庙妓Sacred_prostitution

SacredprostitutionSacredprostitution,templeprostitution,cultprostitution,[1]andreligiousprostitutionaregeneraltermsforasexualritualconsistingofsexualintercourseorothersexualactivityperformedinthecontextofreligiousworship,perhapsasaformoffertilityriteordivinemarriage(hierosgamos).Somescholarspreferthetermsacredsextosacredprostitutionincaseswherepaymentforserviceswasnotinvolved.AncientNearEastSacredmarriageCodeofHammurabiHebrewBibleSumerHittitesAncientGreeceandHellenisticWorldAncientGreeceHellenisticWorldAncientRomeandLateAntiquityAncientRomeLateAntiquityAsiaIndiaIslamMesoamericaandSouthAmericaRecentWesternoccurrencesSeealsoReferencesFurtherreadingExternallinksAncientNearEasternsocietiesalongtheTigrisandEuphratesriversfeaturedmanyshrinesandtemplesorhousesofheavendedicatedtovariousdeities.The5th-centuryBChistorianHerodotus'saccountandsomeothertestimonyfromtheHellenisticPeriodandLateAntiquitysuggestthatancientsocietiesencouragedthepracticeofsacredsexualritesnotonlyinBabyloniaandCyprus,butthroughouttheNearEast.AccordingtoHerodotus,theritesperformedatthesetemplesincludedsexualintercourse,orwhatscholarslatercalledsacredsexualrites:ThefoulestBabyloniancustomisthatwhichcompelseverywomanofthelandtositinthetempleofAphroditeandhaveintercoursewithsomestrangeratleastonceinherlife.Manywomenwhoarerichandproudanddisdaintominglewiththerest,drivetothetempleincoveredcarriagesdrawnbyteams,andstandtherewithagreatretinueofattendants.ButContentsAncientNearEastmostsitdowninthesacredplotofAphrodite,withcrownsofcordontheirheads;thereisagreatmultitudeofwomencomingandgoing;passagesmarkedbylineruneverywaythroughthecrowd,bywhichthemenpassandmaketheirchoice.Onceawomanhastakenherplacethere,shedoesnotgoawaytoherhomebeforesomestrangerhascastmoneyintoherlap,andhadintercoursewithheroutsidethetemple;butwhilehecaststhemoney,hemustsay,“IinviteyouinthenameofMylitta”.Itdoesnotmatterwhatsumthemoneyis;thewomanwillneverrefuse,forthatwouldbeasin,themoneybeingbythisactmadesacred.Soshefollowsthefirstmanwhocastsitandrejectsnoone.Aftertheirintercourse,havingdischargedhersacreddutytothegoddess,shegoesawaytoherhome;andthereafterthereisnobribehowevergreatthatwillgether.Sothenthewomenthatarefairandtallaresoonfreetodepart,buttheuncomelyhavelongtowaitbecausetheycannotfulfilthelaw;forsomeofthemremainforthreeyears,orfour.ThereisacustomlikethisinsomepartsofCyprus.[2]TheBritishanthropologistJamesFrazeraccumulatedcitationstoprovethisinachapterofhismagnumopusTheGoldenBough(1890–1915),[3]andthishasservedasastartingpointforseveralgenerationsofscholars.FrazerandHenriquesdistinguishedtwomajorformsofsacredsexualrites:temporaryriteofunwedgirls(withvariantssuchasdowry-sexualrite,oraspublicdeflorationofabride),andlifelongsexualrite.[4]However,FrazertookhissourcesmostlyfromauthorsofLateAntiquity(i.e.150–500AD),notfromtheClassicalorHellenisticperiods.[5]Thisraisesquestionsastowhetherthephenomenonoftemplesexualritescanbegeneralizedtothewholeoftheancientworld,asearlierscholarstypicallydid.TheresearchofDanielArnaud,VincianePirenne-Delforge,JuliaAssante,StephanieBudin[6]andothershascastthewholetraditionofscholarshipthatdefinedtheconceptofsacredprostitutionintodoubt.Budinregardstheconceptofsacredprostitutionasamyth—arguingthatthepracticesdescribedinthesourcessimplyneverexisted.Amorenuancedview,espousedbyPirenne-Delforge,suggeststhatritualsexdidexistintheNearEast,butnotintheGreekorRomanworldsinclassicalorHellenistictimes.