语言学phonology音韵学

演示文档路漫漫其悠远少壮不努力，老大徒悲伤语言学phonology音韵学Importantarticulators发音器官Articulators,alsocalledspeechorgans,refertothosepartsofhumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeechsound.1Thelungs：肺2thevocalcords声带3Theresonatingcavities(共鸣腔)Theresonatingcavitiesiswheretheairstreamcomingfromthelungsismodifiedinvariousways,resultingintheproductionofvarioussounds.Threeresonatingcavitiesareidentified.YouareexpectedtolookatthediagramonPage27inourtextbook.ImportantarticulatorsTheoralcavity(口腔):themouthItcontainsthelips,teeth,teeth(alveolar)ridge(齿龈/槽)tipoftongue,bladeoftongue,frontoftongue,backoftongue,hardpalate,softpalate(velum),uvula,epiglottis(会厌软骨).Thenasalcavity(鼻腔):thenoseNasalresonance(共鸣)canbeproducedduetotheloweringthesoftpalate(velum),resultingtheproductionofnasals.Thepharyngealcavity/pharynx(咽腔):betweenthetopofthelarynx(喉)andthesoftpalate)Thethroat(larynx)containsvocalcords/folds,ventricularfolds（膨胀带）andglottis(theopeningbetweenthevocalcords),themovementofwhichdeterminesthequalityofvoicing(voiced&voiceless(浊/清音)andpitch(音高).Theoralcavity Thegreatestsourceofmodificationoftheairstreamisfoundintheoralcavity.Thespeechorganslocatedinthiscavityare: thelips,theteeth,theteethridge（齿龈）(thealveolus),thetongue,thehardpalate（硬腭）,thesoftpalate(thevelum)（软腭）andtheuvula小舌.ImportantarticulatorsImportantarticulators:p27Phonetictranscription(The)IPA国际音标IPAistheabbreviatedformoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation（国际语音学协会）ortheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet（国际音标）.InternationalPhoneticAssociationisanorganizationfoundedin1886byagroupofEuropeanphoneticianstopromotethestudyofphonetics.In1888,itpublishedthefirstversionofInternationalPhoneticAlphabet,which,inmodifiedandexpandedform,istodaythemostwidelyusedsystemfortranscribingthesoundsofalanguage. Bilabial Labio-dental Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar glottal Stops VL p t k VD b d g Fricatives VL f ϑ s ∫ h VD v ð z ʒ affricates VL t∫ VD dʒ Nasals VD m n ŋ Liquids VD l.r glides VD w j 1.voicedpalatalaffricate 2.voicelesslabiodentalfricative 3.voicedalveolarstop /gpbd/ /fpmϑvb/ /zvsdg/ /tzdns/ /mnbŋ/ /gkbdpvt//p/voiceless/m/nasal/s/voiceless/n/nasal/v/fricative/b/oral/dʒ//d//f/FrontCentralBackcloseSemi-closeSemi-openopeni:ieə:əæu:uɔ:ɔα:ΛPhonologyPhoneticsandphonologyBothphoneticsandphonologyareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage,thespeechsounds.Buttheyapproachthesubjectfromtwodifferentpointsofview.Phoneticsstudiestheproductionandcharacteristicsofallpossiblespeechsounds,andprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.Itisgeneral,descriptiveandclassificatory.Phonologyisthestudyofsoundsystemsoflanguages,whichisconcernedwiththelinguisticpatterningofsoundsinhumanlanguages,withitsprimaryaimbeingtodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur.Itstudiesthewayinwhichspeakersofalanguagesystematicallyuseaselectionofthesesoundsinordertoexpressmeaning.Termsinphonologicalanalysis Phones Phonemes Allophones Phonemiccontrast Minimalpairsandminimalsets Complementarydistribution Distinctivefeatures(binaryfeatures)Phone,phonemeandallophone（音素、音位、音位变体）P371Phone（音素）Phoneisatermusedtorefertothesmallestperceptiblediscrete（不连续的）segmentofsoundinastreamofspeech.