Lecture 8

课 Lecture 8 Generalization of English Rhetoric 授课 时数 4 授课 类型 Lecture 教 学 目 的 To help students grasp generalization of English Rhetoric Let students be aware of the differences between Rhetoric and grammar, phonetics and lexicology Let students master three aesthetic criteria in English rhetoric 教 学 重 点 1. The brief summary of English Rhetoric 2. The nature of English Rhetoric 教 学 难 点 The study of three principles of Rhetoric study and the three aesthetic criteria in English Rhetoric 主要︵知识︶语言点 1. Definition of Rhetoric 2. Classification of Rhetoric 3. Rhetoric and figures of speech 4. The difference between rhetoric and grammar, phonetics, lexicology 5. Contents of Modern Rhetoric 6. The Three Principles for Our Study of Rhetoric 7. The Three Aesthetic Criteria in English Rhetoric   教 学 过 程 ︵学时分配 ︶ 教 学 过 程 ︵学时分配 ︶ Summary I. What Is Rhetoric? 1) Rhetoric is the art or science of effective communication in words. Whether speaking or writing, one has to get oneself across effectively, i.e., to be eloquent, accurate, impressive, persuasive and expressive. The study of how to express oneself effectively is the main concern of rhetoric. 2) Effective communication is based on precise and appropriate choice of words, sentence patterns and figures of speech, etc. In other words, rhetoric is choice of linguistic means and choice of ways of expression. So, in this sense, rhetoric is “choice”. II. Classification of English Rhetoric As a technical term, Rhetoric , in America, means the writing course or the writing textbook. l Apart from the above senses, rhetoric also has the following important senses: (1) Speaking rhetoric（演讲修辞）: the art of speaking (2) Compositional rhetoric（写作修辞）: the art of writing (3) Stylistic rhetoric（风格修辞，文体修辞）: the style of writing Division of Rhetoric 1) Lexical rhetoric（词汇修辞）: the rhetorical law of choosing words and phrases 2) Sentence rhetoric（句子修辞）: the rhetorical law selecting sentence patterns 3) Paragraph rhetoric（段落修辞）: the rhetorical law of organizing paragraphs 4) textual rhetoric（语篇修辞）: the rhetorical law of organizing texts III. Rhetoric and Figures of Speech: Figures of speech are quite different from rhetoric, but they are important components in English rhetoric. In the New Oxford Dictionary of English, “figure of speech” is defined as “ a word or phrase used in a non-literal sense too add rhetorical force or interest to a spoken or written passage”(修辞格是用一个非字面意义的单词或短语使一段口头或笔头的文字增加修辞效果或兴趣). They refer to rhetorical devices（修辞手段）, each of which has a fixed pattern, e.g. Simile is introduced by comparative words as, like, as if, as though, etc.; Like Simile, Metaphor refers to the comparison of two essentially unlike things which have one point of resemblance; Irony refers to the intended implication of which is the opposite of the literal sense of words; Oxymoron refers to the conjunction of two words or phrases which are incongruous or contradictory in sense so as to describe a person or thing; Pun; a play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on the similar sense or sound of different words; etc. These figures are employed in the following. He is as stupid as a goose. (=He is very stupid.) He has a heart of stone./ He has a heart like flint. (=He is unfeeling and stubborn.) He slept like a log / top. (=He slept very soundly.) They are birds of a feather. (=They are people of the same sort.) (Simile and metaphor are used of the comparison of two essentially unlike things which have one point of resemblance.) This hard-working boy seldom reads more than an hour per week. (If a boy seldom reads more than an hour per week, he must be very lazy, not hard-working.) (Irony refers to the intended implication being the opposite of the literal sense of words) He seems to be a clever fool. (=He seems to be a fool, but in fact he is very clever.) (Oxymoron refers to the conjunction of two words or phrases which are incongruous or contradictory in sense) Ask for me tomorrow and you shall find me a grave man. (grave: adj. serious; n. tomb The speaker stresses the latter.) (Pun refers to a play on words，sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on the similar sense or sound of different words) IV. The difference between rhetoric and grammar, phonetics, lexicology 1) The difference between rhetoric and grammar Rhetoric is different from grammar, but it is closely related to grammar and also based on grammar. To be grammatically correct is foundation to writing, but it is not enough. Basic rhetorical requirements must also be met. Francis Christensenn, an American French rhetorician, once said: Grammar maps out the possible(可能发生的事情); rhetoric narrows the possible down to the desirable and effective（使可能发生的事情变成很理想的事情或有效地事情）. In the preface to the book A handbook of English Rhetoric Warren quoted a passage by a scholar: Grammar is the law of language, considered as language; rhetoric is the art of language, considered as thought. Grammar tells what is correct; rhetoric tells what is effective and pleasing. 