《英语修辞学》第一章

nullChapter One Introduction to English Rhetoric Chapter One Introduction to English Rhetoric By Song Pingfeng "the art of effective expression and the persuasive use of language"English RhetoricContents of This ChapterContents of This ChapterI . About the Course II. Reference Books III.What is rhetoric? IV. Why do we learn rhetoric?I. About the CourseI. About the Course1. Optional course of English Major 2. Teaching Objects: juniors of English Major 3. Purpose:General idea about English rhetoric a brief and interesting survey of the history of rhetoric with emphasis on several major classical rhetoricians and their theories and application Communicative rhetoric the choice of words, the choice of sentences, paragraph and essay construction Aesthetic rhetoric: figures of speech (phonetic, syntactic, semantic, logic)II. Reference BooksII. Reference Books4. Assessment: Exam Total grades = 30% of Regular Grades + 70%of the Final Exam * Regular Grades consists of 15% of class attendance and 15% of class participation and assignments5. Text Book 张秀国：《英语修辞学》(English Rhetoric)，清华大学出版社、北京交通大 学出版社，2005 6. Reference Books: 黄 任：《英语修辞与写作》，上海外语教育出版社，1999. 胡曙中：《现代英语修辞学》，上海外语教育出版社，2004年7月第1版， Rhetoric is power.Rhetoric is power.Whoever does not study rhetoric will become a victim of it. ---Ancient Greek wall inscription Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathematics, subtle; natural philosophy, deep, moral, grave; logic and rhetoric, able to contend. ---Francis BaconIII. What is rhetoric?III. What is rhetoric?Plato and AristotleThe study of rhetoric goes back to ancient Greece, when speakers began to practice the art of persuasion in courts of law. The ancients realized that presentation is as important, or perhaps more important, as facts.III. What is rhetoric?III. What is rhetoric?3.1 Origin of Western RhetoricIt is said that the “art of rhetoric” originated in Syracuse锡拉库兹(意大利西西里岛东部一港市), a Greek colony on the island of Sicily, in about 465 B.C.. When the dictators on the island were overthrown and democracy was established, people went to court to claim the ownership of the land which had been taken from them during the dictator’s reign. However, the Greek system required that citizens represent themselves in court instead of hiring attorneys to speak on their behalf as we can today. Therefore, the rhetoric came into being to “make the best possible case and to represent it persuasively to the jury” (Hu Shuzhong, 2002:3). SyracuseSyracuseIII. What is rhetoric?3.2 rhetoric and oratory Rhētorikē—rhētōr: Oratory had been practiced long before the ancient rhetoricians developed a theory and a vocabulary for rhetoric. Oratory: * the foundation of rhetoric * more than ordinary speech but a special kind of public speaking (a special purpose, a special way, a special time) * to impress, convince, or move the audience to action They then developed a set of principles for successful communication. These principles make up the art of rhetoric. as a verb: to speakas a noun: oratorIII. What is rhetoric?III. What is rhetoric?3.3 Connotation (内涵)of rhetoric Over the years the word “rhetoric” has taken on a wide range of meaning. Negative connotations: skillful, but often deceptive, eloquence a fraudulent practice to deal exclusively with language, rather than with ideas formidable support from Socrates and Plato. In Gorgias (《高尔吉亚篇》, Plato criticized the rhetoricians, “The rhetorician need not know the truth about things; he has only to discover some way of persuading the ignorant that he has more knowledge than those who know.” III. What is rhetoric?Plato and his idea about rhetoricPlato and his idea about rhetoricFull name Plato Born c. 428–427 BC Athens Died c. 348–347 BC (age approx 84) Athens School/tradition Platonism Main interests： Rhetoric, Art, Literature, Epistemology, Justice, Virtue, Politics, Education, Family, Militarism Notable