[6]ThepracticeofsacredprostitutionhasnotbeensubstantiatedinanyAncientNearEasterncultures,despitemanypopulardescriptionsofthehabit.[7]Throughthetwentiethcentury,scholarsgenerallybelievedthataformofsacredmarriageritualorhierosgamoswasstagedbetweenthekingofaSumeriancity-stateandtheHighPriestessofInanna,theSumeriangoddessofsexuallove,fertility,andwarfare,butnocertainevidencehassurvivedtoprovethatsexualintercoursewasincluded.AlongtheTigrisandEuphratesriverstherewasatempleofEanna,meaninghouseofheaven[8]dedicatedtoInannaintheEannaDistrictofUruk.[9]WhiletheremaywellhavebeensomereligiousprostitutioninthetemplesofInanna/Ishtar,Assantesuggeststheconceptofthe'sacredmarriage'(hierosgamos)hasbeenmisunderstood.ItwaspreviouslybelievedtohavebeenacustomwherebythekingcoupledwiththehighpriestesstorepresenttheunionofDumuzidwithInanna(latercalledIshtar).[10]It'smuchmorelikelythattheseunionsneveroccurredbutwereembellishmentstotheimageoftheking;hymnswhichpraiseMiddleEasternkingsforcouplingwiththegoddessIshtaroftenspeakofhimasrunning320kilometres,offeringsacrifices,feastingwiththesun-godUtu,andreceivingaroyalcrownfromAn,allinasingleday.Onescholarcomments:"Noone,tothebestofmyknowledge,hasbeensowooden-mindedtoproposethathumanactorsplayedtheroleofUtuandAnatthebanquet".[11]Notallauthorsareconvinced,however.[10]Othermodernhistoriansarguethatthetempledidhousepriestessesofthegoddess,butthereisnoevidencethattheyperformedanykindofsexualservicesinanycult.[12][13][14][15]Inanna/IshtardepictedwearingtheceremonialheaddressofthehighpriestessSacredmarriageCodeofHammurabiInHammurabi'scodeoflaws,therightsandgoodnameoffemalesacredsexualpriestesseswereprotected.Thesamelegislationthatprotectedmarriedwomenfromslanderappliedtothemandtheirchildren.Theycouldinheritpropertyfromtheirfathers,collectincomefromlandworkedbytheirbrothers,anddisposeofproperty.Theserightshavebeendescribedasextraordinary,takingintoaccounttheroleofwomenatthetime.[16]TheHebrewBibleusestwodifferentwordsforprostitute,zonah(18][17](זנה]andkedeshah(orqedesha)(20][19].(קדשה]Thewordzonahsimplymeantanordinaryprostituteorloosewoman.[18]Butthewordkedeshahliterallymeansconsecrated(feminineform),fromtheSemiticrootq-d-sh(קדש)meaningholyorsetapart.[19]InspiteoftheculticsignificanceofakedeshahtoafolloweroftheCanaanitereligion,theHebrewBiblemakesitclearthatculticprostitutionhadnoplaceinIsraeliteorJudahitereligion.ThustheHebrewversionofDeuteronomy23:17-18tellsfollowers:NoneofthedaughtersofIsraelshallbeakedeshah,norshallanyofthesonsofIsraelbeakadesh.Youshallnotbringthehireofaprostitute(zonah)orthewagesofadog(kelev)intothehouseoftheLordyourGodtopayavow,forbothoftheseareanabominationtotheLordyourGod.StephenO.Murraywritesthatbiblicalpassagesbanqdeshimandlinkthemwithgodsand"formsofworshipdetestedbyorthodoxfollowersofYahweh".[21]CeliaBrewerSinclairhaswrittenthat"theethicaldemandsofthecovenantprecludeworshipingYahwehinlicentioussexualrites(sacredsexualrites)".[22]Malepriestswhoengagedinsame-sexsacredprostitutionwerecalledkadeshorqadesh(literally:maleholyone);thewordevolvedsemanticallyinancientHebrewtotakeonasimilarmeaningtosodomite.