医学专业英语翻译1-4单元

医学专业翻译1-4单元 第一单元 To understand the human body it is necessary to understand how its parts are put together and how they function. The study of the body's structure is called anatomy; the study of the body's function is known as physiology. Other studies of human body include biology, cytology, embryology, histology, endocrinology, hematology, immunology, psychology etc.了解人体各部分的组成及其功能，对于认识人体 是必需的。研究人体结构的科学叫解剖学;研究人体功能的科学叫生理学。其他研究人体的 科学包括生物学、细胞学、胚胎学、组织学、内分泌学、血液学、遗传学、免疫学、心理学 等等。Anatomists find it useful to divide the human body into ten systems, that is, the skeletal system, the muscular system, the circulatory system, the respiratory system, the digestive system, the urinary system, the endocrine system, the nervous system, the reproductive system and the skin. The principal parts of each of these systems are described in this article.解剖学家发现把整个人体分成骨骼、肌肉、循环、 呼吸、消化、泌尿、内分泌、神经、生殖系统以及感觉器官的做法是很有帮助的。本文描绘 并阐述了各系统的主要部分。The skeletal system is made of bones, joints between bones, and cartilage. Its function is to provide support and protection for the soft tissues and the organs of the body and to provide points of attachment for the muscles that move the body. There are 206 bones in the human skeleton. They have various shapes - long, short, cube - shaped, flat, and irregular. Many of the long bones have an interior space that is filled with bone marrow, where blood cells are made.骨骼系 统由骨、关节以及软骨组成。它对软组织及人体器官起到支持和保护作用，并牵动骨胳肌， 引起各种运动。人体有206根骨头。骨形态不一，有长的、短、立方的、扁的及不规则的。 许多长骨里有一个内层间隙，里面充填着骨髓，这即是血细胞的制造场所。A joint is where bones are joined together. The connection can be so close that no movement is possible, as is the case in the skull. Other kinds of joints permit movement: either back and forth in one plane - as with the hinge joint of the elbow - or movement around a single axis - as with the pivot joint that permits the head to rotate. A wide range of movement is possible when the ball - shaped end of one bone fits into a socket at the end of another bone, as they do in the shoulder and hip joints. 关节把骨与骨连接起来。颅 骨不能运动，是由于骨与骨之间的连接太紧密。但其它的关节可允许活动，如一个平面上的 前后屈伸运动，如肘关节;或是绕轴心旋转运动，如枢轴点允许头部转动。如果一根骨的球 形末端插入另一根骨的臼槽里，大辐度的运动(如肩关节、髋关节)即成为可能。Cartilage is a more flexible material than bone. It serves as a protective, cushioning layer where bones come together. It also connects the ribs to the breastbone and provides a structural base for the nose and the external ear. An infant's skeleton is made of cartilage that is gradually replaced by bone as the infant grows into an adult.软骨是一种比一般骨更具韧性的物质。它是骨连结的保护、缓冲层。它把肋骨与胸骨连结起 来，也是鼻腔与内耳的结构基础。一个婴儿的骨骼就是由软骨组成，然后不断生长、骨化， 使婴儿长大成人。