an introduction to language

an introduction to language Chapter 1 arbitrary Describes the property of language, including sign language, whereby there is no natural or intrinsic relationship between the way a word is pronounced (or signed) and its meaning. descriptive A linguist’s description or model of the mental grammar, including the units, grammar structures, and rules. An explicit statement of what speakers know about their language. Cf. prescriptive grammar, teaching grammar. grammar The mental representation of a speaker’s linguistic competence; what a speaker knows about a language, including its phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and lexicon. A linguistic description of a speaker’s mental grammar. lexicon The component of the grammar containing speakers’ knowledge about morphemes and words; a speaker’s mental dictionary. morphology The study of the structure of words; the component of the grammar that includes the rules of word formation. phonology The sound system of a language; the component of a grammar that includes the inventory of sounds (phonetic and phonemic units) and rules for their combination and pronunciation; the study of the sound systems of all languages. semantics The study of the linguistic meaning of morphemes, words, phrases, and sentences. sign languages The languages used by deaf people in which linguistic units such as morphemes and words as well as grammatical relations are formed by manual and other body movements. syntax The rules of sentence formation; the component of the mental grammar that represents speakers’ knowledge of the structure of phrases and sentences. Universal The innate principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human Grammar (UG) languages. Chapter 2 anomia A form of aphasia in which patients have word-finding difficulties. aphasia Language loss or disorders following brain damage. cortex The approximately ten billion neurons that form the outside surface of the brain; also referred to as gray matter. critical age The theory that states that there is a window of time between early childhood and hypothesis puberty for learning a first language, and beyond which first language acquisition is almost always incomplete. lateralization, Term used to refer to cognitive functions localized to one or the other side of the lateralized brain. magnetic A technique to investigate the molecular structures in human organs including the resonance brain, which may be used to identify sites of brain lesions. 1 imaging (MRI) neurolinguistics The branch of linguistics concerned with the brain mechanisms that underlie the acquisition and use of human language; the study of the neurobiology of language. positron-emission Method to detect changes in brain activities and relate these changes to localized tomography (PET) brain damage and cognitive tasks. savant Individual who shows special abilities in one cognitive area while being deficient in others. Linguistic savants have extraordinary language abilities but are deficient in general intelligence. specific language Difficulty in acquiring language faced by certain children with no other cognitive impairment (SLI) deficits. Chapter 3 acronym Word composed of the initials of several words, e.g., PET scan from positron-emission tomography scan. compound A word composed of two or more words, e.g., washcloth, childproof cap. form Phonological or gestural representation of a morpheme or word. lexicon The component of the grammar containing speakers’ knowledge about morphemes and words; a speaker’s mental dictionary. meaning The conceptual or semantic aspect of a sign or utterance that permits us to comprehend the message being conveyed. Expressions in language generally have