Look-at-me-and-pay-attention

LookatmandpayattntionAstudyonthrlationbtwnisibilityandattntioninwblctursHKoringa,MHrnandzb,,EDGrootcaUtrchtUnirsity,ApplidCognitiPsychology,Utrcht,ThNthrlandsbUtrchtUnirsity,ProgrammEducatitAcadmicAffairs,Utrcht,ThNthrlandscUnirsityMdicalCntrUtrcht,Utrcht,ThNthrlandsarticlinfoArticlhistory:Rcid11August2015Rcidinrisdform11Nombr2015Accptd21Nombr2015Aailablonlin2Dcmbr2015Kywords:ApplicationsinsubjctarasDistancducationandtllarningMdiainducationPostscondaryducationTachinglarningstratgisabstractOnlinducationalcontntisbcomingincrasinglypopularinhighrducationInpriorstudisithasbnrportdthatstudntsprfrwblcturswithaisibllcturrorwblctursconsistingofaudioandslidsonlyAnticipatdwasthatthamountofattntionstudntspaytoawblcturisrlantforthisprfrncAstudywasconductdtoswhthrlcturrisibilitywasrlatdtorportdattntionforawblcturLcturr'sappalwasxpctdtobamodratorinthisrlationEightyightparticipantsiwdtwodiffrntclipsofwblctursinonofthrisibilitymodswhrthlcturrwasisiblinalargorasmallfram,andwhrthslidswrlargorsmallAftrwatchingthlcturthiropinionwasaskdaboutthirattntionand,aftrthscondlctur,tocomparthirattntiontothfirstlcturThtwowblcturswranalysdsparatlyWblctursofsixdiffrntlcturrswrusd,intgratdinawbapplicationsoparticipantscouldparticipatfromhomNinothrariabls,thatcouldinfluncattntion,wrusdascontrolariablsinanalysisForthfirstwblcturnodiffrncsonrportdattntionwrfoundbtwnthisibilitymodsForthscondwblcturparticipantsrportdsignificantlymorattntionforthconditioninwhichalargimagofthlcturrwasshownthanforthconditioninwhichasmallimagofthlcturrwasshownLcturr'sappalwasfoundnottomodratthrlationbtwnthisibilityofthlcturrandrportdattntionPracticalandthorticalimplicationsardiscussd©2015ElsirLtdAllrightsrsrd1IntroductionThaailabilityandusofducationalcontntonthintrnt,includingwblcturs,isbcomingmorandmorcommoninhighrducation(Danilson,Prast,Bndr,Hassall,2014;Griffin,Mitchll,Thompson,2009;K€oll€offl,2012)Aslctursarthprimarymansofknowldgtransmissioninhighrducation(Bligh,1998;Risko,Andrson,Sarwal,Englhardt,Kingston,2012),aswllasanffctimthodforthtransfrofinformationandprsonalisationofthsubjctmattr(Bligh,1998),itisnotsurprisingthatwblctursarbcomingincrasinglypopularPachtrandMair(2010)foundthatAustrianunirsitystudntsactuallyprfrrdonlinlarningorfactofacmthodsfordistributinginformation,transmissionofknowldg,proidingstructurofthlarningmatrialandinacquiringandsupportingslfCorrspondingauthorKamr162,Hidlbrglaan8,3584CS,Utrcht,ThNthrlandsEmailaddrss:mhrnandz@uunl(MHrnandz)ContntslistsaailablatScincDirctComputrsEducationjournalhompag:wwwlsircomlocatcompduhttp:dxdoiorg101016jcompdu20151101103601315©2015ElsirLtdAllrightsrsrdComputrsEducation94(2016)151161QingQingQingQingQingQingrgulatdlarningThpossibilitisofonlinducationalcontnthasldtothintroductionofMOOCs(massiopnonlincourss)in2007Anonlincoursforunirsitystudnts,alsoopnforpublicnrolmnt(CrdDikoguClark,2013)WblctursinanducationalsttingarcommonlyusdinablnddwayInblnddlarning,suchasthflippdclassroom(AbyskraDawson,2015),thwblcturproidsthonlinframwork,whilthclassroomcourssupportsdprundrstandingItisnotprfctlyclarthoughhowthusofwblctursinhighrducationisrlatdtolarningSomstudishafoundapositirlation(Bacro,Gbrgziabhr,Fitzharris,2010;Day,Foly,Gronwg,VandrMast,2005;DayFoly,2006;Franklin,Gibson,Samul,Ttr,Clarkson,2011),somamixdorngatirlation(Frnands,Moira,Cruickshank,2012;Franklintal,2011)andothrstudisfoundnorlationatall(onKonsky,Iins,Gribbl,2009;ShawMolnar,2011)Dspitthislackofclarityaboutthmchanism,studntsdonotsmtobothr:forthmitisclarthatwblcturssupportthirlarningprocsss(Bacrotal,2010;Franklintal,2011;Hilsn,2010;HolbrookDupont,2011;onKonskytal,2009;Scuttr,Stupans,Sawyr,King,2010)Thprfrncforlcturswithaisibllcturr,instadofaudiosoundofthlcturronly(Day,Foly,Catrambon,2006;PachtrMair,2010),isthoughttobxplaindbyattntion(Baggtt,1984;Daytal,2006)Also“focusingconsciousattntiontorlantpicsofinformation”isanimportantfirststp(slcting)inthprocssofmakingsnsoutofinformation,ilarning(Mayr,1992b;1996)ThisstudytristoundrstandthisrportdprfrncforlcturswithaisibllcturrbylookingintothrlationbtwnisibilityofthlcturrinawblcturandattntionWconsidrisibilitytobthdgrinwhichalcturrisisiblinawblcturPsychologicalconcptsofattntionarcntrdaroundconcntration,spcificallythconcntrationofthmindonasinglobjctorthoughtandthcapacitytomaintainslctiandorsustaindconcntrationonthatobjctorthought(BaldaufDsimon,2014)Focusingattntiononanobjct,orthought,isconsidrdtorquirattntionalrsourcswithinthmind(ProctorVanZandt,2008)Wrgardattntiontob