ideas：Platonic realism（柏拉图式的现实主义和理想主义） [i͵pisti'mɔlədӡi]：【哲】认识论 [‘æθinz]：(希腊首都)雅典；(作为文学、艺术中心而比喻为雅典的)任一城市 Plato and his idea about rhetoricIt is possible that in developing his own theory of knowledge, Plato coined the term "rhetoric" both to denounce what he saw as the false wisdom of the Sophists['sɔfist], and to advance his own views on knowledge and method. Plato's animosity(仇恨)against the Sophists derives not only from their inflated claims to teach virtue and their reliance on appearances, but from the fact that his teacher, Socrates, was accused of being a Sophist and ultimately sentenced to death for his teaching.Plato and his idea about rhetoricnull《苏格拉底之死》1787 纽约大都会博物馆 法国新古典主义画家：雅克•路易• 大卫（Jacques Louis David)Positive connotationsPositive connotationsHistorically, “rhetoric” had positive connotations, suggesting a commendable skill with words. Today rhetoric, as it was in history, is something that people have to resort to. Rhetoric is generally understood as a tool or a method. Its content is more concerned with the Hows of what people are talking about than the Whats of what people are talking about. As a tool, rhetoric is inherently neither good or bad. A deceitful person will use it to deceive and an ethical person will use it to make truth and justice prevail.nullDiscuss:Identify the different meanings of “rhetoric” in the following phrases/sentences:1. Cold war diplomacy and rhetoric 2. As the clamor for basic skills continue to grow, it may be time for the fourth R—Rhetoric—to reenter the classroom. 3. Campaign promises have proved to be empty rhetoric.  4. Despite their tough anti-American rhetoric, the government is privately trying to maintain good relations with the U.S. 5. the rhetoric of filmDiscuss:Identify the different meanings of “rhetoric” in the following phrases/sentences:辞令修辞学花言巧语电影的修辞艺术言论III. What is rhetoric?1.4 Definitions of rhetoric The word “rhetoric” has been defined differently. a. The study and practice of effective communication. b. The study of the effects of texts on audiences. c. The art of persuasion. d. An insincere eloquence intended to win points and manipulate [ mə'nipjuleit ] others. Plato in his academyIII. What is rhetoric?Definitions in the pastDefinitions in the past"Rhetoric is the art of ruling the minds of men.“ (Plato) "Rhetoric may be defined as the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.“ (Aristotle, Rhetoric) "Rhetoric is the art of speaking well.“ (Quintilian) …eloquence to persuade their fellows of the truth of what they had discovered by reason (Cicero) "Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathematics, subtle; natural philosophy, deep; moral, grave; logic and rhetoric, able to contend.“ (Francis Bacon)one of the leading figures in natural philosophy and in the field of scientific methodology in the period of transition from the Renaissance to the early modern era. a lawyer, member of Parliament, and Queen's Counsel… 读史使人明智，读诗使人聪慧，数学使人周密，自然哲学使人深刻，伦理学使人有修养，逻辑修辞使人善辩.一种能在任何一个问题上找出可能说服方式的功能。Definitions in dictionaries published in the twentieth centuryDefinitions in dictionaries published in the twentieth century“the art of using language so as to persuade or influence others; the body of rules to be observed by a speaker or writer in order that he may express himself with eloquence” The Oxford English Dictionary, 1933 “the art or science of using words effectively in speaking or writing, especially of literary composition” Webster’s New World Dictionary of the American Language, 1972 “the art of persuasive or impressive speaking or writing; language designed to persuade or impress (but perhaps insincere or exaggerated)” The Concise Oxford Dictionary, 1982 “language used to persuade or influence people, especially by politicians; the art of speaking or writing to persuade or influence people” Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 19953.5 Five assumptions by Erika Lindemann govern the use of the term “rhetoric”3.5 Five assumptions by Erika Lindemann govern the use of the term “rhetoric”1) Rhetoric is both a field of humane study and a pragmatic art; that is, we can read about it as well as practice it. 2) The practice of rhetoric must be viewed as a culturally determined, interdisciplinary process. 