Chapter 1 Invitation to Linguistics

nullChapter 1 Invitation to LinguisticsChapter 1 Invitation to LinguisticsWang Haibonull采用胡壮麟《语言学教程》为考研指定书目的院校有： 中国人民大学、北京大学、北京航空航天大学、北京邮电大学、北京林业大学、中国农业大学、北京师范大学、北京第二外国语学院、首都经济贸易大学、中国政法大学、中国矿业大学（北京）、中国石油大学（北京）、中国地质 大学（北京）、首都经济贸易大学、中国政法大学、南开大学、浙江大学、同济大学、上海交通大学、上海师范大学、上 海外国语大学、厦门大学、福州大学、中山大学、暨南大学、扬州大学、苏州大学、青岛大学、四川大学、电子科技大学、四川师范大学、四川外国语学院、西北大学、西安交通大学、西北工业大学、长安大学、西北农林科技大学等等。 上面这么多还只是一部分院校啊~~~1.1 Why Study Language?1.1 Why Study Language?Some of our most damaging racial, ethnic, and socio-economic prejudices are based on our linguistic ignorance and wrong ideas about language.nullSome myths about language: Myth 1. only a means of communication. Myth 2. a form-meaning correspondence. Myth 3. The function of language is to exchange information. Myth 4. English s more difficult to learn than Chinese. Myth 5. Black English is not standard and should be reformed. …… But these views are not so truthful.nullFundamental views: Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction. Language operates by rules. All language have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a system of semantics. Everyone speaks a dialect. Language slowly changes. Speakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set of jargons. Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals who use them. Writing is derivative of speech.nullLinguistics: How the brain works How damage to the brain results in certain kind of language disorders How children learn language How people learn and teach different languages What the relationship between meaning and perception is What the role of language is in different cultures Why people use different varieties of language Why there are linguistic differences between different groups How scientists make the computer work in a more human-like mannernull1.2 What is language?nullnullnullnull意义潜势nullnullnullnullnullnull[1] A. a human speech B. the ability to communicate by this means C. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sound to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression of communication of thoughts and feelings D. the written representation of such a system null[2] A. any means of expressing or communicating, as gestures, signs, or animal sounds B. a special set of symbols, letters, numerals, rules, etc. used for the transmission of information, as in a computer. Webster’s New World DictionarynullMultimodal discourse: Five modes of meaning-making: Linguistic, visual, gestural, spatial, audio All texts are multimodal: Words and images are organized on a page to created a newspaper article Images, sounds, and gestures are integrated to create a a play or television program Words are spoken in a soft voice or typed in a small font to convey a particular meaning A photograph is tightly framed to create a feeling of confinementnullBarest definition: Language is a means of verbal communication. Instrumental: communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act Social and conventional: language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language learning and use are determined by the intervention of biological, cognitive, psycho-social, and environmental factors. Language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.nullnullnull1.3 Design Features of Language1.3 Design Features of Language本质、区别性、定义特征nullnullnullnullnullSpecies like birds and bees communicate by singing or dancing, in order to mate, propagate and cooperate in their colonies. But it is not language. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.1 ArbitrarinessSaussure: Course of General Linguistics: 67nullSaussure: Course of General Linguistics: 68nullSaussure: Course of General Linguistics: 68nullnullSaussure: Course of General Linguistics: 69nullnullSaussure: Course of General Linguistics: 73Saussure: Course of General Linguistics: 74nullNo natural relationship between forms of linguistic signs and their meaning Mesa, table, zhuozi, tsukue Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme an its meaning null[`bEuwau]nullArbitrariness at the syntactic level: not arbitrary at the syntactic level nullArbitrariness and convention 1.3.2 Duality1.3.2 DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. (Lyons, 1981: 20)nullnullnullCf: animals’ special calls which have meanings but cannot be further divided into meaningless elements. So animal communicating systems do not have DUALITY.Higher level Lower/basic levelnullLanguage is hierarchical: Infinite use of finite meansTens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds.1.3.3 Creativity1.3.3 CreativityProductivity, ResourcefulnessnullThe man (who kicked the ball) scored the goal (that won the game). I know that you know that I know.This cat is brought home by my mother who works in a shoes factory beside which there is an amusement park that was built in 2008 we held the Olympic Games…null语言递归的类型： 并列关系 (1)John is a singer and Mary is a doctor. (2) “I am hungry,” said Mary.  (3)Mary is a doctor and John is a singer.  (4) Mary said,” I am hungry. ”  (5) Tom said, “Mary said: ‘I am hungry.’ ” 尽管是Mary说的I am hungry，但是由于Tom直接引用了Mary的话，所以就认为Tom也说了I am hungry这句话。 从属关系 (6) Mary wanted to have a rest because she was hungry. (7) Smith said that Tom knew that Elizabeth claimed that Anne believe that…that she is a PhD student. nullnull(9) 句子层面的并列递归： The man stirred the stew; the woman chopped the beef; the girl beat the eggs.  句子层面的从属递归： 你又不是我，你怎么知道我不知道你不知道我不知道…鱼的快乐。 null(10)语篇层面的并列递归：比如提问(Q)—回答(A)形式的并列递归     医生：姓名？     患者：张三。     医生：年龄？     患者：23。 医生：哪里不舒服？ 患者：发烧，嗓子疼。    语篇层面的从属递归：比如这段对话呈Q1(Q2(Q3…(Qn-An)…A3)A2)A1     A:晚上可以参加我的生日会吗？     B：我可以带上我的一个朋友吗？     A：男的女的？     B：有什么关系吗？     A：好奇。     B：女的。     A：好吧，带来，人多热闹。     B：我会准时到的。 nullnull1.3.4 Displacement1.3.4 DisplacementHuman languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in tie and space) at the moment of communication. Animal cries Human language Stimulus-present Stimulus-freePower to handle generalizations and abstractions. Words often used with a deference and referential application. Concepts of “non-things”, such as truth and beauty. Enable us to talk and think in abstract things.nullnullnull1.3.5 Cultural Transmission1.3.5 Cultural TransmissionOr Traditional transmission1.3.6 Interchangeability (互换性)1.3.6 Interchangeability (互换性)Refers to the idea that people can give and receive identical linguistic signals. We are not limited in the types of messages we can say/hear. You can say "I am a boy," even if you are a girl. This is not to be confused with lying (prevarication). The importance is that we can physically create any and all messages regardless of their truth or relation to ourselves. In other words, anything that we can hear we can also say. Not all species possess this feature. For example, in order to communicate their status, queen ants produce chemical scents that no other ants can produce (see animal communication below).1.3.7 Vocal-auditory channel 1.3.7 Vocal-auditory channel Refers to the idea that speaking/hearing is the mode humans use for language. When Hockket first defined this feature, it did not take sign language into account, which reflects the ideology of orality that was prevalent during the time. This feature has been modified to include other channels of language, such as tactile-visual or chemical-olfactory.1.3.8 Broadcast transmission and directional reception1.3.8 Broadcast transmission and directional receptionWhen humans speak, sounds are transmitted in all directions; however, listeners perceive the direction from which the sounds are coming. Similarly, signers broadcast to potentially anyone within the line of sight, while those watching see who is signing. This is characteristic of most forms of human and animal communication.1.3.9 Transitoriness1.3.9 TransitorinessAlso called rapid fading, transitoriness refers to the idea of temporary quality of language. Language sounds exist for only a brief period of time, after which they are no longer perceived. Sound waves quickly disappear once a speaker stops speaking. This is also true of signs. In contrast, other forms of communication such as writing and Inka khipus (knot-tying) are more permanent.1.3.10 Total feedback1.3.10 Total feedbackSpeakers of a language can hear their own speech and can control and modify what they are saying as they say it. Similarly, signers see, feel and control their signing. 1.3.11 Total feedback1.3.11 Total feedback Speakers of a language can hear their own speech and can control and modify what they are saying as they say it. Similarly, signers see, feel and control their signing.1.3.12 Specialization1.3.12 Specialization The purpose of linguistic signals is communication and not some other biological function. When we speak or sign, it is generally intentional. An example of non-specialized communication is dog panting. When a dog pants, it often communicates to its owner that it is hot or thirsty; however, the dog pants in order to cool itself off. This is a biological function and the communication is a secondary matter. 