The muscular system allows the body to move, and its contractions produce heat, which helps maintain a constant body temperature. Striated muscles can be consciously controlled. The ends of these muscles are attached to different bones by connective tissue bands so that when the muscle contracts, one bone moves in relation to the other. This makes it possible to move the whole body, as when walking, or to move just one part of the body, as when bending a finger. Contractions of the heart and smooth muscles are not under conscious control. Smooth muscles are found in the walls of organs such as the stomach and the intestines and serve to move the contents of these organs through the body.肌肉系统使躯体运动，肌肉收缩产生的热有 助于维持一个恒定的体温。人体能够有意识地控制条纹肌。结缔组织使肌肉末端附着于不同 的骨面上，所以当肌肉收缩时，两骨彼此靠近而产生运动。这也就使整个人体可以运动起来， 如走路，运动躯体某个部位，如弯曲手指。心脏收缩和平滑肌收缩就不是被意识所控制的。 器官壁内层的平滑肌，如胃肠壁的平滑肌把胃肠中的物质运送到全身。The circulatory system. All parts of the body must have nourishment and oxygen in order to function and grow, and their waste products must be removed before they accumulate and poison the body. The circulatory system distributes needed materials and removes unneeded ones. It is made up of the heart, blood vessels, and blood, which together make up the cardiovascular system. The blood is also part of the body's defense system. It has antibodies and white blood cells that protect the body against foreign invaders. 循环系统:机体的所有部分需要营养物质和氧气来使之发挥功能和生长，也需要在这些器官 所产生的废物积聚而危害生命之前将其排除。循环系统运送有用物质，排泄废物。心血管系 统是循环系统的组成之一;心血管系统包括心脏、血管及血液。血液也是机体防御系统的一 个部分，血液中有抗体及白细胞来防止机体受到外来的侵袭。 The heart is a muscle that is divided into two nearly identical halves: one half receives blood from the lungs and sends it to the rest of the body, the other half sends blood that has traveled through the body back to the lungs. When the heart muscle contracts, the blood is forced out into arteries and enters small capillaries. Blood returns to the heart through veins. 心脏是一块被分为几乎对等两半的肌肉。一半吸收来自肺部的血液，并将血 液运送到机体的其余部位，另一半使流经全身的血液回流人肺。心脏收缩时，动脉把全身血 液输送到毛细血管。静脉输送血液返回心脏。 Also functioning in circulation is the lymphatic system. Some of the fluid that surrounds cells does not reenter the blood vessels directly. This fluid, called lymph, returns to the heart by way of another system of channels - the lymph vessels. Lymph nodes along these vessels filter the fluid before it reenters the blood. The spleen is a large lymphatic organ that filters the blood. 淋巴系统也是循环系统的一个组成部分。一些细胞周围的体液不是直接回流入血 管通道，这种体液叫淋巴液，它是流经另一个管道系统——淋巴管而回流人心脏。沿淋巴管 的淋巴结将淋巴液过滤，过滤后再回流人血液。脾是一个过滤血液的大淋巴器官。 The respiratory system takes in oxygen from the air and expels carbon dioxide and water vapor. Air enters the nose and mouth and travels through the larynx, and trachea. The trachea divides to enter each of the two lungs and then divides more than 20 times to form a very large number of small air spaces. Oxygen from the air enters the blood through capillaries in the walls of these air spaces, and the blood release carbon dioxide into the air spaces to be exhaled. 呼吸系统从空气中摄取氧气，并将二氧化碳、 水蒸气排出体外。空气经鼻腔、口腔人喉管、气管。气管分成左右支气管，各连结左右肺， 左右支气管再分枝20多次，在终端形成大量微小的肺泡。从空气摄取的氧气流经这些肺泡壁 内的毛细血管流入血液，血液再经肺泡把释放出的二氧化碳排出体外。 