukraine, is sponsored by the President of the Ukraine, and is the first Eastern European institute to be accredited by the EAPAA. The Central European University (CEU) recently initiated a public policy post-graduate degree. George Soros’ Open Society Institute has been instrumental in providing both financial and intellectual support to CEU and for the diffusion of policy studies in the post-communist countries 22(Straussman 2005). Several associations originated in Western, Central and Eastern Europe are actively acting to coordinate and promote public administration, policy studies and policy analysis in the EU and soon member states. Among the European associations EAPAA and NISPAee require special attention. EGPA is the professional association of public administration but it does not accredit programs. Inspired by NASPAA, EAAPA is 2324trying to organize accreditation on a European basis. Although some European program have been accredited in the past by local national standards (for instance in Germany and in the Netherlands), there have not been until recently overall standards for accreditation of schools in Europe - accreditation being a rather new, but promising, concept. The first accredited program has been the Erasmus Public Administration Program in the Netherlands previously already accredited by NASPAA. In the UK, the British schools try to similarly organize in a national association. In all cases, the 22 See Jeff Straussman guest special issue JCPA 7:1 on policy analysis in Eastern and Central Europe.23 EAPAA is viewed as the new European consortium for public administration accreditation and is presently based at the university of Leuven, Belgium. Its aim is to contribute to quality improvement and assurance of academic level in public administration programs throughout the Council of Europe states. 24 To offer another common denominator, the language of the accreditation is English. The institutions already accredited include the School of Public Administration (NSOB) in The Hague, Erasmus University, Rotterdam; Goteborg University, Goteborg, and the Kyiv National Academy of Public Administration, the Business School at Aston, the School of public Administration Erasmus, Rotterdam, Warwick, and Copenhagen. European accreditation associations recognize that programs have different missions and approaches, and that they stem from different educational systems, but a balance is expected between the institution’s unique mission and substantial conformance with standards. This is an important aspect to note if any form of accreditation is considered in Canada. In Eastern Europe, NISPAcee, the Network of Institutes and Schools of Public iAdministration in Central and East Europe is an organization of institutes and universities whose main role is to promote education in public affairs through exchange of ideas, skills and relevant information among institutions. It supports advocacy on the need of raising the quality of public administration and the development of the civil service in the region, and to advance and spread the practices “of good professional 25public management, public policy and governance” train faculty, develop curricula, assist in developing graduate programs, support conferences and research. NISPAcee also offers consultancy and is a key go-between Western European and US consultants and the CEE countries. Policy analysis is practiced in Western Europe through a myriad of think tanks and research oriented centers and institutes. A particularly large number is found in the UK. Listing them is not the purpose of this chapter, but it is important to observe that the high majority contributes to the comparative policy database within the EU mainly in fields such as economics, migration, welfare and security and require the expertise of well-trained policy analysts. Demand, as in the 1980s in the U.S., leads to the development of institutions providing instruction in public policy. Some of the think tanks are funded and supported by governments fostering intra-nations collaboration 25 See www.nispacee.org, (p.10), 2627within the EU others are funded by parties or by NGOs. d) Conclusions: Canada in a Comparative Perspective The central aim of this chapter has been to identify the status of Canadian public policy analysis and public policy programs in view of local and global developments, and to place Canadian Public Policy programs in a comparative perspective. Reaching conclusions in this domain can provide an understanding of the needs of the public policy field in Canada and can assist higher education institutional planners to facilitate student immersion in the policy analysis profession. We have noticed that a key common trend across policy analysis programs in Canada, the U.S. and Europe is the movement towards a more professional orientation and a determination to be perceived as being more professional. There are differences in the expression of this increased professionalism in the three regions, reflecting differences in both the academic environments and in governance traditions and histories. Clearly, there is a longer history of public policy studies, public affairs and policy analysis in the U.S. Policy analysis is embedded in the American pragmatic tradition, the drive for systematic policy making, efficiency and effectiveness, and has developed a well grounded common core policy analysis methodology. Prevalent policy analysis 26 The following are only some of the many think-tanks and research centers in the EU countries and they were chosen to reflect on intra-EU interests and concerns. Country specific centers can be found in almost every European country and seem to be part of a long established tradition. Center for the Study of Public Policy, at the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland; Center for Economic Policy Research based at the University of Essex; The European Policy Center, (EPC) is an example of such an independent not-for-profit think tank. Its Journal of European Public Affairs promotes debates on European integration; the Institute for European Studies based in Brussels takes part in many research programs funded by the European Union, international organizations, and regional Belgian authorities. They publish the journal of European Integration and a series Etude Europeans; The Franco-Austrian Center for Economic Convergence (CFA) is another example of an intergovernmental organization