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishwordsfromeachother.Forexample,whilethephones[i:]and[i]doasin[bi:t]and[bit],[ph]and[p=]obviouslydon’tasin[sphit]and[sp=it].Conventionally,phonesareplacedwithinsquarebrackets,suchas[p][t][l],etc.2.Phoneme(音位)p37Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit,whichistheminimalunitinthesoundsystemofalanguage,accordingtotraditionalphonologicaltheories;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue,i.e.itcandistinguishwords..Substitutingonephonemeforanotherresultsinachangeofmeaning.Aphonemeisanabstractunit.Itisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Forexample,thephoneme/p/isrepresenteddifferentlyin[phit]and[sp=it].Thenotionofthephonemeallowedlinguiststogrouptogethersetsofphoneticallysimilarphonesasvariantsormembersofthesameunderlyingunit.(Tofollowtheconvention,squarebracketsareusedtoindicatephones,andobliquesphonemes.suchas/t/,/p/,/l/.)Phone,phonemeandallophone3.Allophones（音位变体)Thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeincertainphoneticcontextarecalleditsallophones.Whenwehaveasetofphones,allofwhicharevariantsofonephoneme,werefertothemastheallophonesofthatphoneme.Sothephones[ph]and[p=]aretheallophonesofthesamephoneme/p/.Thephenomenonofvariationinthepronunciationofphonemesindifferentpositionsiscalledallophonyorallophonicvariation.Phones,phonemesandallophones phoneme(abstractunit) meaningdistinguishing allophones(concreteunit, realizationofthephoneme/p/) variantstothesamebasicentity Phones (concreteunit) notnecessarily Meaning-distinguishing ………/p/Peak,tip[ph]Spit,speak[p=]/l/Leap[l]Peel[l’]Minimalpair,phonemiccontrast,andcomplementarydistribution1Minimalpair(最小对立体)p38Whentwodifferentwordsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtohaveformedaminimalpair,likepill-bill,pill-till,andkill-bill.Allthewordsthatareidenticalinformexceptforonesoundsegmentoccurringinthesameplaceinthestringstogetherconstituteaminimalset（最小对立集合）.Theminimalpairstestisoneoftheearlydiscoveryproceduresusedinphonologytoidentifyphonemes,soundunitsthatareofdistinctivevalue.2Phonemiccontrastiftwosoundsdistinguishwords,theyaresaidtoformaphonemiccontrast(音位对立）,like/p/and/b/,whichareincontrastivedistribution.Minimalpair,phonemiccontrast,andcomplementarydistributionMinimalpair,phonemiccontrast,andcomplementarydistribution3.ComplementarydistributionTheallophonesofaphonemedonotdistinguishmeaningorwords,butcomplementeachotherindistribution,i.e.theyoccurindifferentphoneticenvironments.Sotheyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.（互补分布）Phonemiccontrast,minimalpairsandcomplementarydistribution phonemiccontrast音位对立 complementindistribution minimalpair minimalset/p/and/b/inpillandbill,ropeandrobe[p=]inpitand[ph]inspitpillandbillpillandbill,billandkill,killandtill,tillanddill,dillandgillDistinctivefeatures:p39-40Adistinctivefeatureisaphoneticpropertywhichcandistinguishonephonemefromanotheroronegroupofphonemesfromanothergroup.Forexample,voicingisadistinctivefeatureforEnglishobstruents(阻塞音),includingstops,fricativesandaffricates.(Lookatp40)Somerulesinphonology Sequentialrules Assimilationrules DeletionruleSequentialrules（序列）Thephonologicalsystemdetermineswhichphonemescanbeginaword,endaword,andfolloweachother.Therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalledsequentialrules.kbliTherearemanysequentialrulesinEnglish.(1)ifawordbeginswith[l]or[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.