The digestive system consists of a tube extending from the mouth to the anus. In it, food and fluids are taken in, moved through the body, and broken down into small molecules that are absorbed into the circulatory system. This breakdown, known as digestion, is both a mechanical and a chemical process. Food enters through the mouth, where chewing and saliva start to break it up and make it easier to swallow. Next, the food travels down through the esophagus to the stomach. Contractions of the stomach's muscular wall continue to break down the food mechanically, and chemical digestion continues when acid and enzymes are secreted into the stomach cavity. 消化系统是一个从口腔 直到肛门的管道。食物和液体在消化道里被吸收，在肠道里移动时，被分解成小分子物质后 再进入循环系统。这种分解，即消化，是一个机械过程，也是一个化学过程。食物进入口腔 里，咀嚼和唾液开始将食物粉碎，使之便于吞咽。接着，食物经食管人胃。胃肌壁的收缩继 续机械化地分解食物，而当酸和酶分泌入胃腔时，化学性消化开始。 The liquified food gradually passes into the small intestine. In the first part of the small intestine, called the duodenum, enzymes from the pancreas are added. These enzymes complete the chemical breakdown of the food. The digestion of fat is aided by bile, which is made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. The small intestine of an adult is about 21 feet (6.4 meters) long. Most of its length is devoted to absorbing the nutrients released during these digestive activities. 液体化食物逐渐进入小肠。小肠的起始部 分叫十二指肠，胰腺分泌的酶辅助食物消化。这些酶完成食物的化学分解。肝脏分泌的胆汁 贮存在胆囊内，胆汁有助于脂肪消化。一个成年人的小肠有21英尺(6.4米)长。小肠的大 部分肠段用来吸收消化过程中释放的营养物质。 The liquid remainder of the food enters the large intestine, or colon, which is about 12 feet (3.7 meters) long. It is more than twice as wide as the small intestine. In the large intestine most of the fluid is absorbed, and the relatively dry residues are expelled. 液状的剩余食物进入大肠， 或结肠，它大约有12英尺(3.7米)长。大肠是小肠的两倍多宽。大部分液体在大肠内被吸 收，相对干化的残余物被排出体外。 The urinary system maintains normal levels of water and of certain small molecules such as sodium and potassium in the body. It does this by passing blood through the kidneys, two efficient filtering organs that get rid of any excess of various molecules and conserve those molecules that are in short supply. 泌尿系统维持水分及体内某些小分子物质，如钠、钾的正常水平。身体是通过让’ 肾过滤血液来做到这一点的。肾是两个有效的过滤器官，它滤出各种多余的小分子物质，保 留那些供应不足的小分子物质。 The fluid that leaves the kidneys, known as urine, travels through a tube called the ureter to the bladder. The bladder holds the urine until it is voided from the body through another tube, the urethra. 从肾流出的液 体，即尿，通过输尿管人膀胱。膀胱起贮存尿液的作用，直到尿经膀胱另一端的管道排出。 The endocrine system. The two systems that control body activities are the endocrine system and the nervous system. The former exerts its control by means of chemical messengers called hormones. Hormones are produced by a variety of endocrine glands, which release the hormones directly into the blood stream. 内分泌系统。内分泌和神 经是调控机体活动的两个系统，前者依靠其化学信使——激素发挥作用。