1.3.13Semanticity1.3.13Semanticity Specific sound signals are directly tied to certain meanings.1.3.14 Prevarication1.3.14 Prevarication Prevarication is the ability to lie or deceive. When using human language, we can make false or meaningless statements.1.3.15Reflexiveness1.3.15Reflexiveness We can use language to talk about language.1.3.15 Learnability1.3.15 Learnability Language is teachable and learnable. Just as we learn our first language, we are able to learn other languages. It is worth noting that young children learn language with competence and ease; however, language acquisition becomes more difficult once children pass a certain age.1.3.16 Duality of patterning1.3.16 Duality of patterning -- This means that the discrete parts of a language can be recombined in a systematic way to create new forms. This idea is similar to Productivity (Feature 11). However, Productivity refers to the ability to generate novel meanings, while Duality of patterning refers to the ability to recombine small units in different orders.null1.4 Origin lf Language1.4 Origin lf LanguageGreek Ἐν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ Λόγος, καὶ ὁ Λόγος ἦν πρὸς τὸν Θεόν, καὶ Θεός ἦν ὁ Λόγος. Greek transliteration En archē ēn ho Lógos, kai ho Lógos ēn pros ton Theón, kai Theós ēn ho Lógos. Greek to English In beginning was the Word, and the Word was with (toward) the God, and God was the Word. alternate Greek (beginning: original, foundation, source, principle) (Word: reason, saying) (with: toward, facing)nullLatin Vulgate In principio erat Verbum et Verbum erat apud Deum et Deus erat Verbum Latin to English In beginning was Word and Word was beside (alongside) God and God was Word. alternate Latin (beside: by, alongside, near, next to)null1864 “the LOGOS was God, This was in the Beginning with God” A New Emphatic Version 1867 “In the beginning was the gospel preached through the Son. And the gospel was the word, and the word was with the Son, and the Son was with God, and the Son was of God” - The Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible. 1935 “and the Word was divine” - The Bible—An American Translation, by John M. P. Smith and Edgar J. Goodspeed, Chicago. 1955 “so the Word was divine” - The Authentic New Testament, by Hugh J. Schonfield, Aberdeen. 1978 “and godlike sort was the Logos” - Das Evangelium nach Johannes, by Johannes Schneider, Berlin. 1962, 1979 "'the word was God.' Or, more literally, 'God was the word.'" The Four Gospels and the Revelation (R. Lattimore, 1979) 1970, 1989 The Revised English Bible reads: "...and what God was, the Word was." 1975 "and a god (or, of a divine kind) was the Word" Das Evangelium nach Johnnes, by Siegfried Schulz, Göttingen, GermanynullIn the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. (John 1:1 King James Bible and American Standard Version) From the first he was the Word, and the Word was in relation with God and was God. (John 1:1 Basic English Bible and Darby Bible) nullAnd the LORD said, “Behold, they are one people, and they have all one language, and this is only the beginning of what they will do. And nothing that they propose to do will now be impossible for them. (Genesis 11:6)nullThe “bow-wow” theory Imitation of sounds of animal calls The “Pooh-pooh” theory Instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy The “yo-he-yo” theory While working together, rhythmic grunts chants  language Language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contexts.1.5 Functions of Language1.5 Functions of LanguageJakobson. Linguistics and Poetics. 1960null(Halliday 1994)1.5.1 Informative (Ideational)1.5.1 Informative (Ideational)Major role of language Language: instrument of thought, record facts, the expression of content (speaker’s real world and inner world of consciousness). Language: gives structure to experience, helps to determine our way of looking at things1.5.2 Interpersonal1.5.2 InterpersonalSociological use of language, by which to establish and maintain their status in societynullnull1.5.3 Performative1.5.3 PerformativeAustin and Searle To change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. Language formal and even ritualized The control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions Sui sui ping’an as a means of controlling the invisible forces which might affect their lives adversely1.5.4 Emotive1.5.4 EmotiveCrucial in changing the emotive status of an audience for or against somebody or something. A means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress, e. g. swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to a piece of art or scenery; conventional words/phrases, e.g. God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Oh. Expressive function: often entirely personal or totally without any implication of communication to others. Ouch! Damn! Man! Oh boy! Hurrah!1.5.5 Phatic1.5.5 PhaticMalinowsky’s study of functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders Social interaction of language Mrs. P sneezes violently. Mrs. Q: Bless you. Mrs. P: Thank you. Small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content. Ritual exchanges about health or weather Good morning. God bless you, Nice day To indicate that a channel of communication is opened