both form — pronunciation or gesture — and meaning. Cf. extension, intension, sense, reference. morpheme Smallest unit of linguistic meaning or function, e.g., sheepdogs contains three mor morphological Rules for combining morphemes to form stems and words. rules morphology The study of the structure of words; the component of the grammar that includes the rules of word formation. open class The class of lexical content words; a category of words that commonly adds new words, e.g., nouns, verbs. orthography The written form of a language; spelling. Chapter 4 complement The constituent(s) in a phrase other than the head that complete(s) the meaning of the phrase. In the verb phrase found a puppy, the noun phrase a puppy is a complement of the head verb found. deep structure Any phrase structure tree generated by the phrase structure rules of a transformational grammar. The basic syntactic structures of the grammar. direct object The grammatical relation of a noun phrase when it appears immediately below the verb phrase (VP) and next to the verb in deep structure; the noun phrase 2 complement of a transitive verb, e.g., the puppy in the boy found the puppy. functional One of the categories of function words, including determiner, aux, complementizer, category and preposition. These categories are not lexical or phrasal categories. Cf. lexical categories, phrasal categories. lexicon The component of the grammar containing speakers’ knowledge about morphemes and words; a speaker’s mental dictionary. phrase structure A tree diagram with syntactic categories at each node that reveals both the linear tree and hierarchical structure of phrases and sentences. rules of syntax Principles of grammar that account for the grammaticality of sentences, their hierarchical structure, their word order, whether there is structural ambiguity, etc. Cf. phrase structure rules, transformational rules. structure (1) A principle of Universal Grammar that states that the application of dependent transformational rules is determined by phrase structure properties, as opposed to structureless sequences of words or specific sentences; (2) the way children construct rules using their knowledge of syntactic structure irrespective of the specific words in the structure or their meaning. surface structure The structure that results from applying transformational rules to a deep structure. It is syntactically closest to actual utterances. Cf. transformational rule. transformational A syntactic rule that applies to an underlying phrase structure tree of a sentence rule, (either deep structure or an intermediate structure already affected by a transformation transformation) and derives a new structure by moving or inserting elements, e.g., the transformational rules of wh movement and do insertion relate the deep structure sentence John saw who to the surface structure Who did John see. Chapter 5 coreferential Describes noun phrases (including pronouns) that refer to the same entity. heteronyms Different words spelled the same (i.e., homographs) but pronounced differently, e.g. bass, meaning either ―low tone‖ [bes] or ―a kind of fish‖ [bœs]. homographs Words spelled identically, and possibly pronounced the same, e.g., bear meaning ―to tolerate,‖ and bear the animal; or lead the metal and lead, what leaders do. hyponyms Words whose meanings are specific instances of a more general word, e.g., red, white, and blue are hyponyms of the word color; triangle is a hyponym of polygon. lexical semantics The subfield of semantics concerned with the meanings of words and the meaning relationships among words. pragmatics The study of how context and situation affect meaning. semantic features A notational device for expressing the presence or absence of semantic properties by pluses and minuses, e.g., baby is [+ young], [+ human], [– abstract], etc. semantic The components of meaning of a word, e.g., ―young‖ is a semantic property of baby, properties colt, puppy. 