2) Rhetoric and phonetics, lexicology Rhetoric is quite different from phonetics and lexicology. Phonetics is about the study of speech sounds and their pronunciation; lexicology is about the study of the vocabulary of a language; grammar concerns the study or science of rules for forming words and combining them into sentences; whereas rhetoric is the art of speaking or writing so as to persuade people effectively. V. Contents of Modern Rhetoric （现代修辞学的内容） 1. There are two main rhetorical trend（倾向，趋势） in contemporary western culture: a. Stylistics（文体学，风格学）, which is associated with two aspects of writing: (1)Various registers（语域）, e.g. scientific and technical writing（科技文体）, business writing (商业文体)and journalism（新闻体）; (2) Stylistic variants（文体的变体） ---- literary language and style, including personal style, and styles of different times and schools. b. Rhetoric（修辞学）, which is chiefly concerned with techniques of how to influence the audience: the functions and effects of different language symbols in communication activities; measures to promote mutual understanding and to affect the emotions of the audience; skills to handle persuasion and arguments as described in the “three aesthetic criteria（三个艺术标准）” and the “three levels of rhetorical operations”（三个层次的修辞活动）. 2. Specifically speaking, rhetoric consists of two basic aspects: a. Communicative rhetoric（交际修辞）, which emphasizes the choice of words and phrases, and selection of sentence patterns, organizing paragraphs and whole pieces of writing in such a way that ideas are expressed most clearly, most accurately and most appropriately and the best results are achieved in communication. b. Aesthetic rhetoric（艺术修辞）, which stresses the vividness and gracefulness（得体） in expressing one’s ideas by aesthetic approaches like the use of figures of speech so as to increase the emotional appeal （增强情感魅力）of one’s speech or writing. VI. The Three Principles for Our Study of Rhetoric (研究修辞学的三个原则) There are three principles we should abide by in our study of English rhetoric: 1. We should pay due attention to the rhetorical traditions which have been handed down from classical rhetoric and from all the rhetorical modes and techniques at the three of rhetorical operations(修辞活动). We should study them and apply them to our practice of speaking and writing. Meanwhile the audience and the context（场合） should be borne in mind when we use any one of the rhetorical principles and techniques. 2. In order to achieve the best results in communication, one has to understand(了解) the person or people being written or spoken to, and do what is appropriate(合适的) for that particular occasion. 3. The third principle is that we should guard against(避免) the negative influence of our mother tongue. Dorothy M. Ginn(多罗西M.吉恩)and Daniel Marder (丹尼尔.玛德) write: “Rhetorical operations are patterns of thought that direct(支配) and order(整理) our perceptions, ideas, and feelings（印象、思想、感情）.” VII. The Three Aesthetic Criteria in English Rhetoric: （修辞学的三个艺术标准） 1. The three basic elements in rhetoric: English rhetoric has longstanding traditions tracing back to Aristotle in Greece (384-322 BC), and even earlier. The three aesthetic criteria, logos (=logic), pathos (=emotion), ethos (=character), are its fundamental elements. The three aesthetic criteria discussed here are confined to their basic meanings and applications in writing and speaking, equivalent to Chinese “逻辑”，“情感”and“人格” respectively. 1) Logic and logical thinking （逻辑与逻辑思维） Logos, similar to “dao”(道) in ancient Chinese philosophy, contains profound implications of logic. When applied to the practice of writing and speaking, logos refers to the use of logical reasoning to persuade the audience or readers.. Effective logical reasoning comes from sound（完美的）logical thinking, expressed in relevant material, proper organization, coherent sentences, and words that appropriately convey one’s intended meanings. Examine the following example taken from a student’s composition: (see p 19) (1) Formal logic and syllogism （形式逻辑和三段推理法） a. In formal logic, there are two basic approaches people often use for logical reasoning: deduction and induction. a) What is deduction (演绎推理)? Deduction is the inference of particular instances by reference to a general law or principle. (---The New Oxford Dictionary of English) （演绎推理是由一般原理或规律推出关于特殊情况下的结论） Or: Deduction is reasoning from general principles to particular cases. e.g. All men must die. 