Nero-尼禄

NeroClaudiusCaesarAugustusGermanicusBustofNeroattheMuseiCapitolini,Rome5thEmperoroftheRomanEmpireReign13October54–9June68(13years)PredecessorClaudius,grand-uncle,stepfather,andadoptivefatherSuccessorGalbaBorn15December37Antium(modernAnzioandNettuno),ItalyDied9June68(aged30)OutsideRomeBurialMausoleumoftheDomitiiAhenobarbi,PincianHill,RomeSpouseClaudiaOctaviaPoppaeaSabinaStatiliaMessalinaSporusPythagoras(freedman)IssueClaudiaAugustaNeroNero(/ˈnɪəroʊ/;Latin:NerōClaudiusCaesarAugustusGermanicus;[i]15December37AD–9June68AD)wasthelastRomanemperoroftheJulio-Claudiandynasty.Hewasadoptedbyhisgreat-uncleClaudiusandbecameClaudius'heirandsuccessor.LikeClaudius,NerobecameemperorwiththeconsentofthePraetorianGuard.Nero'smother,AgrippinatheYounger,waslikelyimplicatedinClaudius'deathandNero'snominationasemperor.ShedominatedNero'searlylifeanddecisionsuntilhecastheroff.Fiveyearsintohisreign,hehadhermurdered.Duringtheearlyyearsofhisreign,Nerowascontenttobeguidedbyhismother,histutorLuciusAnnaeusSenecaandhisPraetorianprefect,SextusAfraniusBurrus.Astimepassed,hestartedtoplayamoreactiveandindependentroleingovernmentandforeignpolicy.Duringhisreign,theredoubtablegeneralCorbuloconductedasuccessfulwarandnegotiatedpeacewiththeParthianEmpire.HisgeneralSuetoniusPaulinuscrushedamajorrevoltinBritain,ledbytheIceniQueenBoudica.TheBosporanKingdomwasbrieflyannexedtotheempire,andtheFirstJewish–RomanWarbegan.[1]Nerofocusedmuchofhisattentionondiplomacy,tradeandtheculturallifeoftheempire,orderingtheatresbuiltandpromotingathleticgames.Hemadepublicappearancesasanactor,poet,musicianandcharioteer.Intheeyesoftraditionalists,thisunderminedthedignityandauthorityofhisperson,statusandofice.Hisextravagant,empire-wideprogramofpublicandprivateworkswasfundedbyariseintaxesthatwasmuchresentedbythemiddleandupperclasses.Variousplotsagainsthislifewererevealed;theringleaders,mostofthemNero'sowncourtiers,wereexecuted.In68ADVindex,governoroftheGaulishterritoryGalliaLugdunensis,rebelled.HewassupportedbyGalba,thegovernorofHispaniaTarraconensis.Vindex'srevoltfailedinitsimmediateaim,butNerofledRomewhenRome'sdiscontentedcivilandmilitaryauthoritieschoseGalbaasemperor.HecommittedsuicideonJune9,68A.D.,whenhelearnedthathehadbeentriedinabsentiaandcondemnedtodeathasapublicenemy,makinghimthefirstRomanEmperortocommitsuicide.[2]HisdeathendedtheJulio-Claudiandynasty,sparkingabriefperiodofcivilwarsknownastheYearoftheFourEmperors.Nero'sruleisusuallyassociatedwithtyrannyandextravagance.[3][4]MostRomansources,suchasSuetoniusandCassiusDio,offeroverwhelminglynegativeassessmentsofhispersonalityandreign;TacitusclaimsthattheRomanpeoplethoughthimcompulsiveandcorrupt.ManyRomansbelievedthattheGreatFireofRomewasinstigatedbyNerotoclearthewayforhisplannedpalatialcomplex,theDomusAurea.[5]HewassaidtohaveseizedChristiansasscapegoatsforthefireandburnedthemalive,seeminglymotivatednotbypublicjusticebutbypersonalcruelty.[6]SomemodernhistoriansquestionthereliabilityoftheancientsourcesonNero'styrannicalacts.