激素是由各种内分 泌腺体制造，并直接被释放入血流 A major gland is the pituitary, which is located under the brain in the middle of the head. It produces at least eight hormones, which affect growth, kidney function, and development of the sex organs. Because some of the pituitary's hormones stimulate other glands to produce their own hormones, the pituitary called the master gland. 脑垂体是一个主要腺体，它位于头中部脑下方。它至 少分泌八种激素，这些激素对人体生长、肝功能及性器官发育有影响。因为脑垂体分泌的一 些激素促进其他腺体分泌激素，所以脑垂体是主要腺体。 Another gland, the thyroid, is located between the collar bones. Its hormone controls the rate of the body's metabolism. The sex organs (ovaries end testes) make the sex cells and also make hormones that control certain characteristics of males and females. Located on top of each kidney is the adrenal gland, which produces cortisone and adrenaline. The pancreas produces not only digestive enzymes but also 3 insulin and glucagon, which control the body's use of sugar and starches. 另一个腺体，甲状腺，位于锁骨之间。 甲状腺激素调控着机体新陈代谢的速度。性器官(卵巢、睾丸)分泌性细胞和性激素，这些 激素控制着男性和女性的某些特征。每边肾上方是肾上腺，它分泌可的松和肾上腺激素。胰 腺不仅分泌消化酶，而且分泌胰岛素和高血糖素，这两种激素控制机体的糖分及淀粉的消耗。 The nervous system. The brain, the spinal cord and the nerve - also controls body activities. The lower parts of the brain control basic functions such as breathing and heart rate as well as body temperature, hunger, and thirst. Above these regions are the centers for sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste, and the regions that direct voluntary muscular activities of the arms and legs. Performed here are the higher functions of integrating and processing information. 神经系统——脑、脊髓及神经， 也调控机体活动。脑的偏下部位控制着诸如呼吸、心跳、体温、饥渴的基本活动。而脑的偏 上部位则是视觉、听觉、触觉、嗅觉及味觉中心，也是指挥臂、腿随意肌肉运动的区域。神 经系统更高级的功能是整合、处理信息。 The brain receives and sends information by means of nerves, many of which lie partly in the spinal cord. The spinal cord is protected by the spinal column. Nerves enter and leave the spinal cord at each level of the body, traveling to and from the arms, legs, and trunk. These nerves bring information from the various sense organs. The information is processed by the brain, and then messages are carried back to muscles and glands through out the body. 脑 通过神经收集并传送信息，许多神经部分地分布在脊髓里。脊髓由脊柱保护。在机体每一级， 神经传人、传出脊髓，往返于臂、腿、躯体。这些神经输送来自各种感觉器官的信息。信息 经脑处理后输送回全身及腺体 The reproductive system is constructed differently for males and females. The male reproductive system is responsible for producing, transporting and maintaining viable sperm (the male sex cell). It also produces the male sex hormone, testosterone, which regulates the development of a beard, pubic hair, a deep voice and other bodily characteristics of the adult male. 男、女性的 生殖系统不同。男性生殖系统产生、输送、维持能存活的精子(男性性细胞)。它也分泌男性 激素、睾酮，以此调节胡须、阴毛、深沉嗓音极其他成年男子身体发育的特征。 The female productive system is responsible for producing and transporting ova (the female sex cells), eliminating ova from the body when they are not fertilized by sperm, nourishing and providing a place for growth of an embryo when an ovum is fertilized by sperm, and nourishing a newborn child. The female reproductive system also produces the female sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone, which regulate the development of breasts and other bodily characteristics of the mature female. 