3) When we practice rhetoric, we use language, either spoken or written, to “induce cooperation” in an audience. 4) The purpose of rhetoric, inducing cooperation, involves more than mere persuasion. 5) Rhetoric implies choices, for both the speaker or writer and the audience or reader. (We select our best ideas, the best order in which to present them, and the best resources of language to express them.)Erika LindemannErika Lindemann ---a composition specialist or a scholar in the discipline of composition studies. ----a professor of English; a teacher of writing at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill ----a director of a university writing program; ----an author of several books and numerous journal articles; -----an editor of bibliographies and collections of essays; -----a consultant for university writing programs; -----a researcher into the history and practice of composition 3.5 Schedule of the course3.5 Schedule of the course3.6 Classifications of rhetoric3.6 Classifications of rhetoric（1）Theoretical rhetoric（理论修辞） and practical rhetoric（实践修辞）: Theoretical rhetoric deals with theoretical problems of rhetoric; Practical rhetoric helps us improve our ability to use the English language effectively. （2） Communicative rhetoric（交际修辞） and aesthetic rhetoric（美学修辞）.null Communicative rhetoric : Emphasizes the choice of words and phrases, and selection of sentence patterns, organizing paragraphs and whole pieces of writing in such a way that ideas are expressed more clearly, more accurately and more appropriately and the best results are achieved in communication. Rhetoric of words(the choice of words); Rhetoric of sentence(the choice of sentences); Rhetoric of paragraphs(the arrangement of paragraphs ); Rhetoric of discouse(the discursive(推论的，论证的)patterns)nullChoice of wordsUse suitable words General words and specific words Abstract words and concrete words Short words and long wordsChoice of sentencesFunctional classificationGrammatical classificationRhetorical classificationSimple, compound, complex, Compound-complexDeclarative, interrogative, Imperative, exclamatoryLoose, periodic, balancednullE.g. a:她的耳朵上戴着两只金色的大耳环。 b:她的耳朵上吊着两只金色的大耳环。 c:她的耳朵上挂着两只金色的大耳环。 d:她的耳朵上缀着两只金色的大耳环。 e:她的耳朵上镶着两只金色的大耳环。 f:她的耳朵上摇着两只金色的大耳环。We are very busy and have to be on time by taking school bus every day. We are awfully busy and have to be punctuate by shuttle bus every day. We are as busy as bees, and have to be accurate like a space shuttle as commuters every day. null例如：在Elizabeth Razzi写的题为10 Ways to Lose Pounds 的文章中，“减肥”的达竟有8种，文笔活泼，文采灿然： 1. Try to shed a few extra pounds? 2. Studies show these efforts may shave off the pounds quickly. 3. Here are ten simple strategies that can help melt away your fat forever. 4. …like a logical way to peel off a few pounds. 5. …roughly the amount needed to burn off one pound. 6. You must eat less to lose weight. 7. A key obstacle to dropping extra pounds is after-dinner snacking. 8. 10 Ways to Lose Pounds. 以上8句中的斜体字让我们欣赏了英语词汇的活力与风采。 One more exampleOne more exampleEnglish offers a fascinating variety of words for many activities and interests. When we say a man is walking, we can also say that a man is marching, pacing, patrolling, stalking, striding, treading, tramping, stepping out, prancing, strutting, prowling, plodding, strolling, shuffling, staggering, sidling, trudging, toddling, rambling, roaming, sauntering, meandering, lounging, loitering, or creeping. But each of them conveys to us a slightly different meaning. No matter which word we use, it should match our thought and suit to the occasion.nullstalk: 高视阔步, 大踏步走 stride:大踏步走; 跨过 tread: 步行于, 在…上走; 踩(烂), 践踏 trudge [ trʌdʒ ] :v. 