(2)ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:Thefirstphonememustbe/s/Thesecondphonememustbe/p/,/t/or/k/Thethirdphonememustbe/l/,/r/,/j/or/w/e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,screamAssimilationrules（同化规则） Aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.e.g.Bean,green,team,scream,tank,ninth,Thereare:Progressiveassimilation(顺同化)referstotheprocessinwhichaprecedingsoundinfluencesafollowingsound.Regressiveassimilation(逆同化)referstotheprocesswhereafollowingsoundinfluencesaprecedingsound. Assimilationcanoccuracrosssyllableorwordboundaries,asshownbythefollowing: pancake;sunglasses;youcankeepthem;hecangonow[ŋ] Devoicing:aprocessbywhichvoicedsoundsbecomevoiceless.使浊音变清音e.g.Fivepastlovetobadboyhastoascanbeshownlosefive Principleof‘leasteffort’（省力原则） impossible(notinpossible), incorrect(notimcorrect), irregular(notimregularorinregular), illegal(notimlegal,inlegal,orunlegaletc.) 我告诉你、不要、这样子deletionrule省略规则 Asoundmaybedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented. Eg. Signdesignparadigm Signature,designation,paradigmatic Rule:deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.Suprasegmentalfeatures:syllable,stress,tone,intonationThephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures;thesearethephonologicalpropertiesofsuchunitsasthesyllable,theword,andthesentence.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,pitch,toneandintonation.Syllables BeautifulLanguageCongratulation Asyllablemustcontainavowelsound.Themostcommontypeofsyllableinlanguagealsohasaconsonantbeforethevowel,oftenrepresentedasCV. Technically,thebasicelementsofthesyllablearetheonset（节首）(oneormoreconsonants)andtherime（韵脚）.Therimeconsistsofthevowel,whichistreatedasthenucleus(orpeak)（韵核、韵峰）,plusanyfollowingconsonant(s),treatedasthecoda（韵尾）.Syllablestructuresyllableonsetrimenucleus(peak)codaconsonant(s)vowelconsonant(s)音节 Opensyllableclosesyllable 开音节：即分为绝对开音节和相对开音节。 绝对开音节：以发音的元音字母或者元音结尾的音节，如,be,no,he.一般是辅音字母+元音字母。by 相对开音节：辅音字母（r除外）+元音字母+辅音字母+不发音的e结尾。例：make，like。发音的元音字母发本音。 闭音节：辅音字母+元音字母+辅音字母结尾。 Hatcupamup 该音节若重读，即重读闭音节。 如Begin,sit,play,open,listen,wait,study,forbid,prohibit,travelquarrelStress(重音) STRESSreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Intranscription,araisedverticalline[`]isusedjustbeforethesyllableitrelatesto. Atthewordlevel,itonlyappliestowordswithatleasttwosyllables. Atthesentencelevel,amonosyllabicwordmaybesaidtobestressedrelativetootherwordsinthesentence.Pragmaticallyspeaking,everywordcanbearthestresstoexpresswhatthespeakerintendstomean.Stressatthewordlevel StresspatterninEnglishchangeoverhistoryandexhibitregionalordialectaldifferencesandtheirpreferences.e.g.integral,communal,formidable,controversyinTEGral,coMMUNal,forMIDable,conTROVersy(normal)INtegral,COMMunal,FORmidable,CONtroversy(conservative)e.g.laboratory,debris,garagelaBORatory(RP),LABoratory(GA);DEBris(RP),deBRIS(GA)GARage(RP),gaRAGE(GA) Stressissometimesplacedonadifferentsyllableforthedifferentgrammaticalfunctionawordplays.e.g.conVICT(v.)–CONvict(n.)inSULT(v.)–INsult(n.)proDUCE(v.)–PROduce(n.)*Receptedpronounciation,suchasbbseng,oxfordeng,queen’s/king’seng英格兰最南部的中上阶层口音为基础的GA:generalamerican以美国中部口音为基础的billclinton,hilaryclinton,bush就是很乡村的texas口音Stressatthesentencelevel Sentencestressreferstotherelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence. ThepartsofspeechthatarenormallystressedinanEnglishsentencearenotionalwords,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronouns.Theothercategoriesofstructuralwordslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbs,prepositions,andconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed. Togivespecialemphasistoacertainnotion,awordinasentencethatisusuallyunstressedcanbestressed.Johnboughtaredbicycle.Stress重音 1.