女性生殖系统产 生、输送卵子(女性性细胞)，将未受精的卵子排出体外，而当精、卵结合时，女性生殖系统 培养、提供胚胎生长场所，并孕育新生儿。女性生殖系统也分泌女性性激素——雌激素和孕 酮，以此调节乳房及其他成熟女性身体发育的特征。 The skin is a complete layer that protects the inner structures of the body, and it is the largest of the body's organs. It keeps out foreign substances and prevents excessive water evaporation. The nerves in the skin provide tactile information. The skin also helps keep the body's temperature close to 37 ?C, heat is conserved by reducing blood flow through the skin or is expended by increasing blood flow and by evaporation of sweat from the skin. Hair and nails are accessory structures of the skin. 皮肤是保护肌体内层结构的完整层，也是机体的最大器官。皮肤防御外来侵袭，防止过多水分蒸发。皮肤上的神经提供触觉信息。皮肤也能将体温维持到98.6华氏度(约37摄氏度)。通过皮肤的血流量降低时，热量就被储存起来，通过皮肤的血流增加及汗液蒸发时，热量就散发。头发及指甲是皮肤的附属结构。解人体各部分的组成及其功能，对于认识人体是必需的。研究人体结构的科学叫解剖学;研究人体功能的科学叫生理学。其他研究人体的科学包括生物学、细胞学、胚胎学、组织学、内分泌学、血液学、遗传学、免疫学、心理学等等。 解剖学家发现把整个人体分成骨骼、肌肉、循环、呼吸、消化、泌尿、内分泌、神经、生殖系统以及感觉器官的做法是很有帮助的。本文描绘并阐述了各系统的主要部分。 骨骼系统由骨、关节以及软骨组成。它对软组织及人体器官起到支持和保护作用，并牵动骨胳肌，引起各种运动。人体有206根骨头。骨形态不一，有长的、短、立方的、扁的及不规则的。许多长骨里有一个内层间隙，里面充填着骨髓，这即是血细胞的制造场所。 关节把骨与骨连接起来。颅骨不能运动，是由于骨与骨之间的连接太紧密。但其它的关节可允许活动，如一个平面上的前后屈伸运动，如肘关节;或是绕轴心旋转运动，如枢轴点允许头部转动。如果一根骨的球形末端插入另一根骨的臼槽里，大辐度的运动(如肩关节、髋关节)即成为可能。 软骨是一种比一般骨更具韧性的物质。它是骨连结的保护、缓冲层。它把肋骨与胸骨连结起来，也是鼻腔与内耳的结构基础。一个婴儿的骨骼就是由软骨组成，然后不断生长、骨化，使婴儿长大成人。 肌肉系统使躯体运动，肌肉收缩产生的热有助于维持一个恒定的体温。人体能够有意识地控制条纹肌。结缔组织使肌肉末端附着于不同的骨面上，所以当肌肉收缩时，两骨彼此靠近而产生运动。这也就使整个人体可以运动起来，如走路，运动躯体某个部位，如弯曲手指。 心脏收缩和平滑肌收缩就不是被意识所控制的。器官壁内层的平滑肌，如胃肠壁的平滑肌把胃肠中的物质运送到全身。 循环系统:机体的所有部分需要营养物质和氧气来使之发挥功能和生长，也需要在这些器官所产生的废物积聚而危害生命之前将其排除。循环系统运送有用物质，排泄废物。心血管系统是循环系统的组成之一;心血管系统包括心脏、血管及血液。血液也是机体防御系统的一个部分，血液中有抗体及白细胞来防止机体受到外来的侵袭。 心脏是一块被分为几乎对等两半的肌肉。一半吸收来自肺部的血液，并将血液运送到机体的其余部位，另一半使流经全身的血液回流人肺。心脏收缩时，动脉把全身血液输送到毛细血管。静脉输送血液返回心脏。 淋巴系统也是循环系统的一个组成部分。一些细胞周围的体液不是直接回流入血管通道，这种体液叫淋巴液，它是流经另一个管道系统——淋巴管而回流人心脏。沿淋巴管的淋巴结将淋巴液过滤，过滤后再回流人血液。脾是一个过滤血液的大淋巴器官。 呼吸系统从空气中摄取氧气，并将二氧化碳、水蒸气排出体外。空气经鼻腔、口腔人喉管、气管。气管分成左右支气管，各连结左右肺，左右支气管再分枝20多次，在终端形成大量微小的肺泡。从空气摄取的氧气流经这些肺泡壁内的毛细血管流入血液，血液再经肺泡把释放出的二氧化碳排出体外。 消化系统是一个从口腔直到肛门的管道。食物和液体在消化道里被吸收，在肠道里移动时，被分解成小分子物质后再进入循环系统。这种分解，即消化，是一个机械过程，也是一个化学过程。 食物进入口腔里，咀嚼和唾液开始将食物粉碎，使之便于吞咽。接着，食物经食管人胃。胃肌壁的收缩继续机械化地分解食物，而当酸和酶分泌入胃腔时，化学性消化开始。 液体化食物逐渐进入小肠。小肠的起始部分叫十二指肠，胰腺分泌的酶辅助食物消化。这些酶完成食物的化学分解。肝脏分泌的胆汁贮存在胆囊内，胆汁有助于脂肪消化。一个成年人的小肠有21英尺(6.4米)长。小肠的大部分肠段用来吸收消化过程中释放的营养物质。 液状的剩余食物进入大肠，或结肠，它大约有12英尺(3.7米)长。大肠是小肠的两倍多宽。大部分液体在大肠内被吸收，相对干化的残余物被排出体外。 泌尿系统维持水分及体内某些小分子物质，如钠、钾的正常水平。身体是通过让’肾过滤血液来做到这一点的。肾是两个有效的过滤器官，它滤出各种多余的小分子物质，保留那些供应不足的小分子物质。 从肾流 出的液体，即尿，通过输尿管人膀胱。膀胱起贮存尿液的作用，直到尿经膀胱另一端的管道 排出。 内分泌系统。内分泌和神经是调控机体活动的两个系统，前者依靠其化学信使——激 素发挥作用。激素是由各种内分泌腺体制造，并直接被释放入血流。 脑垂体是一个主要腺体， 它位于头中部脑下方。它至少分泌八种激素，这些激素对人体生长、肝功能及性器官发育有 影响。因为脑垂体分泌的一些激素促进其他腺体分泌 激素，所以脑垂体是主要腺体。 另一 个腺体，甲状腺，位于锁骨之间。甲状腺激素调控着机体新陈代谢的速度。性器官(卵巢、 睾丸)分泌性细胞和性激素，这些激素控制着男性和女性的某些特征。