沉重地走,蹒跚地走 prance [ prɑ:ns ]  v. 腾跃, 欢跃, 昂首阔步 shuffle  [ 'ʃʌfl ]:拖曳,慢吞吞地走 Sidle [ 'saidl ]: v. (偷偷地)侧身而行 saunter  [ 'sɔ:ntə ]: v. 闲逛,漫步 lounge  [ laundʒ ]: v. 闲荡,懒洋洋地躺卧 loiter  [ 'lɔitə ]: v. 闲荡,虚度,徘徊 creep  [ kri:p ]:v. 爬,徐行,蠕动 null1. The drunkard staggered（蹒跚）from the coffee shop and clung to a lamp-post. 2.The hikers reached the town after a long walk and plodded（重步行走）wearily to the hotel. 3. The man whose wife was expecting the first baby was pacing（踱步）nervously up and down the hospital corridor. 4. After class, the children did not go home direct but loitered（游荡）on the way. 5. The manager strode（大步走）into the office and asked who was late for work. 6. The puppy strayed（迷途）from its home and was completely lost. 7.The cock is strutting（昂头阔步）up and down the farmyard. 8. After dinner, I went rambling（漫步）in the park. 9.The thief has been lurking（潜行）in a corner for his unsuspecting victims. 10.Not wishing to be noticed, the boy crept（爬行）downstairs.null 11. At the weekend, Tom and his friends went strolling（闲逛）in the town. 12. In her hurry, the maid stumbled（绊倒）and fell flat on the floor. 13. The farmer trudged（艰难地走）home with his hoe. 14. The mountaineers scrambled（攀爬）up the hill side. 15. The car lurched（摇摆不定）forward across the grass. 16. With one leg hurt, John limped（跛行）home. 17. Beasts come out to prowl（四处觅食）after their prey at night. 18. Before babies can walk, they crawl（爬行）. 19. The victorious army marched（迈进）into the conquered city. 20. The pedestrians rushed（快步走）here and there in the rain. 笑的种种说法:笑的种种说法:Laugh最广泛的使用 Laugh foolishly 傻笑 Laugh grimly 狞笑 Laugh hysterically [his'terikli ]   歇斯底里地笑 Laugh maliciously 不怀好意地笑 Laugh lightly 轻松地笑Giggle音调高或尖声地笑, 常指儿童或女孩咯咯笑 The girls whispered and giggled together. Chuckle轻笑, 暗笑, 常用比喻意义, 指觉得满意 He was chuckling to himself over what he was reading. He must be chuckling at his success. Grin指露齿而笑 He grinned broadly at me. Guffaw放声大笑,哄笑 The company guffawed at the silly answer. beam笑逐颜开 Her face beamed with joy. Smile 微笑, 反义词frown He smiled to see the children play. laugh, giggle, chuckle, grin, guffaw, beam, smilenullExamplesExamplesAbraham: You can fool all the people some of the time, and some of the people all the time, but you can not fool all the people all of the time. We want to establish a government of the people, by the people, for the people.交错配列法Chiasmus排比；尾语重复nullKennedy: Don’t ask what our country can do for you, just ask what you can do for your country. Richard Nixon: Our destiny offers not the cup of despair, but the chalice(杯) of opportunity.命运给予我们的不是失望之酒，而是机会之杯。 对偶暗喻；对偶nullCaesar: I came, I saw, I conquered. We eat to live,not live to eat. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested. Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man; and writing an exact man. 读使人渊博,交谈使人机敏,写作使人严谨 。 排比；首语重复交错配列法Chiasmus排比；层进Climax排比；层进Climaxnull人类失去联想，世界将会怎样？ 新飞广告做得好，不如新飞冰箱好。 The choice is yours. The honor is ours. No business too small. No problem too big. It provides you with beauty. It provides you with joy. It provides you with love. It provides you with fun. East is east and west is west, but Brown’s meat is best.仿拟排比押尾韵；对偶押尾韵；对偶双关对偶nullPublish or Perish? Pride and prejudice/ Sense and sensibility Sound and safe To smoke or not to smoke, that’s the question. 屡战屡败---屡败屡战 周恩来的外交辞令：押头韵押头韵押头韵仿拟交错配列法Chiasmus 一样的话几样的说：会说的说得你笑， 不会说的说得你跳。3.7 Difference between Grammar and Rhetoric3.7 Difference between Grammar and Rhetoric 1. Grammar will tell you such things as where words can go and where they cannot; It will distinguish an acceptable sentence from an unacceptable one. It deals with matters of right or wrong, whereas rhetoric speaks in terms of better or worse. 2. In the vast majority of cases, it is easy to judge whether a sentence is grammatical or not. It is far harder to say whether one version of a text is rhetorically superior to another. 