非言语交际

Nonverbal communication is usually understood as the process of communication through sending and receiving wordless (mostly visual) messages - i.e., language is not the only source of communication, there are other means also. Messages can be communicated through gestures and touch (Haptic communication), by body language or posture, by facial expression and eye contact. Meaning can also be communicated through object or artifacts (such as clothing, hairstyles or architecture). Speech contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, rate, pitch, volume, and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Dance is also regarded as a form of nonverbal communication. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the physical layout of a page and removal of things. However, much of the study of nonverbal communication has focused on face-to-face interaction, where it can be classified into three principal areas: environmental conditions where communication takes place, the physical characteristics of the communicators, and behaviors of communicators during interaction.[1] “物品表现”是指日常生活中人们随身附带的或使用的物品传达着一定的信息或象征着特定的文化 服饰是物品表现的一个重要因素,“衣着和修饰可以反映一个人的性别、年龄、民族、社会经济地位、团体、职业、个性、爱好、价值观念”(毕继万,2004:62),它可以透露主人的修养和个性。服饰是捕捉信息的宝库,从中可以判断对方的文化水平、价值观、金钱观、家庭教养等,所以在日本文化中服饰交际起着重要的作用。 日本人的非语言交际之“物品表现” 说到日本人的衣着,一定要谈一谈他们的“国服”,即和服。据《后汉书·东夷传·倭》记载:“其衣横幅,但结束相连,略无缝。妇人被发屈紒,作衣如单被,穿其中央,贯头衣之。”这便是和服的雏形了。日本和服有着上千年的历史,如今和服仍是日本人的最爱。无论是在节日庆典、毕业典礼、婚礼、葬礼或是在庆祝儿童的“七五三”等重大场合之上,随处可见身着和服的人。他们所穿的和服的样式、花纹等向我们传达着这样的信息:(1)女性已婚或未婚。少女在正式场合的穿着是振袖,其意义类似我国早期的三寸金莲,意味着出身名门;而已婚妇女的衣袖则是短的留袖,以表示已婚妇女的身份。此外,后背部所打的结亦会因穿着者的婚姻状况而有不同的打法。例如:已婚妇女打“太鼓结”,而未婚女子则打“蝴蝶结”。(2)家族的象征,也是身份和社会地位的象征 Cultural Differences in Non-verbal Communication 1.General Appearance and Dress All cultures are concerned for how they look and make judgements based on looks and dress. Americans, for instance, appear almost obsessed with dress and personal attractiveness. Consider differing cultural standards on what is attractive in dress and on what constitutes modesty. Note ways dress is used as a sign of status? 2.Body Movement We send information on attitude toward person (facing or leaning towards another), emotional statue (tapping fingers, jiggling coins), and desire to control the environment (moving towards or away from a person). More than 700,000 possible motions we can make — so impossible to categorize them all! But just need to be aware the body movement and position is a key ingredient in sending messages. 3.Posture Consider the following actions and note cultural differences: o Bowing (not done, criticized, or affected in US; shows rank in Japan) o Slouching (rude in most Northern European areas) o Hands in pocket (disrespectful in Turkey) o Sitting with legs crossed (offensive in Ghana, Turkey) o Showing soles of feet. (Offensive in Thailand, Saudi Arabia) o Even in US, there is a gender difference on acceptable posture? 4.Gestures Impossible to catalog them all. But need to recognize: 1) incredible possibility and variety and 2) that an acceptable in one’s own culture may be offensive in another. In addition, amount of gesturing varies from culture to culture. Some cultures are animated; other restrained. Restrained cultures often feel animated cultures lack manners and overall restraint. Animated cultures often feel restrained cultures lack emotion or interest. Even simple things like using hands to point and count differ. Pointing : US with index finger; Germany with little finger; Japanese with entire hand (in fact most Asians consider pointing with index finger to be rude) Counting: Thumb = 1 in Germany, 5 in Japan, middle finger for 1 in Indonesia. 