Different cultures have different topics of phatic communion Rundy women (in Burundi, Central Africa), upon leaving, routinely and politely say “I must go home now, or my husband will beat me.” Expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slang, jokes, jargon, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects.1.5.6 Recreational1.5.6 RecreationalA baby’s babbling, a chanter’s chanting. Verbal dueling in Latin and Islamic worlds and some areas of China (dui ge, or song dueling, in Liu San Jie), moro-moro drama in the Phils. Children’s repetitive, rhythmic and nonsensical lyrics to control their game Poetry writing for sheer beauty of language 1.5.7 Metalingual1.5.7 MetalingualOur language can be used to talk about itself. “The word book” to talk about the sign “book” itself. The change in linear order changes our perspective about the concerns of the clause. This makes the language infinitively self-reflexive: We, as human beings, talk about talk and think about thinking, we ask what it means to communicate, to think, to be human.1.6 What Is Linguistics?1.6 What Is Linguistics?The scientific study of language, or the s science of language Studies of practical importance: speech therapy, education, translation, many more applied concerns. Qualitative and quantitative research1.7 Main Branches of Linguistics1.7 Main Branches of LinguisticsFive parameters of linguistics: Phonological Morphological Syntactic Semantic PragmaticPhonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics pragmatics1.7.1 Phonetics1.7.1 PhoneticsStudies speech sounds The production of speech How speech sounds are actually made, transmitted or received The description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech Various approach levels: A matter of anatomy and physiology: organs such as tongue, larynx and their functions Articulatory phonetics: identifying and classifying the individual sounds—the focus of this coursebook Acoustic phonetics: property of sound waves Auditory phonetics: how a listener analyses or processes a sound wave 1.7.2 Phonology1.7.2 PhonologyStudies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. Deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. Phoneme: smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. /p/, /b/, /m/ Phonetics: study of speech sounds that human voice is capable of creating. Focuses on chaos. Phonology: the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning. Focuses on order.1.7.3 Morphology1.7.3 MorphologyConcerned with internal organization of words. Studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes. Many words can be broken down into still smaller units called morphemes. Morphemes serve different purposes: Derive new words by changing the meaning or the part of speech Refine and give extra grammatical information about the already existing meaning of a word Morphemes are pairing of sounds with meanings  morphophology Languages differ in their degrees of dependence on the morphological components. Latin: meaning is changed through the use of many morphological endings English: word order is used more than morphological additions.1.7.4 Syntax1.7.4 SyntaxAbout principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences. Form of structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax. These rules specify word order, sentence organization, and the relationships between words, word classes and other sentence elements.nullThe children watched [the firework from the hill].The children watched [the firework] [from the hill].SVOSVOAnull深层结构不同： The chicken is [too hot to eat]. 表示鸡肉太烫了而不能吃。 The chicken is too hot that someone can’t eat the chicken. The chicken is [too hot] [to eat]. 鸡感到太热而不吃东西。 The  chicken is too hot that the chicken can t eat anything. 1.7.5 Semantics1.7.5 SemanticsExamines how meaning is encoded in a language. Levels: Meanings of sentences Meanings of words (lexical items) Meanings of morphemes Key concepts: Semantic components Denotation of words Sense relations between words such as: antonymy and synonymy Sense relations between sentences such as: Entailment (蕴涵) and presupposition (预设)1.7.6 Pragmatics1.7.6 PragmaticsThe study of meaning in context. Concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is internally structured. Regards speech performance as primarily a social act ruled by various social conventions. Key concepts: Reference, force, effect, cooperative principles Pragmatic rules governing conversational interactions: Sequential organization, repair of errors, role and speech acts Organization of conversations: Taking turns, opening, maintaining and closing a conversation, establishing and maintaining a topic, etc.1.8 Macrolinguistics1.8 MacrolinguisticsDe Saussure’s goal of establishing the autonomy