词的重音wordstress 一个单词至少有一个音节。需要重点突出或强调,读的响亮的的音节即为重读音节，也即重音。（单音节一般都要重读，）不响亮的音节就是非重读音节或弱读音节。 go,come,child,want,try,like, 一般来说，若单词只有1至3个音节，则在该单词首字母处重读；若单词有4个或4个以上的音节，则在倒数第三个音节处重读。如： university,[ju:ni‘və:siti],  difficult[‘difikəlt],    Study[‘stΛdi],good(免写重音符号)[gud]。Possibilitypsychologyphotographphotographermodernization 派生词的重音多数仍为词根原来的重音。如：cover,discover. 一般来说，某些单词既可以作名词又可以做动词时，动词重音在第二个音节，而名词重音在第一个音节。 Record,survey,abstract,desert,present, Blackboard,blackbird,greenhouse,hotdog…Sentencestress句子重音 在不特殊强调或作对比的情况下，短语或句子的重音往往落在最后一个出现的实词上。 在句子中比较重要的词都要重读。这些词大都是实词，而单音节的虚词一般不重读。 重读的词汇主要有：１）名词，如kitchen,peter,book,doctor２）大部分的实义动词，如visit,construct,break,open３）形容词，如interesting,pretty,wonderful,fantastic,４）副词，如often,carefully,easily,hard5）数词，如one,a,two6）代词（但人称代词除外。包括疑问代词，指示代词，名词性物主代词7）感叹词 不重读强调的词主要包括：1）    限定词，如the,a,some,afew（包括冠词在内） 2）    助词，如don’t,am,can,were3）    介词，如before,nextto,opposite4）    连词，如but,while,as5）    人称代词，如they,she,us,themselves,ourselves6）be动词，助动词，情态动词，形容词性物主代词 例如：Sothe‘two‘young‘brother‘work‘hardat‘that‘time.所以那两兄弟在那时很努力地工作。Tone(声调) Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferentratesofvibrationofthevocalcords. Themeaning-distinctivefunctionofthetoneisespeciallyimportantinwhatwecalltonelanguage.Atonelanguageisalanguageinwhichthemeaningofaworddependsonthetoneusedwhenproducingit. Forexample,MandarinChineseisatypicaltonelanguage,whichmakesadistinctionbetweenfourdifferenttones.Thefirsttoneislevel（阴平），thesecondrise（阳平），thethirdfall-rise（上声），thefourthfall（去声）Intonation(语调) Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation. Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage. Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation,knownasthefourtones:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetone,(andtherise-falltone.)Pitch(音高) PitchisaSuprasegmentalqualitywhichextendsoverindividualsegmentsandlongerstretchesofspeech. Pitchislargelydeterminedbythefrequencyofvibrationofthevocalfolds,andtosomeextentbytheintensityofthesound. Whenspeakersareincertainemotionalstates,theymayeitherextendtheirnormalpitchrange,e.g.toexpressangerorexcitement,ornarrowit,e.g.toexpressboredomormisery. Women’sspeechusuallybearshigherpitchthanmendoes.Chapter3morphology Wordis Agrammaticalunit:sentenceclausephrasewordmorpheme Problem:blackboardIdentificationofwords Stability:stablelinguisticunits. chairman,butnot*manchair Relativeuninterruptibility:thoughwerecognizethreecomponentsintheworddisappointment,wecannotpauseandaddanothercomponentinbetweenthethreeparts,asin*disinterestappointment. Butwecanaddanotherwordbetweenwords:Paul,(John)andMary... Aminimumfreeform:thesmallestunitthatcanconstituteacompleteutterancebyitself,eg --IsJanecomingtonight? --Possibly. Hi.Wonderful. Darling… ClassificationsofMorphologyAllthenouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsandinjectionsarethecontentwords/lexicalwords/openclasswords;whiletheothercategoriesincludingconjunctions,prepositions,pronouns,andarticles,(auxiliaryverb,determiners,)arefunctionalorgrammaticalwordsorcloseclasswords.Chapter3MorphologyContentwords/openclasswordsandfunctional/closeclasswordsVariableandInvariablewordsChapter3MorphologyVariablewords可变词arethewordscontaininginflectiveendings,whereonecouldfindorderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordforms;andpartofthewordremainsrelativelyconstant,thuseachorderedseriesconstitutesaparadigm.e.g.follow;follows,following,andfollowed;sofollowisavariableword.Invariablewords不变词don’thaveinflectiveendings,e.g.since,before,although,hello,andpleaseetc.rootvs.stem