3 semantics The study of the linguistic meaning of morphemes, words, phrases, and sentences. Chapter 7 accidental gap Phonological or morphological form that constitutes possible but nonoccurring lexical items, e.g., blick, unsad. complementary The situation in which phones never occur in the same phonetic environment, e.g., distribution [p] and [ph] in English. Cf. allophones. epenthesis The insertion of one or more phones in a word, e.g., the insertion of [E] in children to produce [CIlEdrEn] instead of [CIldrEn]. free variation Alternative pronunciations of a word in which one sound is substituted for another without changing the word’s meaning, e.g., pronunciation of bottle as [batEl] or [ba/El]. geminate A sequence of two identical sounds; a long vowel or long consonant denoted either by writing the phonetic symbol twice as in [biiru], [sakki] or by use of a colon [bi:ru], [sak:i]. intonation Pitch contour of a phrase or sentence. length A prosodic feature referring to the duration of a segment. Two sounds may contrast in length, e.g., in Japanese the first vowel is [+ long} in /biiru/ ―beer‖ but [– long], therefore short, in /biru/ ―building.‖ metathesis The phonological process that reorders segments, often by transposing two sequential sounds, e.g., the pronunciation of ask /œsk/ in some English dialects as [œks]. minimal pair (or Two (or more) words that are identical except for one phoneme that occurs in the set) same position in each word, e.g., pain /pen/, bane /ben/, main /men/. phonetic features Phonetic properties of segments (e.g., voice, nasal, alveolar) that distinguish one segment from another. Chapter 8 babbling Sounds produced in the first few months after birth that gradually come to include only sounds that occur in the language of the household. Deaf children babble with hand gestures. bilingual language The (more or less) simultaneous acquisition of two or more languages before the acquisition age of three years such that each language is acquired with native competency. holophrastic The stage of child language acquisition in which one word conveys a complex message similar to that of a phrase or sentence. interlanguage The intermediate grammars that second language learners create on their way to grammars acquiring the (more or less) complete grammar of the target language. motherese, child The special intonationally exaggerated speech that some adults sometimes use to directed speech speak with small children, sometimes called baby talk. 4 (CDS) overgeneralization Children’s treatment of irregular verbs and nouns as if they were regular, e.g., bringed, goed, foots, mouses, for brought, went, feet, mice. This shows that the child has acquired the regular rules but has not yet learned that there are exceptions. poverty of the Refers to the incomplete, noisy, and unstructured utterances that children hear, stimulus, including slips of the tongue, false starts, and ungrammatical and incomplete impoverished data sentences, together with a lack of concrete evidence about abstract grammatical rules and structure. second language The acquisition of another language or languages after first language acquisition is acquisition under way or completed. Also L2 acquisition. sign languages The languages used by deaf people in which linguistic units such as morphemes and words as well as grammatical relations are formed by manual and other body movements. telegraphic stage The period of child language acquisition that follows the two-word stage