[23]TheHebrewwordkelev(dog)inthenextlinemayalsosignifyamaledancerorprostitute.[24]Somescholarsseetheinjunctionsagainstforeignworship,includingmalesacredprostitution,aspossiblytheoriginalcauseofwhatwouldlaterbecomeJudaism'scondemnationofsexualcontactbetweenmen.[23]However,therearemultipleexamplesofcondemnationandinstructionsagainstmalesame-sexintercourse(e.g.,SodomandGomorrah,Leviticus20:13)intheTorahthatpredateJudaism.IntheBookofEzekiel,OholahandOholibahappearastheallegoricalbridesofGodwhorepresentSamariaandJerusalem.TheybecameprostitutesinEgypt,engaginginprostitutionfromtheiryouth.Ezekielcondemnsbothasguiltyofreligiousandpoliticalalliancewithheathennations.[25]AccordingtothenotedAssyriologistSamuelNoahKramer,kingsintheancientNearEasternregionofSumerestablishedtheirlegitimacybytakingpartinaritualsexualactinthetempleofthefertilitygoddessIshtareveryyearonthetenthdayoftheNewYearfestivalAkitu.[26]TheHittitespracticedsacredprostitutionaspartofacultofdeities,includingtheworshipofamatedpairofdeities,abullgodandaliongoddess,whileinlaterdaysitwasthemother-goddesswhobecameprominent,representingfertility,and(inPhoenicia)thegoddesswhopresidedoverhumanbirth.[27]InancientGreece,sacredprostitutionwasknowninthecityofCorinthwherethetempleofAphroditeemployedasignificantnumberoffemaleservants,hetairai,duringclassicalantiquity.[28]HebrewBibleSumerHittitesAncientGreeceandHellenisticWorldAncientGreeceTheGreektermhierodoulosorhierodulehassometimesbeentakentomeansacredholywoman,butitismorelikelytorefertoaformerslavefreedfromslaveryinordertobededicatedtoagod.[6]IntheGreek-influencedandcolonizedworld,"sacredprostitution"wasknowninCyprus(Greek-settledsince1100BC),Sicily(Hellenizedsince750BC),intheKingdomofPontus(8thcenturyBC)andinCappadocia(c.330BChellenized).TheRomanemperorConstantinecloseddownanumberoftemplestoVenusorsimilardeitiesinthe4thcenturyAD,astheChristianchurchhistorianEusebiusproudlynoted.[29]EusebiusalsoclaimedthatthePhoeniciancitiesofAphacaandHeliopolis(Baalbek)continuedtopractisetempleprostitutionuntiltheemperorConstantineputanendtotheriteinthe4thcenturyAD.[29]InSouthernIndiaandtheeasternIndianstateofOdisha,devadasiisthepracticeofhierodulicprostitution,withsimilarcustomaryformssuchasbasavi,[30]andinvolvesdedicatingpre-pubescentandyoungadolescentgirlsfromvillagesinaritualmarriagetoadeityoratemple,whothenworkinthetempleandfunctionasspiritualguides,dancers,andprostitutesservicingmaledevoteesinthetemple.HumanRightsWatchreportsclaimthatdevadasisareforcedintothisserviceand,atleastinsomecases,topracticeprostitutionforupper-castemembers.[31]ManyscholarsmaintainthatthedevadasisystemisnotdescribedintheholyscripturesofHinduismasthescripturesdonotrefertoanyformofsacredprostitutionortemplegirls.[32]Whetherthedevadasigirlsengagedinsexualservicesisdebated,however,astemplevisitorstouchingorspeakingtothegirlswasconsideredanoffence.[32]VariousstategovernmentsinIndiaenactedlawstobanthispracticebothpriortoIndia'sindependenceandmorerecently.TheyincludeBombayDevdasiAct,1934,Devdasi(Preventionofdedication)MadrasAct,1947,KarnatakaDevdasi(Prohibitionofdedication)Act,1982,andAndhraPradeshDevdasi(Prohibitionofdedication)Act,1988.[33]However,thetraditioncontinuesincertainregionsofIndia,particularlythestatesofKarnatakaandAndhraPradesh.