Root词根 Baseformofawordthatcannotbeanalyzedintosmallerparts. e.g.friendinunfriendliness. Awordmaycontainmorethanoneroot,inwhichcaseitisacompoundword. e.g.bookshop,blackbird… Rootsmaybe free:thosethatcanstandbythemselves,egblack+board;nation+-al;or bound:thosethatcannotstandbythemselves,eg-ceiveinreceive,perceive,conceive. Stem词干 formedwhenarootiscombinedwithanaffix(thatotheraffixescancontinuetobeattachedto)任何一个可以加上词缀的单位都可以叫做词干 词干可以是一个或多个词素。 词根只能是一个词素。Rootsandstemsp53 Works Workers workshops asimplestemconsistingofonlyonemorpheme,inthiscasetherootandthestemarethesame,e.g.inworks,workisboththestemandtheroot; arootplusaderivationalaffix,e.g.inworkers,workistheroot,workeristhestem; twoormoreroots,e.g.inworkshops,bothworkandshopareroots,workshopisthestem.词干可以是一个或多个词素。词根只能是一个词素Chapter4syntaxheadalectureabout…lectureSpecifier(left)Complement(right)aabout…SpecifierHeadComplementalectureaboutliteratureNPSpecifierHeadComplementrarelyplayfootballVPSpecifierHeadComplementsocarefulwith…APSpecifierHeadComplementpartlybecauseofherreestructure树形图SpecifierHeadComplementXP→(Specifier)X(Complement)Variable(变量)WhatisXPrule? XPcanbedifferentphrases,becauseX(Variable变量)standsfortheheadN,V,AorPNP→(Det)N(PP)… VP→(Qual)V(NP)… AP→(Deg)A(PP)… PP→(Deg)P(NP)…XP→(Specifier)X(Complement)(Note:“→”means“consistof”;()means“canbeomitted”;“…”meansothercomplementoptionsareavailable)Word-levelcategories Majorlexicalcategories主要词汇范畴: N,V,A,P Minorlexicalcategories次要词汇范畴: determiner(Det.):the,a,both,this,those… degreeword(Deg.):quite,very,more… qualifier(qual.):often,always,almost… auxiliary(aux):must,should,does,have… conjunction(con.):and,but,or NP(Det)+N+(PP) …e.g.thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirls VP(Qual)+V+(NP) …e.g.alwaysplaygames,finishassignments AP(Deg)+A+(PP) …veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,verycloseto PP(Deg)+P+(NP) …ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation一般现在时现在进行时现在完成时现在完成进行时一般过去时过去进行时过去完成时过去完成进行时一般将来时将来进行时将来完成时将来完成进行时一般过去将来时过去将来进行时过去将来完成时过去将来完成进行时 Simplepresent Presentprogressive Presentperfect Presentperfectprogressive Simplepast Pastprogressive Pastperfect Pastperfectprogressive Simplefuture Futureprogressive Futureperfect Futureperfectprogressive Simplepastfuture Pastfutureprogressive Pastfutureperfect PastfutureperfectprogressiveEndocentricandExocentricConstructions Endocentricconstruction内向结构/向心结构:onewhosedistributionisfunctionalequivalenttooneofitsconstituents,whichservesasthecenter,orhead,ofthewhole. E.g.littleblackboys willbeleaving boysandgirls Note:theheadcansubstitutethewholeconstruction. Exocentricconstruction外向结构/离心结构:onewhosedistributionisnotfunctionallyequivalenttoanyofitsconstituents.Thereisnocenter,orheadinit. Typicalexamples: 1.prepositionalphrase:ontheshelf… 2.subordinateclauses:ifhegoesto… 3.basicsentence:Thegirlsmiles. Syntacticrelationscanbeanalysedintothreekinds: positional/syntagmaticrelations横组合关系 relationsofsubstitutability/paradigmaticrelations纵聚合关系 relationsofco-occurrence共现关系Syntacticrelationspositional/syntagmaticrelations横组合关系 TheboykickedtheballNP1NP2Subject ObjectSequentialarrangementofwordsorwordorderinalanguage.Thedogbitesthewoman.Thewomanbitesthedog.2.relationsofsubstitutability/paradigmaticrelations纵聚合关系 