created in 1978 by Jacque Chirac and Chancellor Bruno Kreisky and financed by the European Commission. The Center for International Studies and Research - CERI has developed policy partnerships The European Research Center on Migration and Ethnic Relation, University of Utrecht; the Geneva Center for Security Policy (GCSP) - an international foundation under the framework of Swiss participation in the Partnership for Peace (1995); the Stockholm International and Research Institute, established in 1996, financed by the Swedish government and providing support for studies on arms control, disarmament, conflict management, arms control policies, security building, etc27 For instance, the Center for Policy Studies founded by Margaret Thatcher and Keith Joseph in 1974; IPPR – Institute for Public Policy Research described as “left to center society, an independent charity based on donations; materials are mainly American and so are the large number of consultants and advisors from American institutions of public policy promoting the field in (mainly) Central and Eastern Europe and South East Asia. In Europe, the adoption of policy analysis as a cognizantly systematic mode has been triggered by the unification of Europe and the need for a common policy analytical tool. In most cases this has mainly been translated into comparative European policy studies in Schools of Public Administration or Political Science. With the exception of the UK and Germany, there are very few schools that actually offer policy analysis courses per se. Nevertheless, policy analysis is increasingly adopted in Central and Eastern Europe with the aggressive establishment of schools of public administration and public policy due to the void created after the fall of the communist beaurocracies. In both Europe and Canada public policy is mostly offered in institutions other than public policy or public affairs, i.e., within departments or schools of political science, economics, management, business, administration, or urban studies. Canada’s public policy system has not been rocked by dramatic historical events, nor has the Westminster oriented public service felt the need for policy analytic practices beyond those offered by economists, political scientists or discipline oriented experts. Perspective changes have started with Trudeau’s discontent about what ought to be effective and accountable public policy, but the shift towards a more comprehensive approach to policy analysis as a profession in the last decade has been slow. Global changes of perspective towards a more systematic approach to policy-making, as increasingly adopted throughout the EU and Eastern European countries, are gradually infiltrating in Canada. The main question that we should pose at this stage is what the most suitable policy analysis instruction venues should be given the Canadian context.Clearly the most striking manifestation of this movement is the practice of accreditation of programs, albeit under the “public administration” cover up by NASPAA and EAPAA. In this regard Canada stands clearly apart from the other two regions; while the desire for professional acceptance certainly exists in Canada, thus far the tension between that and the desire for academic autonomy has limited the distance that schools are willing to move towards a formal accreditation regime. Accreditation also clearly advances the goal of being perceived as professional, especially among the "clients" of the programs - governments, non-academic think tanks, interest groups and ultimately, prospective students. The development of think tanks within the universities also contributes to this goal. The output of studies and advice that emerges from these institutes help to create a perception of schools that is engaged and relevant, offering contributions that advance the policy process. Again, while we recognize these developments proceed in different ways and at different paces in the three regions studied, the broad trends are consistent across all three.We also note that unlike law, medicine and some other professions, the existent accreditation process is limited to the programs. There are no licensing requirements for individuals working in the fields of public administration or policy analysis. While this is not an issue for the schools per se, or for the training of practitioners of policy analysis, it remains as an interesting distinction when considering the forms and extent of formal professionalization of high human capital professions. Broadly common trends notwithstanding, ultimately, policy analysis is craft and art, but it is not precise science; it has scholarly and theoretical grounding and offers a commonly accepted methodology, but it is influenced by the politics and political rationalities that are inherent in policy formation. These political practicalities, along with differing traditions and approaches to governance - within each of the three regions as well as across them - imply that the differences we observe among programs that produce policy analysts are firmly rooted and necessary. This reasserts the relevance of behaviors and attitudes as central to effective professional practice and the view that early classical policy analysis featuring scientific reasoning and systematic problem solving, has to be adapted to social and political realities. In the Canadian context this means that the time may be socially and politically ripe today for advancing the field. The naturally occurring changes in policy analysis studies also imply that a different approach to public policy making has been acknowledged in Canada. The training of policy analysts with adequate entry-level practice skills meant to serve and represent effective policy making reflects on emerging awareness and demand. Comparing developments in Canada, the U.S. and the EU has allowed us to place Canada on the map of recent shifts of perspective in public policy analysis and analytic policy instruction. Moreover, the main benefit of this study is that it has raised a number of questions directly pertaining to Canada: Given the developments in the U.S. and the EU, is there a need for accreditation and legitimation of policy analysis as a profession? Given, for instance, the comparative adaptation felt to be needed in Europe, what should be the content matter orientation of programs of public policy specific to Canada? 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