人固有一死。（Major premise) I am a man. 我是人。(Minor premise) Therefore I must die. 我一定会死。(Conclusion) b) What is induction（归纳推理）? Induction is the inference of a general law from particular instances. (ditto) （归纳推理是由一系列具体事实概括出一般规律） Or: Induction is the method of logic reasoning which contains or discovers a general law from particular facts or examples. e.g. Gold is a conductor. 金是一种导体。 Silver is a conductor. 银是一种导体。 Copper is a conductor. 铜是一种导体。 Iron is a conductor. 铁是一种导体。 They are all metals. 它们都是金属。 All metals are conductors. 所有金属都是导体。 c) What is syllogism（三段推理法）? Syllogism represents deductive reasoning in a pattern consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. e.g. All metals are conductors. (Major premise) Copper is a metal. (Minor premise) Therefore copper is a conductor.(Conclusion) 2) Changes in the connotation of pathos （情感含义的变化） (1) Originally, the term “pathos” referred to the emotion in general which a speaker tried to arouse in the audience. In modern rhetoric, it ranges from the study of the psychology of the audience or readers to the application of technology to convince them by emotional appeals(情感魅力). The effects of emotional appeals include moral anger, ambition, excitement, fear, happiness, pity as well as various other feelings. By playing upon(利用) such feelings, the writer intends to change the beliefs and behavior of his or her readers. (2) Pathos in use today （当今所用的情感） A) The use of emotional appeals is all around us. It is an essential element in advertising, public relations, image-making(塑造形象), and education, especially in “affective education” (情感教育). In modern management, the practice of what is called “emotion investment” (感情投资) is also associated with pathos. For instance, the manager remembers to prepare a gift for each member of the staff on his or her birthday. B) Effective appeals to the emotions depend upon the skilful----often witty handling of language, frequently accompanied by “exposure” （揭露）and “eloquence”（口才）。. 1. “Exposure” evokes moral indignation --- sometimes humorously, sometimes angrily --- by condemning the unjust reality or revealing the difference between how things should be and how they are. The following is a letter that shows how an American mother resorts to(采用) this skill to move others to stand against the unjust war against Vietnam: (see the letter on p 23) I am more than angry. I did not give birth to my one and only (=only) son to have him snatched away from me 18 years later(我不因18年后小孩从我身边抢走而生下唯一的男儿). My child has been loved and cared for and taught right from wrong (一直受到辨别是非的教育) and will not be fed into(=be involved into) any egomaniac’s war machine(不要卷入极端利己主义者的战争机器). Our 18-to 25-year-olds(18-25岁的人) have not brought this world to its present sorry state(目前这种可怜的境地). Men over the age of 35(35岁以上的人), down through the centuries(几个世纪以来), have brought us here, and we women have been in silent accord (静静保持一致). Well, this is one woman, one mother, who says No. I did not go through the magnificent agony of childbirth to have that glorious young life snuffed out(=killed被杀害)（我是由于不杀害光荣的年轻生命而经历了生小孩的巨大痛苦）. Until the presidents, premiers, supreme rulers, politburos(政客) and congressmen of the world are ready to physically, as opposed to(与…对比) verbally, lead the world into combat, they can bloody well(sl.=very well) forget my child. Unite, mothers! Don’t throw your sons and daughters away. Sometime, somewhere(某时某地), women must say No. No. No. No. No. No. Never my child(不，不，不，不，不，决不抛弃自己的男孩和女孩！). (Louise M. Saylor, Washington Post, Jan. 28, 1980) Mother’s love for children is profound, and universal. The writer of the letter is a mother herself, and therefore, her appeal (呼吁) has a special effect in arousing the sympathy of other mothers. 1. “Eloquence” refers to language used powerfully and fluently to appeal to people’s nobler emotions --- the sense of honor, love of one’s country and hometown, desire to reach toward virtue(达到效果). Eloquence is often used emotively, to express one’s emotions and evoke the sympathy of the audience on solemn occasions or issues of great significance. In this aspect, the speech made by Martin Luther King, JR.