每边肾上方是肾上腺， 它分泌可的松和肾上腺激素。胰腺不仅分泌消化酶，而且分泌胰岛素和高血糖素，这两种激 素控制机体的糖分及淀粉的消耗。 神经系统——脑、脊髓及神经，也调控机体活动。脑的偏 下部位控制着诸如呼吸、心跳、体温、饥渴的基本活动。而脑的偏上部位则是视觉、听觉、 触觉、嗅觉及味觉中心，也是指挥臂、腿随意肌肉运动的区域。神经系统更高级的功能是整 合、处理信息。 脑通过神经收集并传送信息，许多神经部分地分布在脊髓里。脊髓由脊柱保 护。在机体每一级，神经传人、传出脊髓，往返于臂、腿、躯体。这些神经输送来自各种感 觉器官的信息。信息经脑处理后输送回全身及腺体。 男、女性的生殖系统不同。男性生殖系 统产生、输送、维持能存活的精子(男性性细胞)。它也分泌男性激素、睾酮，以此调节胡须、 阴毛、深沉嗓音极其他成年男子身体发育的特征。 女性生殖系统产生、输送卵子(女性性细 胞)，将未受精的卵子排出体外，而当精、卵结合时，女性生殖系统培养、提供胚胎生长场所， 并孕育新生儿。女性生殖系统也分泌女性性激素——雌激素和孕酮，以此调节乳房及其他成 熟女性身体发育的特征。 皮肤是保护肌体内层结构的完整层，也是机体的最大器官。皮肤防 御外来侵袭，防止过多水分蒸发。皮肤上的神经提供触觉信息。皮肤也能将体温维持到98.6 华氏度(约37摄氏度)。通过皮肤的血流量降低时，热量就被储存起来，通过皮肤的血流增 加及汗液蒸发时，热量就散发。头发及指甲是皮肤的附属结构。第二单元 Human Diseases The brief survey of the human body in Chapter One has given us a glimpse into two different studies that are considered the fundamentals of medical sciences, namely anatomy and physiology. However, the picture is not complete without considering pathology, the science that deals with the structural and functional changes produced by the disease. In fact, the modern approach to the study of disorder emphasizes the close relationship of the pathological and physiological aspects and the need to understand the fundamentals of each in treating any body diseases. 第一章中，通过对人体的概 论，即解剖学与生理学，我们对两种被认为是医学基础的不同学科有了一个大致的印象。然 而如果我们不考虑病理学，这门涉及由疾病带来的结构和功能变化的学科，上述的人体概论 就不是完整的。实际上，现代对疾病的研究强调了病理学与生理学方面的密切关系，强 调了我们在治疗任何人体疾病方面需要了解病理学与生理学基础的重要性。 Then what is a disease? It may be defined as a condition that impairs the proper function of the body or of one of its parts. Every living thing, both plants and animals, can succumb to disease. People, for example, are often infected by tiny bacteria, but bacteria, in turn, can be infected by even more minute viruses. 那么什么是疾病呢,它可能被 定义为正常的功能或是部分功能遭受损害时的一种状态。每一种生物、植物和动物，都会受 制于疾病。例如，人类常常被微小的细菌所感染，但是，反过来说，细菌又能够被甚至更加 微小的病毒所感染。 Hundreds of different diseases exist. Each has its own particular set of symptoms and signs, clues that enable a physician to diagnose the problem. A symptom is something a patient can detect, such as fever, bleeding, or pain. A sign is something a doctor can detect, such as a swollen blood vessel or an enlarged internal body organ. 许多种疾病存在于世。每一种都有其特定的症状、征兆和线索，医生 能以此诊断疾病之所在。症状是病人自己就能觉察到的，比如，高烧、流血，或是疼痛。而 征兆则是医生能够观察到的，比如，血管扩张或是体内器官肿大。 Diseases can be classified differently. For instance, an epidemic disease is one that strikes many persons in a community. When it strikes the same region year after year it is an endemic disease. An acute disease has a quick onset and runs a short course. An acute heart attack, for example, often hits without warning and can be quickly fatal. A chronic disease has a slow onset and runs a sometimes years-long course. The gradual onset and long course of rheumatic fever makes it a chronic ailment. Between the acute and chronic, another type is called subacute. 疾病可以划分为不同的种类，例如，流行病 是一种在某一社区内侵袭许多人的疾病。当它年复一年地袭击同一社区，就成了一种地方病。 