and consists primarily of telegraphic speech. Chapter 9 blend A word composed of the parts of more than one word, e.g., smog from smoke + fog. computational A subfield of linguistics and computer science that is concerned with computer linguistics processing of human language. formant In the frequency analysis of speech, a band of frequencies of higher intensity than surrounding frequencies, which appears as a dark line on a spectrogram. Individual vowels display different formant patterns. fundamental In speech, the rate at which the vocal cords vibrate, symbolized as F0, called F-zero, frequency perceived by the listener as pitch. lexical decision Task of subjects in psycholinguistic experiments who on presentation of a spoken or printed stimulus must decide whether it is a word or not. parse The act of determining the grammaticality of sequences of words according to rules of syntax, and assigning a linguistic structure to the grammatical ones. primes The basic formal units of sign languages that correspond to phonological elements of spoken language. psycholinguistics The branch of linguistics concerned with linguistic performance, language acquisition, and speech production and comprehension. spectrogram A visual representation of speech decomposed into component frequencies, with time on the x axis, frequency on the y axis, and intensity portrayed on a gray scale — the darker, the more intense. Also called voiceprint. spoonerism A speech error in which phonemic segments are reversed or exchanged, e.g., you have hissed my mystery lecture for the intended you have missed my history lecture; named after the Reverend William Archibald Spooner, a nineteenth-century Oxford 5 University professor. Chapter 10 African American Dialects of English spoken by some Americans of African descent, or by any person English (AAE) raised from infancy in a place where AAE is spoken. Cf. Ebonics. Chicano English A dialect of English spoken by some bilingual Mexican Americans in the western and (ChE) southwestern United States. code-switching The movement back and forth between two languages or dialects within the same sentence or discourse. dialect A variety of a language whose grammar differs in systematic ways from other varieties. Differences may be lexical, phonological, syntactic, and semantic. Cf. regional dialect, social dialect, prestige dialect. dialect map A map showing the areas where specific dialectal characteristics occur in the speech of the region. idiolect An individual’s way of speaking, reflecting that person’s grammar. isogloss A geographic boundary that separates areas with dialect differences, e.g., a line on a map on one side of which most people say faucet and on the other side of which most people say spigot. lingua franca A language common to speakers of diverse languages that can be used for communication and commerce, e.g., English is the lingua franca of international airline pilots. pidgin A simple but rule-governed language developed for communication among speakers of mutually unintelligible languages, often based on one of those languages. Standard An idealized dialect of English that some prescriptive grammarians consider the American English proper form of English. (SAE) Chapter 11 analogic change A language change in which a rule spreads to previously unaffected forms, e.g., the plural of cow changed from the earlier kine to cows by the generalization of the plural formation rule or by analogy to regular plural forms. Also called internal borrowing. assimilation A phonological process that changes feature values of segments to make them rules/assimilation more similar, e.g., a vowel becomes [+nasal] when followed by [+ nasal] consonant. Also called feature spreading rules. ease of The tendency of speakers to adjust their pronunciation to make it easier, or more articulation efficient, to move the articulators. Phonetic and phonological rules are often the result of ease of articulation, e.g., the rule of English that nasalizes vowels when they precede a nasal consonant. genetically related Describes two or more languages that developed from a common, earlier language, e.g., French, Italian, and Spanish, which all developed from Latin. 