[7]AfewsourcespaintNeroinamorefavourablelight.ThereisevidenceofhispopularityamongtheRomancommoners,especiallyintheeasternprovincesoftheEmpire,whereapopularFullnameLuciusDomitiusAhenobarbus(birthtoadoption)NeroClaudiusCaesarDrususGermanicus(adoptiontoaccession)NeroClaudiusCaesarAugustusGermanicus(imperialname)HouseJulio-ClaudiandynastyFatherGnaeusDomitiusAhenobarbusClaudius(adoptive)MotherAgrippinatheYoungerReligionRomanpaganismRomanimperialdynastiesJulio-ClaudiandynastyChronologyAugustus27BC–14ADTiberius14–37ADCaligula37–41ADClaudius41–54ADNero54–68ADFamilyGensJuliaGensClaudiaJulio-ClaudianfamilytreeCategory:Julio-ClaudiandynastySuccessionPrecededbyRomanRepublicFollowedbyYearoftheFourEmperorslegendarosethatNerohadnotdiedandwouldreturn.Atleastthreeleadersofshort-lived,failedrebellionspresentedthemselvesas"Neroreborn",toenlistpopularsupport.EarlylifeNero'sreign(54AD–68AD)EarlyreignMatricideDeclineGreatFireofRomeLateryearsTherevoltofVindexandGalbaandthedeathofNeroAfterNeroMilitaryconflictsBoudicca'suprisingPeacewithParthiaTheFirstJewishWarPursuitsHistoriographyNeroinJewishandChristiantraditionJewishtraditionChristiantraditionMartyrdomsofPeterandPaulTheAntichristAncestrySeealsoNotesReferencesBibliographyExternallinksLuciusDomitiusAhenobarbus,Nero,wasbornon15December37ADinAntium.[8][9]:87HewastheonlysonofGnaeusDomitiusAhenobarbusandAgrippinatheYounger.HismaternalgrandparentswereGermanicusandAgrippinatheElder.HismotherwasCaligula'ssister.[10]:5HewasAugustus'great-greatgrandson,descendedfromthefirstEmperor'sonlydaughterJulia.[11]:2TheancientbiographerSuetoniuswascriticalofNero'sancestors.HewrotethatAugustushadreproachedNero'sgrandfatherforhisunseemlyenjoymentofviolentgladiatorgames.Nero'sfatherwassaidtobe"irascibleandbrutal".AccordingtoJürgenMalitz,Suetoniuswrotethatboth"enjoyedchariotracesandtheaterperformancestoadegreenotbefittingtheirposition."[11]:3Nero'sfather,Domitius,diedin40AD.Afewyearsbeforehisdeath,Domitiushadbeeninvolvedinapoliticalscandalthat,accordingtoMalitz,"couldhavecosthimhislifeifTiberiushadnotdiedintheyear37."[11]:3Inthepreviousyear,39AD,Nero'smotherAgrippinahadbeencaughtupinascandalofherown.Caligula'sbelovedsisterDrusillahadrecentlydiedandCaligulabegantofeelContentsEarlylifethreatenedbyhisbrother-in-lawMarcusAemiliusLepidus.Agrippinawassuspectedofadulterywithherbrother-in-lawandwasforcedtocarrythefuneraryurnafterLepidus'execution.Caligulathenbanishedhistwosurvivingsisters,AgrippinaandJuliaLivilla,toaremoteislandintheMediterranean.[11]:4AccordingtoTheOxfordEncyclopediaofAncientGreeceandRome,AgrippinawasexiledforplottingtooverthrowCaligula.[8]Nero'sinheritancewastakenfromhimandhewassenttolivewithhispaternalauntDomitiaLepida,whowasthemotherofClaudius'thirdwifeValeriaMessalina.[12]:11Caligula'sshortreignlastedfrom37ADuntil41AD.[12]:11HediedfrommultiplestabwoundsinJanuaryof41ADafterbeingambushedbyhisownPraetorianGuardonthePalatine.[13]ClaudiussucceededCaligulaasEmperor.[13]AgrippinamarriedClaudiusin49ADandbecamehisfourthwife.[ii][8]ByFebruary49AD,shehadpersuadedClaudiustoadopthersonNero.[iii]AfterNero'sadoption,"Claudius"becamepartofhisname:NeroClaudiusCaesarDrususGermanicus.[iv][14]Claudiushadgoldcoinsissuedtomarktheadoption.[15]:119ClassicsprofessorJosiahOsgoodhaswrittenthat"thecoins,throughtheirdistributionandimageryalike,showedthatanewLeaderwasinthemaking."[16]:231DavidShotternotedthat,despiteeventsinRome,Nero'sstep-brotherBritannicuswasmoreprominentinprovincialcoinagesduringtheearly50s.