[34]SexualslaveryasconcubinageinIslamicsexualjurisprudenceispermittedinIslamwhichwasnotconsideredprostitution,andwasverycommonduringtheArabslavetradethroughouttheMiddleAgesandearlymodernperiod,whenwomenandgirlsfromtheCaucasus,Africa,CentralAsiaandEuropewerecapturedandservedasconcubinesintheharemsoftheArabWorld.[35]IbnBattutatellsusseveraltimesthathewasgivenorpurchasedfemaleslaves.[36]ConcubinageinIslamispermitted."Concubine"(surriyya)referstothefemaleslave(jāriya),whetherMuslimornon-Muslim,withwhomhermasterengagesinsexualintercourse.Theword"surriyya"isnotmentionedintheQur'an.However,theexpression"Mamalakataymanukum"(thatwhichyourrighthandsown),whichoccursfifteentimesinthesacredbook,referstoslavesandtherefore,thoughnotnecessarily,toconcubines.Concubinagewasapre-IslamiccustomthatwasallowedtobepracticedunderIslamwithJewsandnon-Muslimpeopletomarryconcubineafterteachingherandinstructingherwellandthengivingthemfreedom.[37]RationalegivenforrecognitionofconcubinageinIslamisthat"itsatisfiedthesexualdesireofthefemaleslavesandtherebypreventedthespreadofimmoralityintheMuslimcommunity."[38]MostschoolsrestrictconcubinagetoarelationshipwherethefemaleslaveisHellenisticWorldAncientRomeandLateAntiquityAncientRomeLateAntiquityAsiaIndiaIslamrequiredtobemonogamoustohermaster[39](thoughthemaster'smonogamytoherisnotrequired),butaccordingtoSikainga,"inreality,however,femaleslavesinmanyMuslimsocietieswerepreyfor[male]membersoftheirowners'household,their[owner'smale]neighbors,andtheir[owner'smale]guests."[38]AccordingtoShiaMuslims,MuhammadsanctionedNikahmut‘ah(fixed-termmarriage,calledmuta'ainIraqandsighehinIran)whichhasinsteadbeenusedasalegitimizingcoverforsexworkers,inaculturewhereprostitutionisotherwiseforbidden.[40]SomeWesternwritershavearguedthatmut'ahapproximatesprostitution.[41]JulieParshallwritesthatmut'ahislegalisedprostitutionwhichhasbeensanctionedbytheTwelverShiaauthorities.ShequotestheOxfordencyclopediaofmodernIslamicworldtodifferentiatebetweenmarriage(nikah)andMut'ah,andstatesthatwhilenikahisforprocreation,mut'ahisjustforsexualgratification.[42]AccordingtoZeynoBaran,thiskindoftemporarymarriageprovidesShi'itemenwithareligiouslysanctionedequivalenttoprostitution.[43]AccordingtoElenaAndreeva'sobservationpublishedin2007,RussiantravellerstoIranconsidermut'ahtobe"legalizedprofligacy"whichisindistinguishablefromprostitution.[44]Religioussupportersofmut'aharguethattemporarymarriageisdifferentfromprostitutionforacoupleofreasons,includingthenecessityofiddahincasethecouplehavesexualintercourse.Itmeansthatifawomanmarriesamaninthiswayandhassex,shehastowaitforanumberofmonthsbeforemarryingagainandtherefore,awomancannotmarrymorethan3or4timesinayear.[45][46][47][48][49][50]TheMayamaintainedseveralphallicreligiouscults,possiblyinvolvinghomosexualtempleprostitution.[51][52]TheAztecgodXochipili(takenfrombothToltecandMayacultures)wasboththepatronofhomosexualsandhomosexualprostitutes.[52][53][54][55]TheIncasometimesdedicatedyoungboysastempleprostitutes.Theboysweredressedingirl'sclothing,andchiefsandheadmenwouldhaveritualhomosexualintercoursewiththemduringreligiousceremoniesandonholidays.[56][57]Xochiquetzalwasworshipedasgoddessofsexualpower,patronessofprostitutesandartisansinvolvedinthemanufactureofluxuryitems.