6 Great Vowel Shift A sound change that took place in English sometime between 1400 and 1600 C.E. in which seven long vowel phonemes were changed. Indo-European The descriptive name given to the ancestor language of many modern language families, including Germanic, Slavic, and Romance. Also called Proto-Indo-European. Proto-Germanic The name given by linguists to the language that was an ancestor of English, German, and other Germanic languages. protolanguage The first identifiable language from which genetically related languages developed. regular sound The occurrence of different sounds in the same position of the same word in different correspondence languages or dialects, with this parallel holding for a significant number of words, e.g., [aj] in non-Southern American English corresponds to [a:] in Southern American English. Also found between newer and older forms of the same language. sound shift Historical phonological change. Chapter 12 alphabetic writing A writing system in which each symbol typically represents one sound segment. consonantal The symbols of a consonantal writing system. alphabet cuneiform A form of writing in which the characters are produced using a wedge-shaped stylus. hieroglyphics A pictographic writing system used by the Egyptians around 4000 B.C.E ideogram, A character of a word-writing system, often highly stylized, that represents a ideograph concept, or the pronunciation of the word representing that concept. logograms The symbols of a word-writing or logographic writing system. logographic, word A system of writing in which each character represents a word or morpheme of the writing language, e.g., Chinese. pictogram A form of writing in which the symbols resemble the objects represented; a nonarbitrary form of writing. rebus principle In writing, the use of a pictogram for its phonetic value, e.g., using a picture of a bee to represent the verb be or the sound [b]. syllabic A phonetic feature of those sounds that may constitute the nucleus of syllables; all vowels are syllabic, and liquids and nasals may be syllabic in such words as towel, button, bottom. 7 下面是经典古文名句赏析～～不需要的朋友， 可以下载后编辑删除～～谢谢 经典古文名篇(一);1.陋室铭刘禹锡(唐)字梦得《刘梦得文集》;山不在高，有仙则名;2(马说韩愈(唐)字退之《昌黎先生集》;世有伯乐，然后有千里马;马之千里者，一食(shí)或尽粟一石(dàn);策之不以其道，食(sì)之不能尽其材(才)，鸣之;3(师说韩愈(唐);古之学者必有师;嗟乎～师道之不传也久矣～欲人之无惑也难矣～古之圣;圣人无常师;李氏子蟠，年十七 经典古文名篇(一) 8 1. 陋室铭 刘禹锡(唐)字梦得 《刘梦得文集》 山不在高，有仙则名。水不在深，有龙则灵。斯是陋室，惟吾德馨。苔痕上阶绿，草色入帘青。谈笑有鸿儒，往来无白丁。可以调素琴，阅金经。无丝竹之乱耳，无案牍之劳形。南阳诸葛庐，西蜀子云亭。孔子云:何陋之有, 2(马说 韩愈(唐) 字退之《昌黎先生集》 世有伯乐，然后有千里马。千里马常有，而伯乐不常有。故虽有名马，只辱于奴隶人之手，骈死于槽枥之间，不以千里称也。 马之千里者，一食(shí)或尽粟一石(dàn)。食(sì)马者不知千里而食(sì)也。是马也，虽有千里之能，食(shí)不饱，力不足，才美不外见(现)，且欲与常马等不可得，安求其能千里也, 策之不以其道，食(sì)之不能尽其材(才)，鸣之而不能通其意，执策而临之，曰:“天下无马～”呜呼～其真无马邪(ye),其真不知马也。 3(师说 韩愈(唐) 古之学者必有师。师者，所以传道受(授)业解惑也。人非生而知之者，孰能无惑,惑而不从师，其为惑也，终不解矣。生乎吾前，其闻道也固先乎吾，吾从而师之;生乎吾后，其闻道也亦先乎吾，吾从而师之。吾师道也，夫庸知其年之先后生于吾乎,是故无贵无贱，无长无少，道之所存，师之所存也。 嗟乎～师道之不传也久矣～欲人之无惑也难矣～古之圣人，其出人也远矣，犹且从师而问焉;今之众人，其下圣人也亦远矣，而耻学于师。是故圣益圣，愚 9 益愚。圣人之所以为圣，愚人之所以为愚，其皆出于此乎,爱其子，择师而教之;于其身也，则耻师焉，惑矣。彼童子之师，授之而习其句读(d?u)者，非吾所谓传其道解其惑者也。句读之不知，惑之不解，或师焉，或不(fǒu)焉，小学而大遗，吾未见其明也。巫医乐师百工之人，不耻相师。士大夫之族，曰师曰弟子云者，则群聚而笑之。问之，则曰:“彼与彼年相若也，道相似也，位卑则足羞，官盛则近谀。”呜呼～师道之不复，可知矣。巫医乐师百工之人，君子不齿，今其智乃反不能及，其可怪也欤～ 圣人无常师。孔子师郯(tán)子、苌(cháng)弘、师襄、老聃(dàn)。郯子之徒，其贤不及孔子。孔子曰:三人行，则必有我师。是故弟子不必不如师，师不必贤于弟子，闻道有先后，术业有专攻，如是而已。 