[14]:52Neroofficiallyformallyenteredpubliclifeasanadultin51AD—hewasaround14yearsold.[14]:51Whenheturned16,NeromarriedClaudius'daughter(hisownstep-sister),ClaudiaOctavia.Betweentheyears51ADand53AD,hegaveseveralspeechesonbehalfofvariouscommunitiesincludingtheIlians;theApameans,requestingafive-yeartaxreprieveafteranearthquake;andthenortherncolonyofBologna,aftertheirsettlementsuferedadevastatingfire.[16]:231Claudiusdiedin54AD;manyancienthistoriansclaimthathewaspoisonedbyAgrippina.[17]Shotterhaswrittenthat"Claudius'deathin54ADhasusuallybeenregardedasaneventhastenedbyAgrippinabecauseofsignsthatClaudiuswasshowingarenewedaffectionforhisnaturalson,"buthenotesthatamongancientsourcesJosephuswasuniquelyreservedindescribingthepoisoningasarumor.[14]:53Contemporarysourcesdifferintheiraccounts.TacitussaysthatLocustapreparedthepoison,whichwasservedtotheEmperorbyhisfoodtasterHalotus.TacitusalsowritesthatAgrippinaarrangedforClaudius'doctorXenophontoadministerpoison,intheeventthattheEmperorsurvived.[14]:53Suetoniusdiffersinsomedetails,butalsoimplicatesHalotusandAgrippina.[v]LikeTacitus,CassiusDiowritesthatthepoisonwaspreparedbyLocusta,butinDio'saccountitisadministeredbyAgrippinainsteadofHalotus.InApocolocyntosis,SenecatheYoungerdoesnotmentionmushroomsatall.[14]:54Agrippina'sinvolvementinClaudius'deathisnotacceptedbyallmodernscholars.[19]:589BeforeClaudius'death,AgrippinahadmaneuveredtoremoveBritannicus'tutorsandreplacethemwithtutorsshehadselected.ShewasalsoabletoconvinceClaudiustoreplacewithasinglecommander,Burrus,twoprefectsofthePraetorianguardwhoweresuspectedofsupportingBrittanicus.[12]:13SinceAgrippinahadreplacedtheguardofficerswithmenloyaltoher,Nerowasabletoassumepowerwithoutincident.[8][20]:417MostofwhatweknowaboutNero'sreigncomesfromthreeancientwriters:Tacitus,Suetonius,andGreekhistorianCassiusDio.[21]:37Accordingtoancienthistorians,Nero'sconstructionprojectswereoverlyextravagantandthelargenumberofexpendituresunderNeroleftItaly"thoroughlyexhaustedbycontributionsofmoney"with"theprovincesruined."[22][23]Modernhistorians,though,notethattheperiodwasriddledwithdeflationandthatitislikelythatNero'sspendingcameintheformofpublic-worksprojectsandcharityintendedtoeaseeconomictroubles.[24]AnaureusofNeroandhismother,Agrippina,c.54CoinissuedunderClaudiuscelebratingyoungNeroasthefutureemperor,c.50Nero'sreign(54AD–68AD)Nerowassixteenyearsoldwhenhebecameemperorin54AD.ThismadehimtheyoungestsoleemperoruntilElagabalus,whobecameemperoraged14in218.[25]ThefirstfiveyearsofNero'sreignweredescribedasQuinquenniumNeronisbyTrajan;theinterpretationofthephraseisamatterofdisputeamongstscholars.[11]:17Nero'stutor,Seneca,preparedNero'sfirstspeechbeforetheSenate.Duringthisspeech,Nerospokeabout"eliminatingtheillsofthepreviousregime".[11]:16H.H.Scullardwritesthat"hepromisedtofollowtheAugustanmodelinhisprincipate,toendallsecrettrialsintracubiculum,tohavedonewiththecorruptionofcourtfavoritesandfreedman,andabovealltorespecttheprivilegesoftheSenateandindividualSenators."[26]:257HisrespectoftheSenatorialautonomy,whichdistinguishedhimfromCaligulaandClaudius,wasgenerallywellreceivedbytheRomanSenate.[11]:18ScullardwritesthatNero'smother,Agrippina,"meanttorulethroughherson."