（马丁.路德.金）, on August 28,1963, at the March on Washington(在向华盛顿行进的路上), can be regarded as a fine sample of “the emotional crescendo (=climax高潮 ) of an emotional day” (A New English Course, Level 5, p.231) C) Although a speech or a piece of writing may appeal mainly to people’s emotion(主要是激发人们的感情), it should be based upon logos. Take the above mother’s letter for example. The logical reasoning that has made the mother’s emotional appeal so powerful can be seen in three aspects: (see p. 25) First, her son has been loved and taught right from wrong (辨别是非) and it is unjust to send him to fight an aggressive war against another country. Second, since those who should be responsible for “the present sorry state” are not ready to shoulder their responsibilities, it is unreasonable for them to turn other people’s children into “cannon fodder (炮灰)”. Third, the mother is more than angry and her anger comes not only out of her love for her own son, but also out of her concern for the fate of all the 18-to 25-year-old young people. All the mothers should say No because there is absolutely no reason for them to have their children’s glorious young lives snuffed out (=killed扼杀). As logic and emotion are so closely related in writing, skillful writers always use them successfully in order to make their words both convincing and moving. 3) Ethos in rhetoric (修辞学中的人格) A. When you look up the word “ethos” in a dictionary like Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, you will find a whole range of multifaceted（多方面的） meanings. What follows here shows the three basic aspects: 1) It generally refers to character, sentiment, moral nature: the guiding beliefs, standards, or ideals that characterize or pervade（流行于） a group, a community, a people, or an ideology; or the spirit that motivates(激起) the ideas, customs, or practices of a people, an epoch, or a region. 2) It refers to the complex(复合体) of fundamental values that underlie(构成), permeate(充满), or actuate(开动) major patterns of thought or behavior in any particular culture, society, or institution. 3) In Aristotelian philosophy, it refers to the character or personality of a human being, especially with respect to a balance between the passions and caution, or the contrast between one’s thought and action. B) In modern rhetoric, “ethos” demonstrates itself in three ways: 1) On serious occasions or disputes of principles, ethos takes as its basis a thoroughgoing study of various schools of philosophical views on different values, different ways of living and different world outlooks. Take “human rights” for example. As we admit the fact that human beings live in a society, everyone must enjoy human rights as well as fulfill(履行) their obligations, including observing disciplines, moral standards, social rules and regulations. Some people, however, only talk about human rights and even force their lopsided(单方面的) views upon others. This one-sided(片面的) approach to the understanding of “ethos” is definitely wrong and harmful. 2) In ordinary speaking or writing, ethos refers to the personal standing, academic authority, and moral qualities of the writer and speaker, used to guarantee or even raise the writer’s or speaker’s credibility(可信度) and acceptability(可接受性) in the eyes of the readers and audience. The following are a few cases indicating “ethos” in practice: a. In anthologies (诗歌) or textbooks, there is usually a brief account of each text and its author, which tends to help readers to study it and to increase their interest in studying it. This, in fact, can be regarded as an application of “ethos”. b. A book usually has a preface and it is almost always written by an authoritative source. The purpose is inevitably to raise the social, literary or academic standard of the book, for there is always a positive introduction and favorable comment on the publication. In addition, the biding(装订) and layout(版面设计) of a book, a photo and an introduction about the author are all associated with ethos. c. The titles, positions, address, fax (电传)and telephone numbers on one’s name card all have something to do with ethos, which not only help people communicate but they also provide credibility. d. At a conference, the chairperson’s introduction of each speaker is also meant to raise the social, personal and academic status of the speaker, and if the speaker gives the audience a striking impression by his opening remarks, he will probably be successful in his speech. 附 记 或 教学说明       教学后记                   备课时间：        年  月  日