李氏子蟠，年十七，好古文，六艺经传皆通习之，不拘于时，学于余。余嘉其能行古道，作《师说》以贻之。 4.爱莲说 周敦颐(北宋) 字茂叔《周元公集》 水陆草木之花，可爱者甚藩(fán)。晋陶渊明独爱菊。自李唐来，世人甚爱牡丹。予独爱莲之出淤泥而不染，濯清涟而不妖，中通外直，不蔓不枝，香远益清，亭亭净植，可远观而不可亵玩焉。 予谓菊，花之隐逸者也;牡丹，花之富贵者也;莲，花之君子者也。噫～菊之爱，陶后鲜有闻。莲之爱，同予者何人,牡丹之爱，宜乎众矣～ 5.得道多助，失道寡助 《孟子?公孙丑》(战国)名轲 字子舆 天时不如地利，地利不如人和。 三里之城，七里之郭，环而攻之而不胜。夫还而攻之，必有得天时者矣，然而不胜者，是天时不如地利也。 城非不高也，池非不深也，兵革非不坚利也，米粟非不多也，委而去之，是地利不如人和也。 10 故曰，域民不以封疆之界，固国不以山溪之险，威天下不以兵革之利。得道者多助，失道者寡助。寡助之至，亲戚畔(叛)之。多助之至，天下顺之。以天下之所顺，攻亲戚之所畔，故君子有不战，战必胜矣。 6(生于忧患，死于安乐 《孟子?告子》 舜发于畎亩之中，傅说(yua)举于版筑之间，胶鬲举于鱼盐之中，管夷吾举于士，孙叔敖举于海，百里奚举于市。 故天将降大任于是人也，必先苦其心志，劳其筋骨，饿其体肤，空乏其身，行拂乱其所为，所以动心忍性，曾(增)益其所不能。 人恒过，然后能改;困于心，衡于虑，而后作;征于色，发于声，而后喻。入则无法家拂(bì)士，出则无敌国外患者，国恒亡。然后知生于忧患，而死于安乐也。 7(鱼我所欲也 《孟子》 鱼，我所欲也，熊掌，亦我所欲也，二者不可得兼，舍鱼而取熊掌者也。生，亦我所欲也，义，亦我所欲也，二者不可得兼，舍生而取义者也。生亦我所欲，所欲有甚于生者，故不为苟得也。死亦我所恶，所恶有甚于死者，故患有所不避也。如使人之所欲莫甚于生，则凡可以得生者何不用也,使人之所恶莫甚于死者，则凡可以避患者何不为也,由是则生而有不用也;由是则可以避患而有不为也。是故所欲有甚于生者，所恶有甚于死者。非独贤者有是心也，人皆有之，贤者能勿丧耳。 一箪食，一豆羹，得之则生，弗得则死。呼尔而与之，行道之人弗受;蹴尔而与之，乞人不屑也。 万钟则不辨礼义而受之，万钟于我何加焉～为宫室之美，妻妾之奉，所识穷乏者得我欤,向为身死而不受，今为宫室之美为之;向为身死而不受，今为妻妾之奉为之;向为身死而不受，今为所识穷乏者得我而为之:是亦不可以已乎,此之谓失其本心。 8(劝学 《荀子》(战国)名况 11 君子曰:学不可以已。青，取之于蓝，而青于蓝;冰，水为之，而寒于水。木直中(zh?ng)绳，以为轮，其曲中规。虽有(又)槁(gào)暴(pù)，不复挺者，使之然也。故木受绳则直，金就砺则利，君子博学而日参(cān)省乎己，则知明而行无过矣。 吾尝终日而思矣，不如须臾之所学也;吾尝跂(qí)而望矣，不如登高之博见也。登高而招，臂非加长也，而见者远;顺风而呼，声非加疾也，而闻者彰。假舆马者，非利足也，而致千里;假舟楫者，非能水也，而绝江河。君子生(性)非异也，善假于物也。 积土成山，风雨兴焉;积水成渊，蛟龙生焉;积善成德，而神明自得，圣心备焉。故不积跬步，无以至千里;不积小流，无以成江海。骐骥一跃，不能十步;驽马十驾，功在不舍。锲而舍之，朽木不折;锲而不舍，金石可镂。蚓无爪牙之利，筋骨之强，上食埃土，不饮黄泉，用心一也。蟹六跪而二螯，非蛇鳝之穴无可寄托者，用心躁也。 9(问说 刘开(清)字明东、方来 号孟涂 君子学必好问。问与学，相辅而行者也，非学无以致疑，非问无以广识。好学而不勤问，非真能好学者也。理明矣，而或不达于事，识其大矣，而或不知其细，舍问，其奚决焉, 贤于己者，问焉以破其疑，所谓就有道而正也。不如己者，问焉以求一得，所谓以能问于不能，以多问于寡也。等于己者，问焉以资切磋，所谓交相问难(nàn)，审问而明辨之也。《书》不云乎,“好问则裕。”孟子论“求放心”，而并称曰“学问之道”，学即继以问也。子思言“尊德性”，而归于“道问学”，问且先于学也。 古之人虚中乐善，不择事而问焉，不择人而问焉，取其有益于身而已。是故狂夫之言，圣人择之，刍荛(ráo)之微，先民询之，舜以天子而询于匹夫，以大知而察及迩言，非苟为谦，诚取善之弘也。三代而下，有学而无问，朋友之交，至于劝善规过足矣，其以义理相咨访，孜孜焉唯进修是急，未之多见也，况流俗乎, 是己而非人，俗之同病。学有未达，强(qiǎng)以为知，理有未安，妄以臆度(duo)， 12 如是，则终身几无可问之事。贤于己者，忌之而不愿问焉，不如己者，轻之而不屑问焉，等于己者，狎之而不甘问焉，如是，则天下几无可问之人。人不足服矣，事无可疑矣，此唯师心自用耳。夫自用，其小者也;自知其陋而谨护其失，宁使学终不进，不欲虚以下人，此为害于心术者大，而蹈之者常十之。 不然，则所问非所学焉:询天下之异文鄙事以快言论;甚且心之所已明者，问之人以试其能，事之至难解者，问之人以穷其短。而非是者，虽有切于身心性命之事，可以收取善之益，求一屈己焉而不可得也。嗟乎～学之所以不能几(jī)于古者，非此之由乎, 且夫不好问者，由心不能虚也;心之不虚，由好学之不诚也。亦非不潜心专力之敌，其学非古人之学，其好亦非古人之好也，不能问宜也。 智者千虑，必有一失。圣人所不知，未必不为愚人之所知也;愚人之所能，未必非圣人之不能也。理无专在，而学无止境也，然则问可少耶,《周礼》，外朝以询万民，国之政事尚问及庶人，是故贵可以问贱，贤可以问不肖，而老可以问幼，唯道之所成而已矣。孔文子不耻下问，夫子贤之。古人以问为美德，而并不见其有可耻也，后之君子反争以问为耻，然则古人所深耻者，后世且行之而不以为耻者多矣，悲夫～ 10. 前赤壁赋 苏轼(北宋) 字子瞻 号东坡居士 壬戌之秋，七月既望，苏子与客泛舟游于赤壁之下。清风徐来，水波不兴。举酒属客，诵明月之诗，歌窈窕之章。少焉，月出于东山之上，徘徊于斗牛之间。白露横江，水光接天。纵一苇之所如，凌万顷之茫然。浩浩乎如冯虚御风，而不知其所止;飘飘乎如遗世独立，羽化而登仙。 于是饮酒乐甚，扣舷而歌之。歌曰:“桂棹兮兰桨，击空明兮溯流光;渺渺兮予怀，望美人兮天一方。”客有吹洞箫者，倚歌而和之。其声呜呜然，如怨，如慕，如泣，如诉，余音袅袅，不绝如缕。舞幽壑之潜蛟，泣孤舟之嫠妇。 苏子愀然，正襟危坐而问客曰:“何为其然也,”客曰:“„月明星稀，乌鹊南飞?，此非曹孟德之诗乎,西望夏口，东望武昌，山川相缪，郁乎苍苍，此非曹孟德之困于周郎者乎,方其破荆州，下江陵，顺流而东也，舳舻千里，旌旗蔽空，酾酒临江，横槊赋诗，固一世之雄也，而今安在哉,况吾与子渔樵于江渚之上， 13 侣鱼虾而友麋鹿，驾一叶之扁舟，举匏樽以相属。寄蜉蝣于天地，渺沧海之一粟。哀吾生之须臾，羡长江之无穷。挟飞仙以遨游，抱明月而长终。知不可乎骤得，托遗响于悲风。” 苏子曰:“客亦知夫水与月乎,逝者如斯，而未尝往也;盈虚者如彼，而卒莫消长也。盖将自其变者而观之，则天地曾不能以一瞬;自其不变者而观之，则物与我皆无尽也，而又何羡乎,且夫天地之间，物各有主。苟非吾之所有，虽一毫而莫取。唯江上之清风，与山间之明月，耳得之而为声，目遇之而成色，取之无禁，用之不竭，是造物者之无尽藏也，而吾与子之所共适。” 客喜而笑，洗盏更酌。肴核既尽，杯盘狼藉。相与枕藉乎舟中，不知东方之既白。 11(后赤壁赋 苏轼 是岁十月之望，步自雪堂，将归于临皋。二客从予，过黄泥之坂。霜露既降，木叶尽脱。人影在地，仰见明月。顾而乐之，行歌相答。已而叹曰:“有客无酒，有酒无肴，月白风清，如此良夜何,”客曰:“今者薄暮，举网得鱼，巨口细鳞，状如松江之鲈。顾安所得酒乎,”归而谋诸妇。妇曰:“我有斗酒，藏之久矣，以待子不时之需。” 于是携酒与鱼，复游于赤壁之下。江流有声，断岸千尺，山高月小，水落石出。曾日月之几何，而江山不可复识矣～予乃摄衣而上，履巉岩，披蒙茸，踞虎豹，登虬龙，攀栖鹘之危巢，俯冯夷之幽宫，盖二客不能从焉。划然长啸，草木震动，山鸣谷应，风起云涌。予亦悄然而悲，肃然而恐，凛乎其不可留也。反而登舟，放乎中流，听其所止而休焉。时夜将半，四顾寂寥。适有孤鹤，横江东来，翅如车轮，玄裳缟衣，戛然长鸣，掠予舟而西也。 须臾客去，予亦就睡。梦一道士，羽衣蹁跹，过临皋之下，揖予而言曰:“赤壁之游乐乎,”问其姓名，俯而不答。“呜呼噫嘻～我知之矣。畴昔之夜，飞鸣而过我者，非子也耶,”道士顾笑，予亦惊寤。开户视之，不见其处。 12(卖炭翁 白居易(唐) 字乐天 号香山居士《白氏长庆集》 14 卖炭翁，伐薪烧炭南山中。满面尘灰烟火色，两鬓苍苍十指黑。卖炭得钱何所营,身上衣裳口中食。可怜身上衣正单，心忧炭贱愿天寒。夜来城外一尺雪，晓驾炭车碾冰辙。牛困人饥日以高，市南门外泥中歇。 翩翩两骑(jì)来是谁,黄衣使者白衫儿。手把文书口称敕，回车叱牛牵向北。一车炭，千余斤，宫使驱将(jiāng)惜不得。半匹红绡一丈绫，系(jì)向牛头充炭直(值)。 13(木兰诗 《乐府诗集》 北朝民歌 唧唧复唧唧，木兰当户织。