[26]:257Agrippinamurderedherpoliticalrivals:DomitiaLepida,theauntthatNerohadlivedwithduringAgrippina'sexile;M.IuniusSilanus,agreatgrandsonofAugustus;andNarcissus.[26]:257OneoftheearliestcoinsthatNeroissuesduringhisreignshowsAgrippinaonthecoin'sobverseside;usually,thiswouldbereservedforaportraitoftheemperor.TheSenatealsoallowedAgrippinatwolictorsduringpublicappearances,anhonorthatwascustomarilybestowedupononlymagistratesandtheVestalisMaxima.[11]:16InAD55,NeroremovedAgrippina'sallyMarcusAntoniusPallasfromhispositioninthetreasury.ShotterwritesthefollowingaboutAgrippina'sdeterioratingrelationshipwithNero:"WhatSenecaandBurrusprobablysawasrelativelyharmlessinNero—hisculturalpursuitsandhisaffairwiththeslavegirlActe—weretohersignsofherson'sdangerousemancipationofhimselffromherinfluence."[12]:12BritannicuswaspoisonedafterAgrippinathreatenedtosidewithhim.[12]:12Nero,whowashavinganaffairwithActe,[vi]exiledAgrippinafromthepalacewhenshebegantocultivatearelationshipwithhiswifeOctavia.[26]:257JürgenMalitzwritesthatancientsourcesdonotprovideanyclearevidencetoevaluatetheextentofNero'spersonalinvolvementinpoliticsduringthefirstyearsofhisreign.HedescribesthepoliciesthatareexplicitlyattributedtoNeroas"well-meantbutincompetentnotions"likeNero'sfailedinitiativetoabolishtaxesin58AD.ScholarsgenerallycreditNero'sadvisorsBurrusandSenecawiththeadministrativesuccessesoftheseyears.Malitzwritesthatinlateryears,Neropanickedwhenhehadtomakedecisionsonhisownduringtimesofcrisis.[11]:19TheOxfordEncyclopediaofAncientGreeceandRomecautiouslynotesthatNero'sreasonsforkillinghismotherin59ADare"notfullyunderstood."[8]AccordingtoTacitus,thesourceofconflictbetweenNeroandhismotherwasNero'saffairwithPoppaeaSabina.InHistoriesTacituswritesthattheaffairbeganwhilePoppaeawasstillmarriedtoRufriusCrispinus,butinhislaterworkAnnalsTacitussaysPoppaeawasmarriedtoOthowhentheaffairbegan.[10]:214InAnnalsTacituswritesthatAgrippinaopposedNero'saffairwithPoppaeabecauseofheraffectionforhiswifeOctavia.AnthonyBarrettwritesthatTacitus'accountinAnnals"suggeststhatPoppaea'schallengedrove[Nero]overthebrink."[10]:215AnumberofmodernhistorianshavenotedthatAgrippina'sdeathwouldnothaveofferedmuchadvantageforPoppaea,asNerodidnotmarryPoppaeauntil62AD.[27][10]:215BarrettwritesthatPoppaeaseemstoserveasa"literarydevice,utilized[byTacitus]because[he]couldseenoplausibleexplanationforNero'sconductandalsoincidentally[served]toshowthatNero,likeClaudius,hadfallenunderthemaligninfluenceofawoman."[10]:215AccordingtoSuetonius,NerohadhisformerfreedmanAnicetusarrangeashipwreck;Agrippinasurvivedthewreck,swamashoreandwasexecutedbyAnicetus,whoreportedherdeathasasuicide.[8][28]EarlyreignStatueofNeroasaboyMatricideCoinofNeroandPoppaeaSabinaModernscholarsbelievethatNero'sreignhadbeengoingwellintheyearsbeforeAgrippina'sdeath.AfterAgrippina'sexile,BurrusandSenecawereresponsiblefortheadministrationoftheEmpire.[26]:258However,Nero's"conductbecamefarmoreegregious"afterhismother'sdeath.[8]:22MiriamT.GriffinssuggeststhatNero'sdeclinebeganasearlyas55ADwiththemurderofhisstepbrotherBritannicus,butalsonotesthat"Nerolostallsenseofrightandwrongandlistenedtoflatterywithtotalcredulity"afterAgrippina'sdeath.[21]:84GriffinpointsoutthatTacitus"makesexplicitthesignificanceofAgrippina'sremovalforNero'sconduct".