:concntrationonaspcificsubjctinacrtainpriodoftimorfocusingattntionalrsourcsonasubjctduringapriodoftimInourstudywwilllookatrportdattntion,iwhatparticipantsinthstudyrportaboutthirattntionWwillstudydiffrncsinrportdattntionwhilwatchingwblctursialcturcapturslids,audioandthchoicbtwnaisibllcturrinaidoornotwhichinthNthrlandsisthmostcommonwayofprsntingwblcturs(Gorissn,2013)Lcturcapturisjustonofthwaystoprsntalcturonlin,othrsarforxampl;oicorprsntation,Khanstylido,picturinpictur,stopandthinkmthod,prsntationbyasynthticpdagogicalagnt,knowldgclipsandliwbinars(ChnWu,2015;ChorianopoulosGiannakos,2013;FitrianiRothkrantz,2007;MiyakShirouzu,2006)Whnrportdattntionaftrwblcturswithaisibllcturrishighr,compardtorportdattntionaftrwblcturswithoutaisibllcturr,thiscouldhlptoundrstandthprfrncforlcturswithisibilityofthlcturr2Rlationbtwnisibilityofthlcturrandattntion21BackgroundWhypothsizapositirlationbtwnisibilityofthlcturrandrportdattntionforthwblcturforthrrasonsThfirstrasonisthatinformationthataprson'sfacandbodymits,addsundrstandingtowhatisbingsaid,whichcanaidattntionWatchingaprson'sfacwillgithonspokntomorinformationaboutwhatisbingsaidandmantthanharingwhatisbingsaidonly(Bruc,1996)Anxplanationistobfoundinphonticdistinctionssuchasplacofarticulation,whichardifficulttoharbutasytos(McGurkMacDonald,1976)OrinfacialxprssionsthatinformaboutmotionswhichardifficulttoharMoror,thtimingofachxprssionandthfinalposturofthfacduringanintractionmakthprcptionofxprssionsasirtosthantoharAndsimplfacprcptionalsohlpspopldciphrspch,dmonstratdbythfactthatspchcanbdciphrdwithmuchmorbackgroundnoiswhnalcturr'sfaccanbsncompardtoonlyanauditorychannl(Bruc,1996;Summrfild,1992;VitkoichBarbr,1994)Inastudywithidolcturs,Daytal(2006)showdthatparticipantswhocouldstudywithaidolcturrportdthatthisaiddthmsignificantlyinthirattntionfor,andthircomprhnsionof,thlcturBaggtt(1984)dmonstratdthatparticipantswhohadwatchdaidonarrationwrotamorcompltsummaryonwklatr,compardtoparticipantswholistndtoanaudionarrationonlyThrsarchrsuggstdthatmntalmodlsarasirdridfrombothauditoryandisualsymbolsystmsthanfromauditoryorlinguisticinformationonlyShconsidrdthimpromnttobrlatdtoattntionSimilarly,ChoiandJohnson(2005)showdthatparticipantswhowatchdaidobasdinstructionrportdsignificantlymorattntionthanparticipantswhoradatxtbasdinstructiononlyThus,itsmsthatisibilityaidsattntionApositirlationbtwnisibilityandrportdattntionisalsohypothsizdbcausthhumanfacdrawsattntion,bothonphotographs(Yarbus,1967)andinfactofacintraction(Klink,1986)Poplthatarspokntotndtolookcontinuousandattntiataspakrsfac(ArgylGraham,1976;Balas,Coats,Johnson,2002;Kndon,1967;1990)Thfacdominancinhumanintractionisthoughttorprsntasocialandculturalnorm:maintainingycontactsignalsattntion,intrstandngagmnt(Klink,1986)GullbrgandHolmqist(2006)foundthatparticipantsspntaboutthsamamountoftimfocusdonthspakrs'fac,irrspctiwhthrthspakrsatacrossfromthmorwasshowninaidoBothgroupsofparticipantslookdatthingsspakrsthmslslookdat,contributingtoclaimsofhowlcturrsusthirowngaztodirctthiraddrss'sgaztothirgstursasatargtofattntion(Langton,Watt,Bruc,2000;Strck,1993;1994)Insum,thsfindingssuggstthatattntionisasirallocatdtolcturswithidoofthlcturrHKoringtalComputrsEducation94(2016)151161152AthirdxplanationofwhyisibilityofalcturrwillrlatpositilytorportdattntionisththoryofcrossmodalitisformultiplattntionalrsourcsThhumaninformationprocssingsystmisthoughttohatwomaininputchannls:anauditoryrbalchannlandaisualpictorialchannl(Day,2008;Wickns,2002)DiidingthinputorthstwomodalitiswillminimizthriskoforloadingonofthchannlsandwillaidthsystminprocssinginformationWhnbothinputmodalitisworktogthrtoprocssinformation,lssnrgymightbnddforattntiononthlctur,whichwillmakitasirtofollowwhatisbingsaidAPowrPointprsntation,whichalsoinoksattntionfromthisualchannl,willnotaidasmuchindiidingthinputofinformationasaisuallcturr,bcausinformationonaslidisconstant;oncthinformationisraditwillnotattractisualattntionanymorAlcturr'sfacchangsconstantlyandwillkpattractingisualattntion(Klink,1986)ThstudyofDaytal(2006)confirmsthis:participantswhousdaidotostudyrportdmorattntiononthlcturandmorngagmntwiththmatrial,compardwithparticipantswhostudidwithaudioonlyThrfor,studntswhorciaidoofthlcturrcouldhamorattntionalrsourcsaailabltofocusonthlctur22FactorsthathaanffctonthrlationbtwnisibilityandattntionThcurrntstudyisstuptoxplainthprfrncforaisibllcturrbysuggstingthatisibilityrlatstomorattntionforawblcturshownbylcturcapturVariouswaysofprsntingwblcturs,andthirrlationtoaspctsofattntion,cognitiload,mmoryandlarning