不闻机杼声，惟闻女叹息。 问女何所思，问女何所忆。女亦无所思，女亦无所忆。昨夜见军帖(tiě)，可汗大点兵，军书十二卷，卷卷有爷名。阿爷无大儿，木兰无长兄，愿为市鞍马，从此替爷征。 东市买骏马，西市买鞍鞯(jiān)，南市买辔头，北市买长鞭。旦辞爷娘去，暮宿黄河边，不闻爷娘唤女声，但闻黄河流水鸣溅溅(jiàn)。旦辞黄河去，暮至黑山头，不闻爷娘唤女声，但闻燕山胡骑鸣啾啾。 万里赴戎机，关山度若飞。朔气传金柝，寒光照铁衣。将军百战死，壮士十年归。 归来见天子，天子坐明堂。策勋十二转，赏赐百千强。可汗问所欲，木兰不用尚书郎;愿驰千里足，送儿还故乡。 爷娘闻女来，出郭相扶将(jiāng);阿姊闻妹来，当户理红妆;小弟闻姊来，磨刀霍霍向猪羊。开我东阁门，坐我西阁床，脱我战时袍，着我旧时裳，当窗理云鬓，对镜帖(贴)花黄。出门看火(伙)伴，火伴皆惊忙:同行十二年，不知木兰是女郎。 雄兔脚扑朔，雌兔眼迷离;双兔傍(bàng)地走，安能辨我是雄雌, 14.石钟山记 苏轼 15 《水经》云:“彭蠡之口有石钟山焉。”骊元以为下临深潭，微风鼓浪，水石相搏，声如洪钟。是说也，人常疑之。今以钟磬置水中，虽大风浪不能鸣也，而况石乎～至唐李渤始访其遗踪，得双石于潭上，扣而聆之，南声函胡，北音清越，枹(fú)止响腾，余韵徐歇。自以为得之矣。然是说也，余尤疑之。石之铿然有声者，所在皆是也，而此独以钟名，何哉, 元丰七年六月丁丑，余自齐安舟行适临汝，而长子迈将赴饶之德兴尉，送之至湖口，因得观所谓钟者。侍僧使小童扶斧，于乱石间择其一二扣之，硿硿(kōng)焉，余固笑而不信也。至莫(暮)夜月明，独与迈乘小舟，至绝壁下。大石侧立千尺，如猛兽奇鬼，森然欲搏人;而山上栖鹘(hú)，闻人声亦惊起，磔磔(zh?)云霄间;又有若老人咳且笑于山谷中者，或曰此鹳(guàn)鹤也。余方心动欲还，而大声发于水上，噌(zēng)吰(h?ng)如钟鼓不绝。舟人大恐。徐而察之，则山下皆石穴罅，不知其浅深，微波入焉，涵淡澎湃而此为此也。舟回至两山间，将入港口，有大石当中流，可坐百人，空中而多窍，与风水相吞吐，有窾(kuǎn)坎镗(tāng)鞳(tà)之声，与向之噌吰相应，如乐作焉。因笑谓迈曰:“汝识之乎,噌吰者，周景王之无射也，窾坎镗鞳者，魏庄子之歌钟也。古之人不余欺也～” 事不目见耳闻，而臆断其有无，可乎,骊元之所见闻，殆于余同，而言之不详;士大夫终不肯以小舟夜泊绝壁之下，故莫能知～而渔工水师虽知而不能言。此世所以不传也。而陋者乃以斧斤考击而求之，自以为得其实。余是以记之，盖叹骊元之简，而笑李渤之陋也。 15(五人墓碑记 张溥(明) 字天如 《七录斋集》 五人者，盖当蓼(liǎo)洲周公之被逮(dài)，激于义而死焉者也。至于今，郡之贤士大夫请于当道，即除魏阉废祠之址以葬之;且立石于其墓之门，以旌(jīng)其所为。呜呼，亦盛矣哉～ 夫五人之死，去今之墓而葬焉，其为时止十有一月耳。夫十有一月之中，凡富贵之子，慷慨得志之徒，其疾病而死，死而湮没不足道者，亦已众矣;况草野之无闻者欤,独五人之皦皦(jiǎo)，何也, 16 下面是经典古文名句赏析～～不需要的朋友， 可以下载后编辑删除～～谢谢 经典古文名篇(一);1.陋室铭刘禹锡(唐)字梦得《刘梦得文集》;山不在高，有仙则名;2(马说韩愈(唐)字退之《昌黎先生集》;世有伯乐，然后有千里马;马之千里者，一食(shí)或尽粟一石(dàn);策之不以其道，食(sì)之不能尽其材(才)，鸣之;3(师说韩愈(唐);古之学者必有师;嗟乎～师道之不传也久矣～欲人之无惑也难矣～古之圣;圣人无常师;李氏子蟠，年十七 经典古文名篇(一) 17 1. 陋室铭 刘禹锡(唐)字梦得 《刘梦得文集》 山不在高，有仙则名。水不在深，有龙则灵。斯是陋室，惟吾德馨。苔痕上阶绿，草色入帘青。谈笑有鸿儒，往来无白丁。可以调素琴，阅金经。无丝竹之乱耳，无案牍之劳形。南阳诸葛庐，西蜀子云亭。孔子云:何陋之有, 2(马说 韩愈(唐) 字退之《昌黎先生集》 世有伯乐，然后有千里马。千里马常有，而伯乐不常有。故虽有名马，只辱于奴隶人之手，骈死于槽枥之间，不以千里称也。 马之千里者，一食(shí)或尽粟一石(dàn)。食(sì)马者不知千里而食(sì)也。是马也，虽有千里之能，食(shí)不饱，力不足，才美不外见(现)，且欲与常马等不可得，安求其能千里也, 策之不以其道，食(sì)之不能尽其材(才)，鸣之而不能通其意，执策而临之，曰:“天下无马～”呜呼～其真无马邪(ye),其真不知马也。 3(师说 韩愈(唐) 古之学者必有师。师者，所以传道受(授)业解惑也。人非生而知之者，孰能无惑,惑而不从师，其为惑也，终不解矣。生乎吾前，其闻道也固先乎吾，吾从而师之;生乎吾后，其闻道也亦先乎吾，吾从而师之。吾师道也，夫庸知其年之先后生于吾乎,是故无贵无贱，无长无少，道之所存，师之所存也。 嗟乎～师道之不传也久矣～欲人之无惑也难矣～古之圣人，其出人也远矣，犹且从师而问焉;今之众人，其下圣人也亦远矣，而耻学于师。是故圣益圣，愚 18 益愚。圣人之所以为圣，愚人之所以为愚，其皆出于此乎,爱其子，择师而教之;于其身也，则耻师焉，惑矣。彼童子之师，授之书而习其句读(d?u)者，非吾所谓传其道解其惑者也。句读之不知，惑之不解，或师焉，或不(fǒu)焉，小学而大遗，吾未见其明也。巫医乐师百工之人，不耻相师。士大夫之族，曰师曰弟子云者，则群聚而笑之。问之，则曰:“彼与彼年相若也，道相似也，位卑则足羞，官盛则近谀。”呜呼～师道之不复，可知矣。巫医乐师百工之人，君子不齿，今其智乃反不能及，其可怪也欤～ 圣人无常师。孔子师郯(tán)子、苌(cháng)弘、师襄、老聃(dàn)。郯子之徒，其贤不及孔子。孔子曰:三人行，则必有我师。是故弟子不必不如师，师不必贤于弟子，闻道有先后，术业有专攻，如是而已。 李氏子蟠，年十七，好古文，六艺经传皆通习之，不拘于时，学于余。余嘉其能行古道，作《师说》以贻之。 4.爱莲说 周敦颐(北宋) 字茂叔《周元公集》 水陆草木之花，可爱者甚藩(fán)。晋陶渊明独爱菊。自李唐来，世人甚爱牡丹。予独爱莲之出淤泥而不染，濯清涟而不妖，中通外直，不蔓不枝，香远益清，亭亭净植，可远观而不可亵玩焉。 予谓菊，花之隐逸者也;牡丹，花之富贵者也;莲，花之君子者也。噫～菊之爱，陶后鲜有闻。莲之爱，同予者何人,牡丹之爱，宜乎众矣～ 5.得道多助，失道寡助 《孟子?公孙丑》(战国)名轲 字子舆 天时不如地利，地利不如人和。 三里之城，七里之郭，环而攻之而不胜。夫还而攻之，必有得天时者矣，然而不胜者，是天时不如地利也。 城非不高也，池非不深也，兵革非不坚利也，米粟非不多也，委而去之，是地利不如人和也。 19 故曰，域民不以封疆之界，固国不以山溪之险，威天下不以兵革之利。得道者多助，失道者寡助。寡助之至，亲戚畔(叛)之。多助之至，天下顺之。以天下之所顺，攻亲戚之所畔，故君子有不战，战必胜矣。 6(生于忧患，死于安乐 《孟子?告子》 舜发于畎亩之中，傅说(yua)举于版筑之间，胶鬲举于鱼盐之中，管夷吾举于士，孙叔敖举于海，百里奚举于市。 故天将降大任于是人也，必先苦其心志，劳其筋骨，饿其体肤，空乏其身，行拂乱其所为，所以动心忍性，曾(增)益其所不能。 人恒过，然后能改;困于心，衡于虑，而后作;征于色，发于声，而后喻。入则无法家拂(bì)士，出则无敌国外患者，国恒亡。然后知生于忧患，而死于安乐也。 7(鱼我所欲也 《孟子》 鱼，我所欲也，熊掌，亦我所欲也，二者不可得兼，舍鱼而取熊掌者也。生，亦我所欲也，义，亦我所欲也，二者不可得兼，舍生而取义者也。生亦我所欲，所欲有甚于生者，故不为苟得也。死亦我所恶，所恶有甚于死者，故患有所不避也。如使人之所欲莫甚于生，则凡可以得生者何不用也,使人之所恶莫甚于死者，则凡可以避患者何不为也,由是则生而有不用也;由是则可以避患而有不为也。是故所欲有甚于生者，所恶有甚于死者。非独贤者有是心也，人皆有之，贤者能勿丧耳。 一箪食，一豆羹，得之则生，弗得则死。呼尔而与之，行道之人弗受;蹴尔而与之，乞人不屑也。 万钟则不辨礼义而受之，万钟于我何加焉～为宫室之美，妻妾之奉，所识穷乏者得我欤,向为身死而不受，今为宫室之美为之;向为身死而不受，今为妻妾之奉为之;向为身死而不受，今为所识穷乏者得我而为之:是亦不可以已乎,此之谓失其本心。 8(劝学 《荀子》(战国)名况 20 君子曰:学不可以已。青，取之于蓝，而青于蓝;冰，水为之，而寒于水。木直中(zh?ng)绳，以为轮，其曲中规。虽有(又)槁(gào)暴(pù)，不复挺者，使之然也。故木受绳则直，金就砺则利，君子博学而日参(cān)省乎己，则知明而行无过矣。 吾尝终日而思矣，不如须臾之所学也;吾尝跂(qí)而望矣，不如登高之博见也。登高而招，臂非加长也，而见者远;顺风而呼，声非加疾也，而闻者彰。假舆马者，非利足也，而致千里;假舟楫者，非能水也，而绝江河。君子生(性)非异也，善假于物也。 