[58]Theconquistadoreswerehorrifiedbythewidespreadacceptanceofhomosexuality,ephebophilia,pederasty,andpedophiliaamongMesoamericanandSouthAmericanpeoples,andusedtorture,burningatthestake,massbeheadings,andothermeanstostampitoutbothasareligiouspracticeandsocialcustom.[52]Inthe1970sandearly1980s,somereligiouscultspracticedsacredprostitutionasaninstrumenttorecruitnewconverts.AmongthemwastheallegedcultChildrenofGod,alsoknownasTheFamily,whocalledthispractice"FlirtyFishing".TheylaterabolishedthepracticeduetothegrowingAIDSepidemic.[59]InVenturaCounty,California,WilburandMaryEllenTracyestablishedtheirowntemple,theChurchOfTheMostHighGoddess,inthewakeofwhattheydescribedasadivinerevelation.Sexualactsplayedafundamentalroleinthechurch'ssacredrites,whichwereperformedbyMaryEllenTracyherselfinherassumedroleofHighPriestess.[60]LocalnewspaperarticlesabouttheNeopaganchurchquicklygottheattentionoflocallawenforcementofficials,andinApril1989,theTracys'housewassearchedandthecouplearrestedonchargesofpimping,panderingandprostitution.Theyweresubsequentlyconvictedinatrialinstatecourtandsentencedtojailterms:WilburTracyfor180daysplusa$1,000.00fine;MaryEllenTracyfor90daysplusmandatoryscreeningforSTDs.[61][62]DeukiSexworkerSexmagicDevadasiPrimitivepromiscuityHetaeraHijra(SouthAsia)SexualityinancientRomeListoffertilitydeitiesListofloveandlustdeitiesMesoamericaandSouthAmericaRecentWesternoccurrencesSeealso1.Schulz,Matthias(2010-03-26)."SexintheServiceofAphrodite:DidProstitutionReallyExistintheTemplesofAntiquity?"(http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/sex-in-the-service-of-aphrodite-did-prostitution-really-exist-in-the-temples-of-antiquity-a-685716.html).SpiegelOnline.Retrieved2016-01-01.2.Herodotus,TheHistories1.199(http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.199),trA.D.Godley(1920)3.J.G.Frazer,TheGoldenBough,abridgededition(1922),Chapter31:AdonisinCyprus;seealsothemoreextensivetreatmentinthe3rdeditionofTheGoldenBough,volumes5and6(published1914).Frazer'sargumentandcitationsarereproducedinslightlyclearerfashionbyFernandoHenriques,ProstitutionandSociety:astudy(3vols.,London:MacGibbon&Kee,1962-1968),vol.I,ch.1.4.FernandoHenriques,ProstitutionandSociety:astudy(3vols.,London:MacGibbon&Kee,1962-1968),vol.I,ch.1.5.HerodotusandStraboaretheonlysourcesmentionedbyFrazerthatwereactivepriortothe2ndcenturyAD;hisothersourcesincludeAthenaeus,pseudo-Lucian,Aelian,andtheChristianchurchhistoriansSozomenandSocratesofConstantinople.6.StephanieBudin,TheMythofSacredProstitutioninAntiquity(CambridgeUniversityPress,2009);morebrieflythecasethattherewasnosacredprostitutioninGreco-RomanEphesusbyS.M.Baugh(1999)http://www.etsjets.org/files/JETS-PDFs/42/42-3/42-3-pp443-460_JETS.pdf;seealsothebookreviewbyVincianePirenne-Delforge,BrynMawrClassicalReview,April28,2009(http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2009/2009-04-28.html).7.JamesFrazer(1922),TheGoldenBough,3e,Chapter31:AdonisinCyprus8.