[21]:84[29]In62AD,Nero'sadviserBurrusdied.[8]ThatsameyearNerocalledforthefirsttreasontrialofhisreign(maiestastrial)againstAntistiusSosianus.[21]:53[30]HealsoexecutedhisrivalsCorneliusSullaandRubelliusPlautus.[11]JurgenMalitzconsidersthistobeaturningpointinNero'srelationshipwiththeRomanSenate.Malitzwritesthat"NeroabandonedtherestrainthehadpreviouslyshownbecausehebelievedacoursesupportingtheSenatepromisedtobelessandlessprofitable."[11]AfterBurrus'death,NeroappointedtwonewPraetorianPrefects:FaeniusRufusandOfoniusTigellinus.Politicallyisolated,Senecawasforcedtoretire.[26]:26AccordingtoTacitus,NerodivorcedOctaviaongroundsofinfertility,andbanishedher.[21]:99[31]AfterpublicprotestsoverOctavia'sexile,NeroaccusedherofadulterywithAnicetusandshewasexecuted.[21]:99[32]In64AD,NeromarriedPythagoras,afreedman.TheGreatFireofRomeeruptedonthenightof18Julyto19July,64AD.ThefirestartedontheslopeoftheAventineoverlookingtheCircusMaximus.[33][34]Tacitus,themainancientsourceforinformationaboutthefire,wrotethatcountlessmansions,residencesandtemplesweredestroyed.[33]TacitusandCassiusDiohavebothwrittenofextensivedamagetothePalatine,whichhasbeensupportedbysubsequentarchaeologicalexcavations.[35]Thefireisreportedtohaveburnedforoveraweek.[26]:260ItdestroyedthreeoffourteenRomandistrictsandseverelydamagedsevenmore.[26]:260[36]Tacituswrotethatsomeancientaccountsdescribedthefireasanaccident,whileothershadclaimedthatitwasaplotofNero's.TacitusistheonlysurvivingsourcewhichdoesnotblameNeroforstartingthefire;hesaysheis"unsure."PlinytheElder,SuetoniusandCassiusDioallwrotethatNerowasresponsibleforthefire.TheseaccountsgiveseveralreasonsforNero'sallegedarsonlikeNero'senvyofKingPriamandadislikeforthecity'sancientconstruction.SuetoniuswrotethatNerostartedthefirebecausehewantedthespacetobuildhisGoldenHouse.[37]TheGoldenHouse,alsocalledtheDomusAureaincludedlushartificiallandscapesanda30-meter-tallstatueofhimself,theColossusofNero.Thesizeofthiscomplexisdebated(from100to300acres).[38][39][40]TacituswrotethatNeroaccusedChristiansofstartingthefiretoremovesuspicionfromhimself.[41]Accordingtothisaccount,manyChristianswerearrestedandbrutallyexecutedby"beingthrowntothebeasts,crucified,andbeingburnedalive".[42]SuetoniusandCassiusDioallegedthatNerosangthe"SackofIlium"instagecostumewhilethecityburned.[43][44]ThepopularlegendthatNeroplayedthefiddlewhileRomeburned"isatleastpartlyaliteraryconstructofFlavianpropaganda[...]whichlookedaskanceontheabortiveNeronianattempttorewriteAugustanmodelsofrule."[15]:2DeclineGreatFireofRomeTheFireofRomebyHubertRobert(1785)CoinshowingNerodistributingcharitytoacitizen.c.64–66.AccordingtoTacitus,NerowasinAntiumduringthefire.Uponhearingnewsofthefire,NeroreturnedtoRometoorganizeareliefeffort,whichhepaidforfromhisownfunds.[45]Nero'scontributionstothereliefextendedtopersonallytakingpartinthesearchforandrescueofvictimsoftheblaze,spendingdayssearchingthedebriswithoutevenhisbodyguards.Afterthefire,Neroopenedhispalacestoprovideshelterforthehomeless,andarrangedforfoodsuppliestobedeliveredinordertopreventstarvationamongthesurvivors.[45]Inthewakeofthefire,hemadeanewurbandevelopmentplan.Housesbuiltafterthefirewerespacedout,builtinbrick,andfacedbyporticosonwideroads.