TheRELATIONOFSUBSTITUTABILITYreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure. The ______smiles. manboygirlSyntagmatic,paradigmaticandhierarchicalrelations Wecangotomorrow→syntagmaticrelation Shemaycomesoon Iwillasknext Youcouldsleepnow ………… ………… …………paradigmaticrelation3RelationofCo-occurrence Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence. Forinstance,anounphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjective(s)andfollowedbyaverbalphrase.ICAnalysis e.g.HeisfromFrance HeisfromFrance isfromFrance fromFranceICAnalysis Practice:PleaseanalyzethefollowingthreesentencesbymeansofICAnalysis: 1.LittleTomrunsveryfast. 2.Theseapplesareverysweet. 3.Hisbrotherstayedathome.ICAnalysis 1.LittleTomrunsveryfast2.Theseapplesareverysweet LittleTomrunsveryfastTheseapplesareverysweet LittleTomrunsveryfastTheseapplesareverysweet veryfastverysweet 3.Hisbrotherstayedathome Hisbrotherstayedathome Hisbrotherstayedathome athomeLabeledICAnalysis 1.LittleTomrunsveryfast/S LittleTom/NPrunsveryfast/VP Little/AdjTom/Nruns/Vveryfast/ADVP very/Advfast/Adv 2.Theseapplesareverysweet/S Theseapples/NPareverysweet/VP These/Detapples/Nare/Vverysweet/AP very/Advsweet/AdjLabeledICAnalysis 3.Hisbrotherstayedathome/S Hisbrother/NPstayedathome/VP His/Detbrother/Nstayed/Vathome/PP at/Phome/N Butthismethodistooredundantandtroublesome,sopeoplemodifieditandusephrasemarkers.ambiguoussentences(a)Theshootingofthehunterswasterrible.(b)Flyingplanescanbedangerous.(c)Timeflies.(d)JohnlovesRichardmorethanMartha.(e)Thepolicewereorderedtostopdrinkingaboutmidnight.(f)Thechickenistoohottoeat.Thismodelwaslaterdevelopedintowhatisusuallycalledthestandardtheoryoftransformationalgrammar.Chomskyalsoputforwardtheideaoftwolevelsofsyntacticstructure:(1)deepstructure(2)surfacestructureDeepstructure&surfacestructure Considerthefollowingpairofsentences:Johniseasytoplease.Johniseagertoplease. Structurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.Deepstructure&surfacestructure Consideronemoresentence: Flyingplanescanbedangerous. ItcanmeaneitherthatifyouflyplanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivityorPlanesthatareflyingaredangerous.DeepandsurfacestructuresEverysentencehastwolevelsofstructure.One,whichisobviousonthesurface,iscalledsurfacestructure,andtheother,whichcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence,iscalleddeepstructure.ChomskyTheloveofGodGodlovessomeoneSomeonelovesGodChapter5semantics5.3WordmeaningSenseandreferenceSense(词的系统意义/涵义)istheinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.（abstract)e.g.dog:adomesticatedcaninemammal,occurringinmanybreedsthatshowagreatvarietyinsizeandform.(CollinsdictionaryoftheEnglishlanguage)Reference(词的指称意义)meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointherealphysicalworld.(concrete)e.g.Thedogisbarking.Everywordhasasense,butnoteverywordhasareference. Wordsthathaveasensebutnoreference: emptynames(麒麟,龙,unicorn,林黛玉),but,and Wordsthathavethesamereferencebutdifferentsenses: 晨星/暮星（金星Venus）,邓小平/中国改革开放的总设计师 Wordsthathavesamesensesbutdifferentreferences:thesamewordusedindifferentcontext: 最可爱的人、大款* denotationandconnotation. Denotation外延istheconstant,abstract,andbasicmeaningofalinguisticexpressionindependentofcontextandsituation. (Denotationofalinguisticexpressionisitsdictionarymeaning.) e.g.Dog:4-leggedflesh-eatinganimalofmanybreeds akintowolf. Connotation内涵referstotheemotiveoraffectivecomponentofalinguisticexpression,whichissuperimposeduponitsbasicmeaning. Dog:loyal,bitepeople,human-like,… Leech(1974)recognizes7typesofmeaninginhisbookSemantics. 