é-an-na=sanctuary('house'+'Heaven'[='An']+genitive)[JohnHalloran'sSumerianLexiconv.3.0--seelinkbelow]9.Modern-dayWarka,BiblicalErech.10.JohnDay,“DoestheOldTestamentRefertoSacredProstitutionandDiditActuallyExistinAncientIsrael?”,inBiblicalandNearEasternEssays:StudiesinHonourofKevinJ.Cathcart,eds.CarmelMcCarthy&JohnFHealey(ContinuumInternationalPublishing,2004),2–21.11.Sweet,R."ANewLookatthe'SacredMarriage'inAncientMesopotamia,"inE.RobbinsandS.Sandahl,eds.,CorollaTorontonensis.StudiesinHonourofRonaldMortonSmith(Toronto,1994)85-104.12.Budin,StephanieLynn,TheMythofSacredProstitutioninAntiquity13.Assante,Julia1998."Thekar.kid/[kh]arimtu,ProstituteorSingleWoman?AReconsiderationoftheEvidence,"Ugarit-Forschungen;30:5-9614.Assante,Julia2003."FromWhorestoHierodules:theHistoriographicInventionofMesopotamianFemaleSexProfessionals,"pp.13-47inAncientArtandItsHistoriography,editedA.A.DonahueandMarkD.Fullerton.Cambridge/NewYork:CambridgeUniversity15.Yamauchi,EdwinM.1973."CulticProstitution:aCaseStudyinCulturalDifusion,"pp.213-222inOrientandOccident:EssaysPresentedtoCyrusH.Gordon,editedH.Hoffner.Neukirchen-Vluyn,Germany:Kevelaer16.TheSacredProstitute:EternalAspectoftheFeminineByNancyQualls-Corbett17.Associatedwiththecorrespondingverbzanah.18.BlueLetterBible,Lexiconresultsforzanah(Strong'sH2181)(http://cf.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=H02181&t=kjv),incorporatingStrong'sconcordance(1890)andGesenius'sLexicon(1857)19.BlueLetterBible,Lexiconresultsforqĕdeshah(Strong'sH2181)(http://cf.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=H06948&t=kjv),incorporatingStrong'sConcordance(1890)andGesenius'sLexicon(1857).20.Alsotransliteratedqĕdeshah,qedeshah,qědēšā,qedashah,kadeshah,kadesha,qedesha,kdesha.Amodernliturgicalpronunciationwouldbek'deysha.21.Murray,StephenO.(2002).Homosexualities(https://books.google.com/books?id=HCikDlcEHw8C).UniversityofChicagoPress.p.295.22.Sinclair,Mashal;Brewer,Celia(1989).AGuideThroughtheOldTestament(https://books.google.com/books?id=NopUi53PC0YC).WestminsterJohnKnoxPress.p.71.23."AHistoryofHomophobia:1TheAncientHebrews"(http://rictornorton.co.uk/homopho1.htm).Retrieved18May2015.24.Lexiconresultsforkelev(Strong'sH3611)(http://cf.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=H03611&t=kjv),incorporatingStrong'sConcordance(1890)andGesenius'sLexicon(1857).25."NETBible:Oholibah"(http://classic.net.bible.org/dictionary.php?word=OHOLIBAH).Retrieved18May2015.26.S.N.Kramer,TheSacredMarriageRite:AspectsofFaith,MythandRitualinAncientSumer.References27.NagendraKrSingh,DivineProstitutionpage6(https://books.google.com/books?id=nYEdPoGAaz0C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false),(1997)28.Strabo."Geographica"(http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/8F*.html).VIII.6.20.29.Eusebius,LifeofConstantine,3.55(http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaf/npnf201.iv.vi.iii.lv.html)and3.58(http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iv.vi.iii.lviii.html)30.Anti-SlaverySociety.ChildHierodulicServitudeinIndiaandNepal(http://anti-slaverysociety.addr.com/hieroras.htm)31.HumanRightsWatch.Caste:Asia'sHiddenApartheid(http://hrw.org/campaigns/caste/presskit.htm)32.http://www.samarthbharat.com/files/devadasihistory.pdf33.UnitedNationsCommitteeontheEliminationofDiscriminationagainstWomen.Thirty-seventhsession:15January–2February2007(https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/cedaw37/responses/cedaw.c.ind.q.3.add.1%20single.pdf)34."`ProjectCombat'launchedtoeradicate`Devadasi'system"(http://www.hindu.com/2006/01/30/stories/2006013020130300.htm).TheHindu.2006-01-30.Retrieved2007-01-31.35."BBC-Religions-Islam:SlaveryinIslam"(http://ww