,habnstudidarlir(Baggtt,1984;ChoiJohnson,2005;Daytal,2006;Gorissn,2013)Howr,inthosstudis(ChnWu,2015;Daytal,2006;MiyakShirouzu,2006)importantfactorsxpctdtohaanffctonthrlationbtwnisibilityandattntionwrnotincluddForxamplthyusdthsamlcturrinmultiplconditionswhichmaksgnralisationdifficultThcurrntstudyussmultipllcturrsinmultiplconditions:lcturrswhodiffrinag,sx,dpartmnt,lcturingstylandthamountofmomntthatthymadduringthlctur(walking,gsturing)Inaddition,inarlirstudisthinfluncofothrfactorsonattntionwasnotsufficintlytaknintoaccountAnintrstinthlcturs'subjct,rlancofthsubjctofthwblcturtothducationofthparticipantortlisionwatchinghabitsarrlantfactorsthatcouldhaanffctonthrlationbtwnisibilityofthlcturrandattntion(ProctorVanZandt,2008)Thrfor,inthisstudyfactorsthatpotntiallyinfluncthrlationbtwnisibilityandattntionwrmasurdandincluddinthanalysisThappalofthlcturr,notmasurdinothrstudis(Baggt,1984;ChnWu,2015;ChoiJohnson,2005;Daytal,2006)whilitisxpctdtoinfluncattntion,wasalsoconsidrdamodratingfactoronthproposdrlationbtwnisibilityandattntionAlcturrmayappalmortoaiwrithrbcaushorshmaksusofattractinglcturingstylsorbcausofpositinonrbalcommunication(ghorshspakswithusofhandsandfacialxprssions)Sincarlirlitraturhasshownthatsuchprsonalizationofmssagscancontributtothattntionforalctur(Bruc,1996;Langtontal,2000;PachtrMair,2010),thisstudylooksatthisrlationbymasuringlcturrappalandanalysingwhthrthisinfluncsthrlationbtwnisibilityandrportdattntionFinally,thusfar,studishabnprformdinlaboratoriswithcomputrs(gChnWu,2015;Daytal,2006),whilthnaturalplacwhrstudntswatchawblcturisathomatthirconnincInourstudythwblcturswrintgratdinawbapplicationandparticipantscouldparticipatathomoranothrprfrrdlocationThisaoidsthffctthatrsarchsubjctschangbhaiourwhnthyknowandnoticthyarbingstudid(Kirschnr,2014;RiskoKingston,2011)23AimsInthisstudythrlationbtwnisibilityandrportdattntioninwblcturs,andwhthrthappalofalcturrinfluncsthisrlation,isinstigatdApositirlationisxpctdbtwnisibilityandrportdattntion(hypothsis1),basdonthlitraturdiscussdaboonprsonalization,attntiondrawingbyfacsandthmultiplrsourcmodlofattntionFurthrmor,wxpctthatthisproposdrlationbtwnisibilityandrportdattntionwilldpndonthappalofthlcturrbcausrylcturrisdiffrnt,fromlookstooicandfromfacialxprssionstoformalityofaddrssWproposthatthpositirlationbtwnisibilityandrportdattntionwillbstrongrwhnalcturrappalsmortothiwrthanwhnthlcturrislssappaling(hypothsis2)ThhypothssandthdsignofthstudyardisplaydinFig1AppndixAshowslargrimagsofththrisibilitymods3Matrialandmthods31ParticipantsThgroupofparticipantsconsistdof91studntsbtwn18and38yarsold(Mag¼2163yrs,SDag¼416months),allstudyingatithrUtrchtUnirsity(UU)orLidnUnirsity(LU)inthNthrlandsOfthparticipants76%wasfmal,68%wrstudntsfromthfacultyofsocialscincsand18%studntsofcomputrscincParticipantswrunirsitybachlorstudnts(76%),mastrstudnts(19%)orinflowstudnts(studntsfromHighrVocationalEducationtakingafasttrajctorytoqualifyforaunirsitymastr)Studntswrinitdtoparticipatiaanmail,whichwassntto300studntsfromthUUfacultyofsocialscincsand60studntsofLUcomputrscincbythrsarchr,iaawbsitwhrpsychologystudntscouldgathrstudyparticipationcrdit(whichisarquirmnttorciabachlor'sdgr),andiaHKoringtalComputrsEducation94(2016)151161153QingQingQingpostrswithinformationaboutthstudyatthunirsitybuildingsandlibrarisaroundthcitisofUtrchtandLidnForunknownrasons,throfthparticipantsspntmorthan3htocompltthstudyandthsparticipantswrxcluddfromanalyss32ProcdurParticipantscouldrgistrthmsls,aftrwhichthyrcidanmailwithalinktothstudyThlinkcontaindauniquparticipantIDwhichdtrmindthisibilitymodparticipantswrrandomlyassigndtoOnthsitofthstudyparticipantswrginabrifingaboutitsgoal,contntanddurationandwraskdtoconsnttoparticipatingThfirstpartofthstudyconsistdofbackgroundqustions(sx,ag,ducation)Participantswraskdhowmanylctilctursthyisitd,howmuchthylistndtothradio,podcastsandbooksontapandwatchdtlision,YouTubandmoisEryparticipantwatchdtwodiffrntidosofcollglctursintwodiffrntisibilitymods(Tabl1)Eachidolastdapproximatly7:30min,whichmadthtotalstudylastnomorthan30min,sincattntionandarousalfactorsarlssffctiaftr20mininatask(Daytal,2006)Aftrthfirstidothparticipantrsponddtoqustionsprtainingtothirattntion,njoymnt,lcturrappal,contnt,intrstinthsubjctandrlancofthsubjcttothirducationAftrthscondwblcturparticipantswraskdtorspondtothsamqustions,buttocomparthstothfirstwblcturAtthndofthstudyparticipantswraskdtocomparthirattntionduringthwblcturstothirattntionduringalcturinalcturhallThdurationofthstudywasbtwn25and35min(Mduration¼28m51s,SDduration¼