1Conceptualmeaning　(概念意义) Logical,cognitive,ordenotativecontent 2Connotativemeaning　(内涵意义)　 Whatiscommunicatedbyvirtueofwhatlanguagerefersto. 3Socialmeaning　　(社会意义) Whatiscommunicatedofthesocialcircumstancesoflanguageuse. 4Affectivemeaning　(情感意义) Whatiscommunicatedofthefeelingandattitudesofthespeaker/writer. 5Reflectedmeaning　(反映意义) Whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpression. 6Collocativemeaning　(搭配意义) Whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithwordswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherword. 7Thematicmeaning　(主题意义) Whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis.1)Conceptualmeaning概念意义 =denotativemeaning(外延）/cognitivemeaningThecoreoftheory Therelationshipbetweenwordsandthethingstheyrefertowomen:[+HUMAN][+FEMALE][+ADULT] bull,cow,calf bull=[+BOVINE+MALE+ADULT] cow=[+BOVINE+FEMALE+ADULT] calf=[+BOVINE-ADULT]2)Connotativemeaning内涵意义 Thecommunicativevaluethatawordoracombinationofwordshas,overandaboveitsconceptualcontent. grin,beam,smile,andsmirk. slender,slim,thin,andskinny Woman:housewife,gentle,cry,emotionalfragile,weak,dependenthesitant Pig:fat,lazy,dirty,greedy,docile Examplesintextbook(p113)3)Socialmeaning社会意义 Socialmeaning:Whatiscommunicatedofthesocialcircumstancesoflanguageuse StylisticMeaning horse(common)steed(formal/poetic)nag(slang)gee(colloquial/childlanguage) 称谓：妻子，内人，爱人，夫人，媳妇，老婆，堂客，屋里的，孩子他妈，老伴儿，老婆子 Seeintextbook(p114)4)Affectivemeaning情感意义 SupposethatJohnSmith,happilymarriedtoMarySmith,addresseshiswifeas“MarySmith,howmanytimeshaveIaskedyounottoflipthroughtheTVchannels?”Therewouldbereasontolookbeyondthewordsforthe“meaning”ofthisunusualformofaddress. MarySmith,howmanytimesIaskedyounotto… Darling,howmanytimesIaskedyounotto… Honey,howmanytimesIaskedyounotto… Frustration,annoyance Thelevelofmeaningthatconveysthelanguageuser’sfeelings,includinghisattitudeorevaluationinshapinghisuseoflanguageiscalledaffectivemeaningoremotivemeaning.*Affectivemeaning=emotivemeaning Theattitudeandfeelingsofthespeaker/writerappreciative/commendatorymeaningprerogative/derogatorymeaninge.g.propagandapublicitypersistenceperseverancepoliticianandstatesman5)Reflectivemeaning反映意义 AssociationofanothersenseofthesameexpressionReflectiveMeaning 通过与同一个词的另一个意义的联想来传递的意义。(多义联想）E.g. Nuclearfamily Whiteelephant Goldlion Fangfang 立邦漆 Childish/womanish/boyish/ Childlike/womanly/manly 褒贬视语境而定： “sonofbitch”—crudevulgarity“讨厌”—friendliness,intimacy6.Collocativemeaning搭配意义 Associationwithwordswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherwordprettyvs.handsome clearconscience:withoutguilt clearcase:unmistakablewhiteelephant,whitelie（白)greenonthejob,greenfruit,greenwithenvy,green-eyedBelle,gilletteColorterms: MrBrownisaverywhiteman.Heislookingrathergreen.Buthehasbeenfeelingbluelately.WhenIsawhim,hewasinabrownstudy.Ihopehe’llsoonbeinthepinkagain.7)Thematicmeaning主题意义 Whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis说话者或写文章的人借助组织信息的方式（语序强调手段，信息焦点的安排）来传递的一种意义。 TwohooligansbeatXiaoMingyesterday. XiaoMingwasbeatenyesterday. IwenttotheGreatWalllastyear. LastyearIwenttotheGreatWall.*Receptedpronounciation,suchasbbseng,oxfordeng,queen’s/king’seng英格兰最南部的中上阶层口音为基础的GA:generalamerican以美国中部口音为基础的billclinton,hilaryclinton,bush就是很乡村的texas口音**