3. Writing grammatically is of course a prerequisite, but it is only the first step. As an expert user of a language you must progress from mere grammatical competence to rhetorical competence.null有学者指出：修辞与语法、逻辑的关系： 语法研究语言的结构规律； 逻辑研究思维形式和思维规律； 修辞研究如何根据需要有效地使用语言，强化语言信息、提升语言感染力、增强语言表达效果的一种艺术，一种说话、写文章得体、优美、有效的“美言术”。 也就是说：语法管的是“通不通”， 逻辑管的是 “对不对”， 修辞学管的是“好不好”。 Rhetoric、Grammar and LogicIV. Why do we learn rhetoric? IV. Why do we learn rhetoric? The history of rhetoric covers about 2,500 years. For most of its history, rhetoric, as an art of verbal communication, has been closely associated with education. Learning English is for the main purpose of effective communication, which results from a good command of the language in listening, speaking, reading, writing and translation. And all of these five linguistic abilities are closely related to rhetoric. Rhetoric has much to do with translation. Generally speaking, a good version is characterized by “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which are mainly based on the correct understanding of the original and on a good command of the target language.Two examplesTwo examplesA invites B out to dinner, but B can’t make it because he has another engagement. What would B say? Here are two versions: (1) “I’m sorry I can’t. I have no time. I’m engaged.” (2) “That’s very kind of you, but I’m afraid I can’t make it because I have another engagement. Thank you all the same.”nullSuppose you need to write two letters of thanks, one of which is to an old friend, the other to a new business partner. You may compose the bodies of your letters as follows: (1) “I’m writing to thank you for your hospitality during my recent trip to Milan. I had a most enjoyable time and I think our meetings were very successful. I look forward to seeing you when you visit Shanghai in May.” (2) “This is just a short note to thank you for a very pleasant evening while I was in Florence. It is always good to see old friends again and it was interesting to hear your arrival. Hope we can meet for lunch.”Assignment: Read and comment upon the following 2 paragraphsAssignment: Read and comment upon the following 2 paragraphs 1. Before I went to school, I spent my time playing with my friends. When the weather was bad, I had to stay at home and my mother used to try to teach me to read and write. When I was five years old, I started my primary education. My family lived in a small town in Scotland. I used to go home when the bell rang for lunch. After I finished lunch, I quickly ran back to school. We used to play in the school playground before the afternoon classes began. When I was at primary school, I studied very simple subjects. The second world war started after I had been at primary school for three years. In 1942, I sat the entrance examination to junior secondary school.null Comments: If looked at purely grammatically, this would score well. If rhetorically, it is flat and empty. It is merely to illustrate sentence patterns. Without the details, the paragraph is repetitive, shallow and monotonous.null 2. However, by being so long in the lowest form I gained an immense advantage over the cleverer boys. They all went to learn Latin and Greek and splendid things like that. But I was taught English. We were considered such dunces(笨蛋)that we could learn only English. Mr. Somervell ---a most delightful man, to whom my debt was great ---was charged with the duty of teaching the stupidest boys the most disregarded thing ---namely, to write mere English. He knew how to do it. He taught it as no one else has ever taught it. Not only did we learn English parsing thoroughly, but we also practiced continually English analysis. Mr. Somervell had a system of his own. (to be continued)null He took a fairly long sentence and broke it up into its c