[46]NeroalsobuiltanewpalacecomplexknownastheDomusAureainanareaclearedbythefire.Tofindthenecessaryfundsforthereconstruction,tributeswereimposedontheprovincesoftheempire.[47]ThecosttorebuildRomewasimmense,requiringfundsthestatetreasurydidnothave.NerodevaluedtheRomancurrencyforthefirsttimeintheEmpire'shistory.Hereducedtheweightofthedenariusfrom84perRomanpoundto96(3.85gramsto3.35grams).Healsoreducedthesilverpurityfrom99.5%to93.5%—thesilverweightdroppingfrom3.83gramsto3.4grams.Furthermore,Neroreducedtheweightoftheaureusfrom40perRomanpoundto45(8gramsto7.2grams).[48]In65AD,GaiusCalpurniusPiso,aRomanstatesman,organizedaconspiracyagainstNerowiththehelpofSubriusFlavusandSulpiciusAsper,atribuneandacenturionofthePraetorianGuard.[49]AccordingtoTacitus,manyconspiratorswishedto"rescuethestate"fromtheemperorandrestoretheRepublic.[50]ThefreedmanMilichusdiscoveredtheconspiracyandreportedittoNero'ssecretary,Epaphroditos.[51]Asaresult,theconspiracyfailedanditsmemberswereexecutedincludingLucan,thepoet.[52]Nero'spreviousadvisorSenecawasaccusedbyNatalis;hedeniedthechargesbutwasstillorderedtocommitsuicideasbythispointhehadfallenoutoffavorwithNero.[53]NerowassaidtohavekickedPoppaeatodeathin65AD,beforeshecouldhavehissecondchild.[54]Modernhistorians,notingtheprobablebiasesofSuetonius,Tacitus,andCassiusDio,andthelikelyabsenceofeyewitnessestosuchanevent,proposethatPoppaeamayhavediedaftermiscarriageorinchildbirth.[55]Nerowentintodeepmourning;Poppaeawasgivenasumptuousstatefuneral,divinehonors,andwaspromisedatempleforhercult.Ayear'simportationofincensewasburnedatthefuneral.Herbodywasnotcremated,aswouldhavebeenstrictlycustomary,butembalmedaftertheEgyptianmannerandentombed;itisnotknownwhere.[56]InMarch68,GaiusJuliusVindex,thegovernorofGalliaLugdunensis,rebelledagainstNero'staxpolicies.[57][58]LuciusVerginiusRufus,thegovernorofGermaniaSuperior,wasorderedtoputdownVindex'srebellion.[59]Inanattempttogainsupportfromoutsidehisownprovince,VindexcalleduponServiusSulpiciusGalba,thegovernorofHispaniaTarraconensis,tojointherebellionandfurther,todeclarehimselfemperorinoppositiontoNero.[60]AttheBattleofVesontioinMay68,Verginius'forceseasilydefeatedthoseofVindexandthelattercommittedsuicide.[59]However,afterputtingdownthisonerebel,Verginius'legionsattemptedtoproclaimtheirowncommanderasEmperor.VerginiusrefusedtoactagainstNero,butthediscontentofthelegionsofGermanyandthecontinuedoppositionofGalbainSpaindidnotbodewellforhim.WhileNerohadretainedsomecontrolofthesituation,supportforGalbaincreaseddespitehisbeingofficiallydeclaredapublicenemy('hostispublicus'[61]).TheprefectofthePraetorianGuard,GaiusNymphidiusSabinus,alsoabandonedhisallegiancetotheEmperorandcameoutinsupportforGalba.LateryearsNero,Sestertiuswithcountermark"X"ofLegioXGeminaNerocoin,c.66.AraPacisonthereverse.TherevoltofVindexandGalbaandthedeathofNeroInresponse,NerofledRomewiththeintentionofgoingtotheportofOstiaand,fromthere,totakeafleettooneofthestill-loyaleasternprovinces.AccordingtoSuetonius,Neroabandonedtheideawhensomearmyofficersopenlyrefusedtoobeyhiscommands,respondingwithalinefromVirgil'sAeneid:"Isitsodreadfulathingthentodie?"NerothentoyedwiththeideaoffleeingtoParthia,throwinghimselfuponthemercyofGalba,ortoappealtothepeopleandbegthemtopardonhimforhispastoffences"