5.Facial Expressions While some say that facial expressions are identical, meaning attached to them differs. Majority opinion is that these do have similar meanings world-wide with respect to smiling, crying, or showing anger, sorrow, or disgust. However, the intensity varies from culture to culture. Note the following: o Many Asian cultures suppress facial expression as much as possible. o Many Mediterranean (Latino / Arabic) cultures exaggerate grief or sadness while most American men hide grief or sorrow. o Some see “animated” expressions as a sign of a lack of control. o Too much smiling is viewed in as a sign of shallowness. o Women smile more than men. 6.Eye Contact and Gaze In USA, eye contact indicates: degree of attention or interest, influences attitude change or persuasion, regulates interaction, communicates emotion, defines power and status, and has a central role in managing impressions of others. o Western cultures —see direct eye to eye contact as positive (advise children to look a person in the eyes). But within USA, African-Americans use more eye contact when talking and less when listening with reverse true for Anglo Americans. This is a possible cause for some sense of unease between races in US. A prolonged gaze is often seen as a sign of sexual interest. o Arabic cultures make prolonged eye-contact. —believe it shows interest and helps them understand truthfulness of the other person. (A person who doesn’t reciprocate is seen as untrustworthy) o Japan, Africa, Latin American, Caribbean —avoid eye contact to show respect. 7.Touch Question: Why do we touch, where do we touch, and what meanings do we assign when someone else touches us? Illustration: An African-American male goes into a convenience store recently taken over by new Korean immigrants. He gives a $20 bill for his purchase to Mrs Cho who is cashier and waits for his change. He is upset when his change is put down on the counter in front of him. What is the problem? Traditional Korean (and many other Asian countries) d on’t touch strangers., especially between members of the opposite sex. But the African-American sees this as another example of discrimination (not touching him because he is black). Basic answer: Touch is culturally determined! But each culture has a clear concept of what parts of the body one may not touch. Basic message of touch is to affect or control — protect, support, disapprove (i.e. hug, kiss, hit, kick). o USA —handshake is common (even for strangers), hugs, kisses for those of opposite gender or of family (usually) on an increasingly more intimate basis. Note differences between African-Americans and Anglos in USA. Most African Americans touch on greeting but are annoyed if touched on the head (good boy, good girl overtones). o Islamic and Hindu: typically don’t touch with the left hand. To do so is a social insult. Left hand is for toilet functions. Mannerly in India to break your bread only with your right hand (sometimes difficult for non-Indians) o Islamic cultures generally don’t ap prove of any touching between genders (even hand shakes). But consider such touching (including hand holding, hugs) between same-sex to be appropriate. o Many Asians don’t touch the head (Head houses the soul and a touch puts it in jeopardy). Basic patterns: Cultures (English , German, Scandinavian, Chinese, Japanese) with high emotional restraint concepts have little public touch; those which encourage emotion (Latino, Middle-East, Jewish) accept frequent touches. 3.Smell o USA —fear of offensive natural smells (billion dollar industry to mask objectionable odors with what is perceived to be pleasant ) — again connected with “attractiveness” concept. o Many other cultures consider natural body odors as normal (Arabic). o Asian cultures (Filipino, Malay, Indonesian, Thai, Indian) stress frequent bathing — and often criticize USA of not bathing often enough! 4.Paralanguage o vocal characterizers (laugh, cry, yell, moan, whine, belch, yawn). These send different messages in different cultures (Japan — giggling indicates embarrassment; India –belch indicates satisfaction) o vocal qualifiers (volume, pitch, rhythm, tempo, and tone). Loudness indicates strength in Arabic cultures and softness indicates weakness; indicates confidence and authority to the Germans,; indicates impoliteness to the Thais; indicates loss of control to the Japanese. (Generally, one learns not to “shout” in Asia for nearly any reason!). Gender based as well: women tend to speak higher and more softly than men. o vocal segregates (un-huh, shh, uh, ooh, mmmh, humm, eh, mah, lah). Segregates indicate formality, acceptance, assent, uncertainty.