13m50s)33Matrials331VidomatrialsThidosthatwrusdinthstudyoriginatdfromthMdiasitsrrofUtrchtUnirsity,mostofthmrcorddbythLcturNtsricofthUnirsity(Lcturntnl)ThissitconsistsofamultitudofcollglctursandothridorcorddlctursSixcollglcturswrchosn,basdonsubjct(diffrntfromachothr),ahighframrat,thsurroundings(alcturhall),andwhthrthrwrstudntsprsntinthhall(tomakitflmorlikarallctur)ThrofthlcturrswrmalandthrwrfmalThsixlctursoriginatdfromdiffrntfacultisofUtrchtUnirsityandthlcturrshaddiffrntspakingstyls,sorsultscouldbgnralizdtomorthanjuston(typof)Fig1GraphicdisplayofhypothsisandstudydsignTabl1VisibilitymodsofthStudywiththirAccordingVisibilityofthLcturrandthVisibilityofthPowrPointslids(PP)FirstWblcturScondWblcturABLcturrlarg,PPsmallLcturrsmall,PPlargBCLcturrsmall,PPlargNolcturr,PPlargCANolcturr,PPlargLcturrlarg,PPsmallACLcturrlarg,PPsmallNolcturr,PPlargBALcturrsmall,PPlargLcturrlarg,PPsmallCBNolcturr,PPlargLcturrsmall,PPlargHKoringtalComputrsEducation94(2016)151161154QingQingQinglcturrThlcturcontntsallhadanintroductorynaturofsixdiffrntsubjctsThlcturrsaridonthfollowingaspcts;dynamicstatic,formalinformal,gndr,ag,usofblackboard,usofPowrPointslidsandcontntofPowrPointslidsAclipbtwn7and8minofachlcturidowasscrncapturd(Mtim¼7m28s,SDtim¼95s),whichapproximatdabginningandanndofastoryThsoundwasnotadjustd,onlyafadinatthbginningandafadoutatthndwradddThidoplayrusdwasaHTML5playr,sowblcturscouldbwatchdoniOSdicsThidocontrolswrrmod,xcptforthpausbuttonParticipantscouldshowlongthlcturwouldlast,butthycouldnotrwindorfastforwarditPowrPointslidswrdownloaddsparatlyandsadinbig(683512pixls)andsmall(341265pixls)jpgsThxacttimingofrynwslidwasrcorddandcoddThprogramusdtoadministrthqustionnairmulatsLcturntinplacingthidoandslidscorrctlyinthbrowsrwindow332QustionnairThqustionnairadministrdwasdsigndbythrsarchrs,guiddbylitraturParticipantswraskdaboutthirattntionduringthwblcturin3qustionsAftrth1stwblctur,thycouldanswrona7pointLikrtscal,whichrangdfrom“totallynot”(1)ia“nutral”(4)to“totally”(7)Aftrth2ndwblcturqustionswrthsamasaftrth1stwblctur,withthadditionofthsntnc:“[],compardtothfirstlctur”Answrsaftrth2ndwblcturrangdfrom“muchlssthanthfirstlctur”(1),ia“aboutthsamasthfirstlctur”(4),to“muchmorthanthfirstlctur”(7)Sincparticipantswouldprobablyintuitilycomparthscondwblcturtothfirstwblctur,askingthmtocomparaoiddincongruityinanswrsAnxamplofqustionsandanswrpossibilitisisshowninFig2InAppndixBthntirtranslatdqustionnairisadddInadditionninaspctswhichinfluncattntionwrincluddinthqustionnairThswrnjoymntofwblctur,judgmntofthlcturr(lcturrappal),judgmntofcontntofwblctur,intrstinsubjctofwblctur,rlancofsubjctofwblcturtothducationofparticipant,radiolistning,TVwatching,isitstolctilctursduringthlastcourswithlctilctursandcomparisonofattntionduringthwblcturstothattntionduringalcturinalcturhallMansandstandarddiationsofallcoariatsardisplaydinTabl2AnswrsforEnjoymnt,Attntion,LcturrandContntaftrth1stand2ndwblcturwrrcoddtomakcomparisonsbtwn1stand2ndwblcturspossiblBysubtracting4fromryanswrginaftrth1stwblctur,thalu0bcamanutralanswr,alusblowzrowrngatijudgmntsandalusabozropositijudgmntsThiswasdonforrasonsofclarity;rcoddanswrswrobiousinonglanc:positi,ngatiornutralSingthatparticipantswraskdtocomparthirjudgmntsofth2ndwblcturwiththjudgmntsofth1st,thmaningofthrangfrom1to7diffrdThformulacorrctsthisbyaddingthalusginforth1stwblcturandgiingxtrawighttoanswrsatthndsofthscalThisrsultdinarangbtwn3and3forthanswrsaftrbothwblctursforAttntion,Enjoymnt,LcturrandContntThfollowingformulawasusdtorcodthanswrsaftrth2ndwblctur:Answr01þsignðAnswr24ÞðAnswr24Þ24333WbapplicationandrandomizationThwblctursandqustionnairwrimplmntdinawbapplicationThisapplicationconsistdofaclintsid,rsourcs,asrrsidandabackndThbackndwaspasswordprotctd,andforsaftyofthrsarchthdatacouldnotbmanipulatdTogiachparticipanttwoofthsixpossiblidostowatchintwoofththrpossiblisibilitymods,inarandomordr,acomputrizdrandomprmutationwasusdThisprmutationwasbasdonthFishrHowattntididyoufollowthstoryofthwblcturHowattntididyoufollowthstoryofthiswblctur,compardtoth1stwblcturFig2Examplofqustionsandanswrpossibilitisaftrth1stand2ndwblcturHKoringtalComputrsEducation94(2016)151161155QingYatsalgorithm,whichrsultdinarandomsquncof‘n(nk)’prmutations,whrnstandsforthamountofidos(6),orthamountofisibilitymods(3)andkisthnumbroftimsyouchoosann(FishrYats,1953)34AnalysisThprogramSPSS200wasusdtoanalysthdatagathrdinthisstudyToassssthrliabilityofthqustionnairrliabilityanalysswrcalculatdonallscalsofthqustionnairTochckforcodpndncybtwnthanswrsaftrth1stand2ndwblcturttstsfordpndntgroupsandcorrlationanalysswradministrdforallqustionpairsandsubscalpairsTosifthrwrdiffrncsinjudgmntbtwnthlcturrsttstsforindpndntgroupswradministrdbtwnmalandfmallcturrsonallsubscalsandANOVA'swrprformdbtwnallsixlcturrsonallsubscalsIfsignificantdiffrncswrfoundonthsubscalattntionbtwnthmalandfmallcturrsorthsixlcturrs,diffrntsubstswrmadtoanalysinordrtoanswrthrsarchqustionsToanswrthrsarchqustionssparatANCOVA'swrcalculatdwithisibilitymodasindpndntariabl,rportdattntionasdpndntariablandsignificantcoariatsforattntionThscoariatswrEnjoymnt,Radio,Tlision,Lcturisits,Lcturr,Contnt,Intrst,RlancandAttntioncompardtoalcturinalcturhallContrastanalysswrusdtoascrtainbtwnwhichofththrisibilitymodsdiffrncsinrportdattntionwrsignificantToswhthrlcturrappalwouldmodratthrlationbtwnisibilityandrportdattntion,anANCOVAwasadministrdwithonlythsariabls,whichtstdthintractionbtwnlcturrappalandisibility341RsultsofprliminaryanalyssToascrtainthqualityofusdmthods,sralprliminaryanalysswrdonAfactoranalysisraldthatAttntion,Enjoymnt,LcturrandContntcouldbconsidrddiffrntsubjctscalsinthqustionnairForbothwblctursallsubjctscalshadmdiumtohighrliabilitis(COTAN,2000)Cronbach'salpha'sandEignalusofthfoursubscalsardisplaydinTabl3Ttstsforindpndntgroupsraldnodiffrncsbtwnthanswrsofryqustionaftrth1stand2ndwblcturandthfoursubjctscals(Attntion,Enjoymnt,LcturrandContnt)alsoraldnosignificantdiffrncsCorrlationanalyssbtwnthqustionsaftrth1standth2ndwblcturwrnonsignificantThfoursubjctscalsofthqustionnairaftrth1standth2ndwblcturalsodidnotcorrlatThttstsforindpndntgroupsraldnodiffrncbtwnthmalandthfmallcturrsonAttntion,Enjoymnt,Lcturr,Contntandrlancinbothth1standth2ndwblcturForth2nd,butnotth1stwblctur,participantsrportdsignificantlymorintrstinthsubjctsoffmallcturrs,thaninthosofmallcturrs:t(86)¼2340,p¼0022,Cohn'sd¼0560Asintrstisusdasacoariat,sparationofmalandfmallcturrsisnotdmdncssaryinthfinalanalyssTabl2MansandstandarddiationsforallcoariatsusdinthanalyssCoariatsScalQustionsNManStDRangRadioHoursprwk188767872050TlisionHoursprwk1881159712030LcturVisits1718858815217Intrst11718839919117Intrst21718842819117Rlanc11718829119617Rlanc21718830719317Enjoymnt1174880101413to3Enjoymnt2174880191093to3Lcturr1174880251333to3Lcturr2174880210893to3Contnt1173880391183to3Contnt2173880260763to3AttntionLcturhall1718839716117Not:A‘1’aftraariablrprsntsth1stwblctur,a‘2’rprsntsth2ndwblcturTabl3Cronbach'sAlpha'sandEignalusforthfoursubjctscalsinthstudyAttntionEnjoymntaLcturrContntAlphaEignAlphaEignAlphaEignAlphaEign1stwblctur08612940832137090476507914312ndwblctur0919311093515209417060763417aAftrrmoalof1qustion,whichrsultdinascalof3qustionsHKoringtalComputrsEducation94(2016)151161156ThANOVAsfordiffrncsbtwnlcturrsaftrth1stwblcturraldsignificantdiffrncsonAttntionforthwblcturandRlancofthsubjctofthwblcturforthducationofthparticipant,whicharshowninTabl4PosthocTukytstsraldthdiffrncinAttntiontohabnrportdbtwntwoofthsixlcturrsThANOVAsfordiffrncsbtwnlcturrsaftrth2ndwblcturraldsignificantbtwngroupdiffrncsonAttntion,LcturrandContnt,alsoshowninTabl4PosthocTukytstsraldthatthdiffrncinattntionwasrportdbtwnthsamtwolcturrsasforth1stwblcturSingthatthcurrntstudywasstuptofindadiffrncinAttntionbtwniwmods,rgardlssofthlcturr,thsignificantdiffrnconrportdattntionfoundbtwntwolcturrssuggstthatfinalanalyssshouldbmadontwosubstsOnsubstwithoutthlcturrforwhosignificantlymorattntionwasrportd(Substlss)andonsubstwithoutthlcturrforwhosignificantlylssattntionwasrportd(Substmor)4RsultsWblcturswrshowninthrisibilitymods;mod1showdalargidoofthlcturrandasmallimagofthslids,mod2showdasmallidoofthlcturrandalargimagofthslids,andmod3showdonlyalargimagofthslids(Fig1AppndixA)Participantswatchdtwowblctursintwodiffrntisibilitymodsandanswrdqustionsaftrthfirstandaftrthscondlctur,amongothrsaboutthappalofthlcturrthyjustwatchd41Hypothsis1ThfirsthypothsisofthisstudypropossapositirlationbtwnthisibilityofalcturrandrportdattntionforawblcturUsinguniariatanalyssofcoariancthdiffrncbtwnthisibilitymodswrtstd,withEnjoymnt,Radio,Rlanc,Lcturr,ContntandAttntionLcturhallassignificantcoariatsForthfirstwblcturthANOVAshowdnosignificantffctofisibilitymodonrportdattntiontothlctur,F(2,76)¼2299,p¼0107AdjustdmansandstandardrrorsforthisibilitymodsonrportdattntionardisplaydinTabl5Bcausthadjustdmansforththrisibilitymodswrquitdiffrnt,asimplcontrastanalysiswasdonThisraldnosignificantdiffrncbtwnallthrmodsForthscondwblctur,thANOVAanalysisshowdasignificantffctofisibilitymodonrportdattntionforthlctur,F(2,75)¼3320,p¼0042,hp2¼081AdjustdmansandstandardrrorsforththrisibilitymodsonrportdattntionforthfirstandscondwblcturardisplaydinTabl5Acontrastanalysisraldasignificantdiffrncbtwnmod1andmod2(ContrastEstimat¼0472,p¼0016)andnosignificantdiffrncbtwnmod1andmod3orbtwnmod2andmod3Thsignificantdiffrncbtwnmod1andmod2consistsofmorrportdattntioninmod1compardtomod2AsshowninFig3,participantsrportsignificantlymorattntionwhnthimagofthlcturrislargandthPowrPointsmall,thanwhnthimagofthlcturrissmallandthPowrPointlarg411Substsforisibilityffctsonattntionforth2ndWblcturBcausparticipantsrportdsignificantdiffrncsinattntionbtwntwoofthlcturrsduringthscondwblctur,twosubstswrmadtoascrtainwhthrandhowthffctofisibilityonrportdattntiondiffrsinthstwogroupsThsubstsconsistdofongroupwithoutthlcturrwholicitdsignificantlymorattntion(Substlss)andanothrgroupwithoutthlcturrwholicitdsignificantlylssattntion(Substmor)ForbothsubststhsamANCOVA'swradministrd,withisibilityasindpndntariabl,rportdattntionfor2ndwblcturasoutcomariablandthsignificantcoariats(Lcturisits,Enjoymnt,Rlanc,Radio,Lcturr,ContntandAttntioncompardtoalcturhall)ThANCOVAforSubstlssraldnosignificancdiffrncbtwnisibilitymodsonrportdattntionforthscondwblcturForSubstmorthANCOVAraldrsultsconsistntwithrsultsforallsixlcturrsThrwasasignificantffctofisibilitymodonrportdattntionduringthscondwblcturF(2,62)¼3661,p¼0031,hp2¼0106,andacontrastanalysisraldasignificantdiffrncbtwnmod1andmod2(ContrastEstimat¼0530,p¼0012),Tabl4SignificantrsultsofANOVAsfordiffrncsbtwnlcturrsFirstWblcturScondWblcturFstatisticpaluhp2Fstatisticpaluhp2Attntion367500460130297300230150Enjoymnt0989ns1603nsLcturr1779ns268400030190Contnt0883ns189500040190Intrst1758ns1903nsRlanc2958002401701400nsNot:DgrsofFrdomforallANOVAsar5,82,xcpt:Wlch'sF,df¼5,36549HKoringtalComputrsEducation94(2016)151161157andnodiffrncbtwnmod1andmod3orbtwnmod2andmod3ParticipantsrportmorattntionwhnthimagofthlcturrislargandthimagofthPowrPointslidsissmall,thanwhnthimagofthlcturrissmallandthimagofthPowrPointslidsislargAdjustdmansandstandardrrorsforththrisibilitymodsonrportdattntionforSubstmorandSubstlssardisplaydinTabl642Hypothsis2ThscondhypothsisinthisstudystatsthatlcturrappalwillmodratthrlationbtwnisibilityofthlcturrandrportdattntiontothwblcturItisthoughtthatthrlationbtwnisibilityandrportdattntionwillbstrongrforlcturrswhoarjudgdashaingahighrappalthanforlcturrswithalowrappalAnANOVAprformdtochckfordiffrncsonrportdattntionbtwnthwatchdlcturrsraldthatrportdattntiondiffrdsignificantlybtwntwolcturrsandtwosubstscouldbmadThissuggstslcturrappalcouldfunctionasamodratorforthrlationbtwnisibilityandrportdattntionduringwblctursAmodratoranalysisraldnointractionbtwnisibilitymodandlcturr,F(2,82)¼0129,p¼0880Thrforthjudgmntofthlcturrcannotbconsidrdtomodratthrlationbtwnthisibilityofthlcturrandthrportdattntionforthwblctur5DiscussionThisrsarchstudywasinitiatdtoxplorwhthrthisibilityofalcturrinawblcturispositilyrlatdtorportdattntionforthatwblctursotoundrstandprfrncforlcturswithidoofthlcturrParticipantswrshowntwosparatwblcturclipsFirst,participantssawaclipofawblcturinonofthrisibilitymods,aftrwhichthiropinionwasaskdaboutthamountofattntionthyhadforthwblcturThiswasconsidrdanunbiasdTabl5Adjustdmansandstandardrrorsforththrisibilitymodsonattntionforth1stand2ndwblctur1stWblctur2ndWblcturMod1Mod2Mod3Mod1Mod2Mod3AdjMan012702720340032401480006StError016001690176012801400126NotMod1¼LcturrlargPowrPointsmall,Mod2¼LcturrSmallPowrPointLarg,Mod3¼NoLcturrPowrPointLargFig3Estimatdmarginalmansforrportdattntionduringth2ndwblcturTabl6Adjustdmansandstandardrrorsforbothsubstsforththrisibilitymodsonattntionforth2ndwblcturSubstlssSubstmorMod1Mod2Mod3Mod1Mod2Mod3AdjMan013702100144047900510109StError015801780159013501520142NotMod1¼LcturrlargPowrPointsmall,Mod2¼LcturrSmallPowrPointLarg,Mod3¼NoLcturrPowrPointLargHKoringtalComputrsEducation94(2016)151161158judgmntofthisibilitymodofthwblcturScond,participantssawanothrclipofanothrwblcturinanothrisibilitymod,whichthywraskdtocompartothfirstwblcturThiswassnasacomparisonofisibilitymodsThrsultsforthrlationbtwnisibilityofthlcturrandrportdattntionsmtocontradictachothrWhrparticipantsrportffctsofisibilityonattntionduringthscondwblctur,whichconfirmsthhypothsisthatisibilitypositilyrlatstoattntion,nosignificantffctsofisibilityonrportdattntionduringthfirstwblcturwrfoundParticipantsdonotrportmorattntionaftrwatchingthfirstwblcturwithalargidoofalcturrcompardtowatchingawblcturwithoutaisibllcturrOnarag,participantsactuallyrportlssattntionwhnwatchingawblcturwithalargidoofalcturr,thanduringawblcturwatchdwithithrasmallidoofthlcturrornoidoofthlcturrThisrsultcontradictsourhypothsisforthrlationbtwnisibilityandrportdattntionEarlirrsarchdidfindapositirlationbtwnwaysofprsntingawblcturandattntionforthatlctur(Baggtt,1984;Daytal,2006)And,aswdscribdinthintroduction,sralthorisindicatthatisibilityofalcturrisimportantforattntion(Bruc,1996;Kndon,1990;Klink,1986;Wickns,2002)AnxplanationforthdiffrncofthffctofisibilityonrportdattntionbtwnwblctursmightliinthattntionspanofthparticipantsDuringthfirstwblcturthstudyhasnotytclaimdmuchfromthparticipants'attntionalrsourcsDuringthiswblcturparticipantsmightusastratgytogathrasmuchinformationaspossiblfromthwblcturRadingthslids,asirwhnbiggr,gisxtrainformationontopofwhatthlcturristllingTosalargimagofthlcturrdosnotncssarilyimprothirinformationgathringThismightxplainwhyparticipantsrportmorattntionwhnthycanmakusofboth,alargimagofthPowrPointslidsandaudioonlyoralargimagofthPowrPointslidsandasmallidoofthlcturrDuringthscondwblcturthparticipantshaalradyspntapproximatly15minonthstudyandbythistimthirconcntrationmightbrducdAtthistimsingalargidoofthlcturrmightmakitasirtokpthirattntiononthlctur,forthrasonswhywhypothsizdapositirlationbtwnisibilityofthlcturrandattntion:lcturrs'faccallsforthirattntionandbingabltosthfacmaksitasirtoundrstandthlcturSingandradingtxtonthlargimagofthslidsmayclaimtoomuchofthir(rducd)attntionalrsourcsatthistimThissuggststhatforallwblctursthatlastmorthan15min,isibilityofthlcturrismorimportantforattntionForwblctursshortrthan15minpayingattntionsmstobasirwhnthimagofthslidsislargandasytoradOurscondhypothsiswasmodrationoflcturrappalofthrlationbtwnisibilityandrportdattntionDiffrntlcturrshadirsstylsofprsntingalcturanddonotappaltothiraudincinthsamwayEnthoughthisstudydidfinddiffrncsinrportdattntionbtwnthlcturrs,thmodratoranalyssdidnotralsignificantmodrationofthrlationbtwnisibilityandrportdattntionThisrsultsuggststhatnthoughlcturrsdiffrinappal,thffctofthirisibilityonthrportdattntionofthparticipantsdidnotaryPossiblythssixlcturrswrstilltoosimilarinthirlcturingstylstolicitthproposddiffrncsbtwnisibilityonrportdattntionAstudymakingusoflcturrswhodiffrmorfromonanothrisncssarytotstthisxplanationOurrsults,withthusofsixdiffrntlcturrsinthrdiffrntconditions,contributtothcurrntlitraturbcauswcangnraliztomorthanonlcturrThsixlcturrsdiffrdandwtookcarthatthcontntsofthwblctursdiffrd,whilthdifficultyofthircontntrmaindsimilarThrforthrsultsofthisstudycanbgnralizdtolcturrsinothrunirsitisaslongasthytachintroductoryclasssThisstudyhasincluddnincoariats,suchasradiolistningandintrstinthsubjct,thatwrxpctdtoinfluncattntion,basdonlitraturaboutattntionaspcts(ProctorVanZandt,2008)Bykpingthsaspctsconstantwhilanalysingthrlationbtwnisibilityandrportdattntion,itwasassurdthatthdiffrncinrportdattntioncouldonlybcausdbythdiffrncinisibilitymodsWhilothrstudisaboutthrlationbtwnisibilityandattntionwrstinalaboratory,wwrusinganintgratdwbapplicationthankstowhichparticipantscouldparticipatinourrsarchathomoranothrlocationatanytimduringthdayornightThiscouldnutralizpossiblinfluncsofparticipatinginastudy,forxamplthwishtobagoodstudysubjct,andmadthstudysttingmorralisticbcausitwascomparabltothnormalsttinginwhichstudntswatchwblctursThrforrsultsmaybgnralizdtowblcturiwingbystudntsingnral51LimitationsOnofthlimitationsofthisstudyisthatidosoflowrqualitywrusdCurrntlyitispossibltomakhighqualityidomatrialsaailablonlin,buthighqualityladstorylargfilsthattaklongtodownloadInmakingidomatrialsaailablonlinatradoffisnddbtwnspdandqualityInthisstudywhachosnthrforforidosoflowrqualitythantchnicallypossiblWhilthqualityofidomatrialswasgoodnoughtobusdonscrnsofcommonlyusdcomputrandothrdics,thlowrqualityofidosmighthainfluncdthrsultsThisstudywascarridoutinthnaturalsttingstudntswatchwblcturs,athomandatthirconnincHowr,thismantthatparticipantscouldnotbmonitordorhlpdwhilparticipatingFinally,alimitationofthisstudymaybthlngthofthwblcturclipsWhilthusuallcturtaksonhour,thclipsusdinthisstudywr75minlongThiswasdontokpthtotaltimforfinishingthstudyundr30min,forthasofthparticipantsaswllasthrliabilityofattntionalaspctsItcanbdifficulttocomparopinionsaboutashortwblcturtoopinionsaboutafulllngth(wb)lctur,thrforrsultsofthisstudymightnotbsimilartorportdattntioninfulllngth(wb)lctursNrthlss,ourrsultHKoringtalComputrsEducation94(2016)151161159indicatingthatthlongrthlctur,thgratrthffctofisibilityonrportdattntionsmstobrlantforfulllngth(wb)lcturs52PracticalimplicationsOurstudyhasshownthatstudntsrportmorattntionaftrwatchingalargidoofalcturrandasmallimagofslidswhnlistningtoalcturformorthan15minForwblctursshortrthan15minstudntsrportmorattntionwhnthimagofthPowrPointslidsislargandasytoradThishlpsducationalinstitutionstodtrminthirchoicofwaystoprsntwblctursThidoofthlcturrwasshowntobmorimportantforattntionthanthcontntofthstoryorthintrststudntshadinthsubjctThisrsultimplicatsthatisibilityofalcturrinawblcturassthcognitiprocssoffocusingconsciousattntion,whichisafirststpinthlarningprocss(Mayr,1992;1996)ThrsultsofisibilityonrportdattntionwralidfordiffrntlcturrsandthabsncofamodrationffctshowthatisibilityofalcturrrlatstoattntionrgardlssofthlcturrInaddition,diffrncsbtwnstudntswrnotfoundtohaanffctonthrlationbtwnisibilityandrportdattntionThrfor,ducationalinstitutsdonotndtoprsonalisthirwblctursbasdonthosdiffrncsinbackground,norarythirprsntationmodwithdiffrntlcturrsHowr,bcausofthdiffrncsfoundbtwnthfirstandthscondlctur,thbststratgyforducationalinstitutionswillprobablybtomakitpossiblforstudntstowatchawblcturwithanoptiontochoosbtwnmorthanonisibilitymod,andtoswitchfrlybtwnthsmodsduringthwblctur6ConclusionInthisstudywfoundapositiffctofisibilityofalcturronrportdattntion,atlastwhnparticipantshadbnwatchingawblcturformorthan15min,whichprobablycontributstostudnts'rportdprfrncforlcturswithidoofthlcturrAftrashorttimofwatchingawblctur,nodiffrncsonrportdattntionwrfoundbtwnthdiffrntisibilitymodsAnxplanation,tobstudidinfurthrrsarch,isthatarducdattntionspanwillladtodiffrntstratgistormainattntiduringthwblcturwhrisibilityofthlcturrcontributstothsstratgisAtprsnt,ducationalinstitutsshouldoffrthirstudntsachoiconthirprfrrdwayofwatchingawblctur:withorwithoutaisibllcturr,atwhichsiz,andwithlargorsmallimagsofthslidsAcknowldgmntsThauthorswouldliktothankthdpartmntofITsricsatthUtrchtUnirsityforthirworkincratingaailablwbspaconthuunldomain,anddrSrgODumoulinanddrStllaFDonkrofthdpartmntofApplidCognitiPsychologyofUtrchtUnirsity,forgradingthfirstdraftofthispaprwhichwassubmittdasastudntthsisThauthorsowaspcialthankstomissMickyEFaasofthLidnInstitutofAdancdComputrScinc,forwritingandimplmntingthwbapplicationforadministringthwblcturclipsandqustionnairAppndixASupplmntarydataSupplmntarydatarlatdtothisarticlcanbfoundathttp:dxdoiorg101016jcompdu201511011RfrncsAbyskra,L,Dawson,P(2015)Motiationandcognitiloadinthflippdclassroom:dfinition,rationalandcallforrsarchHighrEducationRsarchDlopmnt,34(1),114http:dxdoiorg101080072943602014934336Argyl,M,Graham,JA(1976)ThCntralEuropxprimnt:lookingatprsonsandlookingatthingsJournalofEnironmntalPsychologyandNonrbalBhaior,1(1),616http:dxdoiorg101007BF01115461Bacro,TRH,Gbrgziabhr,M,Fitzharris,TP(2010)EaluationofalcturrcordingsystminamdicalcurriculumAnatomicalScincsEducation,3,300308http:dxdoiorg101002as183Baggtt,P(1984)ThroloftmporalorlapofisualandauditorymatrialinformingdualmdiaassociationsJournalofEducationalPsychology,76(3),408417http:dxdoiorg10103700220663763408Baldauf,D,Dsimon,R(2014)NuralmchanismsofobjctbasdattntionScinc,344(6182),424427http:dxdoiorg101126scinc1247003Balas,JB,Coats,L,Johnson,T(2002)Listnrrsponssasacollaboratiprocss:throlofgazJournalofCommunication,52(3),566580http:dxdoiorg101111j146024662002tb02562xBligh,D(1998)What'sthusofLcturs(5thd)Bristol,UK:IntllctBooksBruc,V(1996)Throloffacincommunication:implicationsforidophondsignIntractingwithComputrs,8(2),166176http:dxdoiorg10101609535438(96)010260Chn,C,Wu,C(2015)Effctsofdiffrntidolcturtypsonsustaindattntion,motion,cognitiload,andlarningprformancComputrsEducation,80,108121http:dxdoiorg101016jcompdu201408015Choi,HJ,Johnson,SD(2005)ThffctofcontxtbasdidoinstructiononlarningandmotiationinonlincourssThAmricanJournalofDistancEducation,19(4),215227http:dxdoiorg101207s15389286ajd19043Chorianopoulos,K,Giannakos,MN(2013)MrginglarnrprformancwithbrowsingbhaiorinidolctursWorkshoponAnaliticsonVidoBasdLarning(WAV),3942http:curwsorgVol983WAV2013ProcdingspdfCOTAN,(2000)Throughhttp:wwwcotandocumntatinlproxylibraryuunlonMay5th20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LookatmandpayattntionAstudyonthrlationbtwnisibilityandattntioninwblcturs 1Introduction 2Rlationbtwnisibilityofthlcturrandattntion 21Background 22Factorsthathaanffctonthrlationbtwnisibilityandattntion 23Aims 3Matrialandmthods 31Participants 32Procdur 33Matrials 331Vidomatrials 332Qustionnair 333Wbapplicationandrandomization 34Analysis 341Rsultsofprliminaryanalyss 4Rsults 41Hypothsis1 411Substsforisibilityffctsonattntionforth2ndWblctur 42Hypothsis2 5Discussion 51Limitations 52Practicalimplications 6Conclusion Acknowldgmnts AppndixASupplmntarydata Rfrncs