急性病发作快，但病程短，举个例子来说，急性心脏病发作常常没有前兆，而且会很快致命。 慢性病发作则慢，但病程有时会长达几年之久。风湿热正是由于发病慢、病程长而成为一种 慢性失调病(慢性病)。而介于急性与慢性之间的另一种类型，就被称为亚急性。 Diseases can also be classified by their causative agents. For instance, an infectious, or communicable, disease is the one that can be passed between persons such as by means of airborne droplets from a cough or sneeze. Tiny organisms such as bacteria and fungi can produce infectious diseases. So can viruses. So can tiny worms. Whatever the causative agent might be, it survives in the person it infects and is passed on to another. Sometimes, a disease-producing organism gets into a person who shows no symptoms of the disease. The asymptomatic carrier can then pass the disease on to someone else without even knowing he has it. 疾病也可以依其病原体来划分，例如，传 染病也叫作可传播的疾病，就是一种通过咳嗽和打喷嚏造成的空气小粒来传播的疾病。极小 的有机体，如，细菌和真菌可导致传染病。病毒和小虫子也不例外。不论病原体会是什么样， 只要它存活于人体内就能够传染给别人。有时，一个致病的有机体侵人人体后，该人却没有 显示带病的症状。于是无症状的病原携带者甚至在自己也不知情的情况下就把疾病传染给了 他人。 Noninfectious diseases are caused by malfunctions of the body. These include organ or tissue degeneration, erratic cell growth, and faulty blood formation and flow. Also included are disturbances of the stomach and intestine, the endocrine system, and the urinary and reproductive systems. Some diseases can be caused by diet deficiencies, lapses in the body's defense system, or a poorly operating nervous system. -long course. The gradual onset and long course of rheumatic fever makes it a chronic ailment. Between the acute and chronic, another type is called subacute. 疾病可以划分为不同的种类，例如，流行病是一种在某一社区内侵袭许多人的疾病。当它年 复一年地袭击同一社区，就成了一种地方病。急性病发作快，但病程短，举个例子来说，急 性心脏病发作常常没有前兆，而且会很快致命。慢性病发作则慢，但病程有时会长达几年之 久。风湿热正是由于发病慢、病程长而成为一种慢性失调病(慢性病)。而介于急性与慢性之 间的另一种类型，就被称为亚急性。 Diseases can also be classified by their causative agents. For instance, an infectious, or communicable, disease is the one that can be passed between persons such as by means of airborne droplets from a cough or sneeze. Tiny organisms such as bacteria and fungi can produce infectious diseases. So can viruses. So can tiny worms. Whatever the causative agent might be, it survives in the person it infects and is passed on to another. Sometimes, a disease-producing organism gets into a person who shows no symptoms of the disease. The asymptomatic carrier can then pass the disease on to someone else without even knowing he has it. 疾病也可以依其病原体来划分，例如，传染病也叫作可传播的疾病，就是一种通过咳嗽和打 喷嚏造成的空气小粒来传播的疾病。极小的有机体，如，细菌和真菌可导致传染病。病毒和 小虫子也不例外。不论病原体会是什么样，只要它存活于人体内就能够传染给别人。有时， 一个致病的有机体侵人人体后，该人却没有显示带病的症状。于是无症状的病原携带者甚至 在自己也不知情的情况下就把疾病传染给了他人。 Noninfectious diseases are caused by malfunctions of the body. These include organ or tissue degeneration, erratic cell growth, and faulty blood formation and flow. Also included are disturbances of the stomach and intestine, the endocrine system, and the urinary and reproductive systems. Some diseases can be caused by diet deficiencies, lapses in the body's defense system, or a poorly operating nervous system. 