积土成山，风雨兴焉;积水成渊，蛟龙生焉;积善成德，而神明自得，圣心备焉。故不积跬步，无以至千里;不积小流，无以成江海。骐骥一跃，不能十步;驽马十驾，功在不舍。锲而舍之，朽木不折;锲而不舍，金石可镂。蚓无爪牙之利，筋骨之强，上食埃土，不饮黄泉，用心一也。蟹六跪而二螯，非蛇鳝之穴无可寄托者，用心躁也。 9(问说 刘开(清)字明东、方来 号孟涂 君子学必好问。问与学，相辅而行者也，非学无以致疑，非问无以广识。好学而不勤问，非真能好学者也。理明矣，而或不达于事，识其大矣，而或不知其细，舍问，其奚决焉, 贤于己者，问焉以破其疑，所谓就有道而正也。不如己者，问焉以求一得，所谓以能问于不能，以多问于寡也。等于己者，问焉以资切磋，所谓交相问难(nàn)，审问而明辨之也。《书》不云乎,“好问则裕。”孟子论“求放心”，而并称曰“学问之道”，学即继以问也。子思言“尊德性”，而归于“道问学”，问且先于学也。 古之人虚中乐善，不择事而问焉，不择人而问焉，取其有益于身而已。是故狂夫之言，圣人择之，刍荛(ráo)之微，先民询之，舜以天子而询于匹夫，以大知而察及迩言，非苟为谦，诚取善之弘也。三代而下，有学而无问，朋友之交，至于劝善规过足矣，其以义理相咨访，孜孜焉唯进修是急，未之多见也，况流俗乎, 是己而非人，俗之同病。学有未达，强(qiǎng)以为知，理有未安，妄以臆度(duo)， 21 如是，则终身几无可问之事。贤于己者，忌之而不愿问焉，不如己者，轻之而不屑问焉，等于己者，狎之而不甘问焉，如是，则天下几无可问之人。人不足服矣，事无可疑矣，此唯师心自用耳。夫自用，其小者也;自知其陋而谨护其失，宁使学终不进，不欲虚以下人，此为害于心术者大，而蹈之者常十之。 不然，则所问非所学焉:询天下之异文鄙事以快言论;甚且心之所已明者，问之人以试其能，事之至难解者，问之人以穷其短。而非是者，虽有切于身心性命之事，可以收取善之益，求一屈己焉而不可得也。嗟乎～学之所以不能几(jī)于古者，非此之由乎, 且夫不好问者，由心不能虚也;心之不虚，由好学之不诚也。亦非不潜心专力之敌，其学非古人之学，其好亦非古人之好也，不能问宜也。 智者千虑，必有一失。圣人所不知，未必不为愚人之所知也;愚人之所能，未必非圣人之不能也。理无专在，而学无止境也，然则问可少耶,《周礼》，外朝以询万民，国之政事尚问及庶人，是故贵可以问贱，贤可以问不肖，而老可以问幼，唯道之所成而已矣。孔文子不耻下问，夫子贤之。古人以问为美德，而并不见其有可耻也，后之君子反争以问为耻，然则古人所深耻者，后世且行之而不以为耻者多矣，悲夫～ 10. 前赤壁赋 苏轼(北宋) 字子瞻 号东坡居士 壬戌之秋，七月既望，苏子与客泛舟游于赤壁之下。清风徐来，水波不兴。举酒属客，诵明月之诗，歌窈窕之章。少焉，月出于东山之上，徘徊于斗牛之间。白露横江，水光接天。纵一苇之所如，凌万顷之茫然。浩浩乎如冯虚御风，而不知其所止;飘飘乎如遗世独立，羽化而登仙。 于是饮酒乐甚，扣舷而歌之。歌曰:“桂棹兮兰桨，击空明兮溯流光;渺渺兮予怀，望美人兮天一方。”客有吹洞箫者，倚歌而和之。其声呜呜然，如怨，如慕，如泣，如诉，余音袅袅，不绝如缕。舞幽壑之潜蛟，泣孤舟之嫠妇。 苏子愀然，正襟危坐而问客曰:“何为其然也,”客曰:“„月明星稀，乌鹊南飞?，此非曹孟德之诗乎,西望夏口，东望武昌，山川相缪，郁乎苍苍，此非曹孟德之困于周郎者乎,方其破荆州，下江陵，顺流而东也，舳舻千里，旌旗蔽空，酾酒临江，横槊赋诗，固一世之雄也，而今安在哉,况吾与子渔樵于江渚之上， 22 侣鱼虾而友麋鹿，驾一叶之扁舟，举匏樽以相属。寄蜉蝣于天地，渺沧海之一粟。哀吾生之须臾，羡长江之无穷。挟飞仙以遨游，抱明月而长终。知不可乎骤得，托遗响于悲风。” 苏子曰:“客亦知夫水与月乎,逝者如斯，而未尝往也;盈虚者如彼，而卒莫消长也。盖将自其变者而观之，则天地曾不能以一瞬;自其不变者而观之，则物与我皆无尽也，而又何羡乎,且夫天地之间，物各有主。苟非吾之所有，虽一毫而莫取。唯江上之清风，与山间之明月，耳得之而为声，目遇之而成色，取之无禁，用之不竭，是造物者之无尽藏也，而吾与子之所共适。” 客喜而笑，洗盏更酌。肴核既尽，杯盘狼藉。相与枕藉乎舟中，不知东方之既白。 11(后赤壁赋 苏轼 是岁十月之望，步自雪堂，将归于临皋。二客从予，过黄泥之坂。霜露既降，木叶尽脱。人影在地，仰见明月。顾而乐之，行歌相答。已而叹曰:“有客无酒，有酒无肴，月白风清，如此良夜何,”客曰:“今者薄暮，举网得鱼，巨口细鳞，状如松江之鲈。顾安所得酒乎,”归而谋诸妇。妇曰:“我有斗酒，藏之久矣，以待子不时之需。” 于是携酒与鱼，复游于赤壁之下。江流有声，断岸千尺，山高月小，水落石出。曾日月之几何，而江山不可复识矣～予乃摄衣而上，履巉岩，披蒙茸，踞虎豹，登虬龙，攀栖鹘之危巢，俯冯夷之幽宫，盖二客不能从焉。划然长啸，草木震动，山鸣谷应，风起云涌。予亦悄然而悲，肃然而恐，凛乎其不可留也。反而登舟，放乎中流，听其所止而休焉。时夜将半，四顾寂寥。适有孤鹤，横江东来，翅如车轮，玄裳缟衣，戛然长鸣，掠予舟而西也。 须臾客去，予亦就睡。梦一道士，羽衣蹁跹，过临皋之下，揖予而言曰:“赤壁之游乐乎,”问其姓名，俯而不答。“呜呼噫嘻～我知之矣。畴昔之夜，飞鸣而过我者，非子也耶,”道士顾笑，予亦惊寤。开户视之，不见其处。 12(卖炭翁 白居易(唐) 字乐天 号香山居士《白氏长庆集》 23 卖炭翁，伐薪烧炭南山中。满面尘灰烟火色，两鬓苍苍十指黑。卖炭得钱何所营,身上衣裳口中食。可怜身上衣正单，心忧炭贱愿天寒。夜来城外一尺雪，晓驾炭车碾冰辙。牛困人饥日以高，市南门外泥中歇。 翩翩两骑(jì)来是谁,黄衣使者白衫儿。手把文书口称敕，回车叱牛牵向北。一车炭，千余斤，宫使驱将(jiāng)惜不得。半匹红绡一丈绫，系(jì)向牛头充炭直(值)。 13(木兰诗 《乐府诗集》 北朝民歌 唧唧复唧唧，木兰当户织。不闻机杼声，惟闻女叹息。 问女何所思，问女何所忆。女亦无所思，女亦无所忆。昨夜见军帖(tiě)，可汗大点兵，军书十二卷，卷卷有爷名。阿爷无大儿，木兰无长兄，愿为市鞍马，从此替爷征。 东市买骏马，西市买鞍鞯(jiān)，南市买辔头，北市买长鞭。旦辞爷娘去，暮宿黄河边，不闻爷娘唤女声，但闻黄河流水鸣溅溅(jiàn)。旦辞黄河去，暮至黑山头，不闻爷娘唤女声，但闻燕山胡骑鸣啾啾。 万里赴戎机，关山度若飞。朔气传金柝，寒光照铁衣。将军百战死，壮士十年归。 归来见天子，天子坐明堂。策勋十二转，赏赐百千强。可汗问所欲，木兰不用尚书郎;愿驰千里足，送儿还故乡。 爷娘闻女来，出郭相扶将(jiāng);阿姊闻妹来，当户理红妆;小弟闻姊来，磨刀霍霍向猪羊。开我东阁门，坐我西阁床，脱我战时袍，着我旧时裳，当窗理云鬓，对镜帖(贴)花黄。出门看火(伙)伴，火伴皆惊忙:同行十二年，不知木兰是女郎。 雄兔脚扑朔，雌兔眼迷离;双兔傍(bàng)地走，安能辨我是雄雌, 14.石钟山记 苏轼 24 《水经》云:“彭蠡之口有石钟山焉。”骊元以为下临深潭，微风鼓浪，水石相搏，声如洪钟。是说也，人常疑之。今以钟磬置水中，虽大风浪不能鸣也，而况石乎～至唐李渤始访其遗踪，得双石于潭上，扣而聆之，南声函胡，北音清越，枹(fú)止响腾，余韵徐歇。自以为得之矣。然是说也，余尤疑之。石之铿然有声者，所在皆是也，而此独以钟名，何哉, 元丰七年六月丁丑，余自齐安舟行适临汝，而长子迈将赴饶之德兴尉，送之至湖口，因得观所谓钟者。侍僧使小童扶斧，于乱石间择其一二扣之，硿硿(kōng)焉，余固笑而不信也。至莫(暮)夜月明，独与迈乘小舟，至绝壁下。大石侧立千尺，如猛兽奇鬼，森然欲搏人;而山上栖鹘(hú)，闻人声亦惊起，磔磔(zh?)云霄间;又有若老人咳且笑于山谷中者，或曰此鹳(guàn)鹤也。余方心动欲还，而大声发于水上，噌(zēng)吰(h?ng)如钟鼓不绝。舟人大恐。徐而察之，则山下皆石穴罅，不知其浅深，微波入焉，涵淡澎湃而此为此也。舟回至两山间，将入港口，有大石当中流，可坐百人，空中而多窍，与风水相吞吐，有窾(kuǎn)坎镗(tāng)鞳(tà)之声，与向之噌吰相应，如乐作焉。因笑谓迈曰:“汝识之乎,噌吰者，周景王之无射也，窾坎镗鞳者，魏庄子之歌钟也。古之人不余欺也～” 事不目见耳闻，而臆断其有无，可乎,骊元之所见闻，殆于余同，而言之不详;士大夫终不肯以小舟夜泊绝壁之下，故莫能知～而渔工水师虽知而不能言。此世所以不传也。而陋者乃以斧斤考击而求之，自以为得其实。余是以记之，盖叹骊元之简，而笑李渤之陋也。 15(五人墓碑记 张溥(明) 字天如 《七录斋集》 五人者，盖当蓼(liǎo)洲周公之被逮(dài)，激于义而死焉者也。至于今，郡之贤士大夫请于当道，即除魏阉废祠之址以葬之;且立石于其墓之门，以旌(jīng)其所为。呜呼，亦盛矣哉～ 夫五人之死，去今之墓而葬焉，其为时止十有一月耳。夫十有一月之中，凡富贵之子，慷慨得志之徒，其疾病而死，死而湮没不足道者，亦已众矣;况草野之无闻者欤,独五人之皦皦(jiǎo)，何也, 25