非传染性疾病是由身体功能失调引起的。这包括 血管或组织退化、异常细胞生成，以及异常的血液生成和血液循环。当然其中也包括胃、肠、 内分泌系统和泌尿生殖系统的紊乱。一些疾病也可能是由饮食不足、身体抵抗力下降、或是 神经系统工作不造成的。 Disability and illnesses can also be provoked by psychological and social factors. These ailments include drug addiction, obesity, malnutrition, and pollution-caused health problems. 心理因素和社会因素也会引发残废和疾病，这些 病包括吸毒成性、肥胖、营养不良和由污染造成的健康问题。 Furthermore, a thousand or more inheritable birth defects result from alternations in gene patterns. Since tiny genes are responsible for producing the many chemicals needed by the body, missing or improperly operating genes can seriously impair health. Genetic disorders that affect body chemistry are called inborn errors of metabolism. Some forms of mental retardation are hereditary. 而且，有上千种乃至为数更多的遗传性出生缺陷是由于基因 变化而造成的。由于小小的基因负责着生产许多身体所需的化学物质，它的遗失或是工作状 态不良都会严重损害健康。因基因失调而被影响了的身体化学反应被称之为先天性代谢失调。 一些眢力发育迟缓就是因遗传而造成的。 How Germs Invade the Body病菌是怎样侵袭身体 Humans live in a world where many other living things compete for food and places to breed. The pathogenic organisms, or pathogens, often broadly called germs, that cause many diseases are able to invade the human body and use its cells and fluids for their own needs. Ordinarily, the body's defense system can ward off these invaders.人类生活在有一个有许多其它生物竞争食物和求得繁衍的世界里。很多致病的有机体或病原 体，通常被我们广义地称为病菌的东西能侵入人体并利用其细胞和组织液来供它们自身的需 求。一般来讲，身体防御系统能够阻止这些入侵者。 Pathogenic organisms can enter the body in various ways. Some - such as these that cause the common cold, pneumonia, and tuberculosis - are breathed in. Others - such as those that cause venereal diseases - enter through sexual contact of human bodies. Still others - such as those that cause hepatitis, colitis, cholera, and typhoid fever-get in the body through contaminated food, water or utensils. 病原有机体能通过多种方式进入身体。它们的一 些是被呼吸进体内的，比如那些引起普通感冒、肺炎和肺结核的病菌;其它的是通过人体性 接触进入的，比如那些引起花柳病的病原体;还有另外的一些是通过污染了的食物、水或器 皿进入体内的，比如那些引起肝炎、霍乱和伤寒热的病原体。 Insects can spread disease by acting as vectors, or carriers. Flies can carry germs from human waste or other tainted materials to food and beverages. Germs may also enter the body through the bite of a mosquito, louse, or other insect vector.昆虫作为媒介动物或是病原携带者 会传播疾病。苍蝇能将病菌从人类的废物或其它腐烂的中带到食物和饮料中去。通过蚊 子、虱子或其它媒介动物的叮咬，病菌也可能进入体内。 How the Body Fights Disease身 体是怎样抵抗疾病的 As a first line of defense, a healthy body has a number of physical barriers against infection. The skin and mucous membranes covering the body or lining its openings offer considerable resistance to invasion by bacteria and other infectious organisms. If these physical barriers are injured or burned, infection resistance drops. In minor cases, only boils or pimples may develop. In major cases, however, large areas of the body might become infected.作为第一条防线，一个健康的 身体有许多屏障来抵御感染的发生。覆盖在体表或者器官开口处的皮肤和粘膜能在很大程度 上抵抗细菌或其它感染体的入侵。如果这些屏障遭到了损坏或烧伤，身体对感染的抵抗力就 会下降。在一些病情较轻的病例中，疥子和小脓胞可能会发生。在病情较重的病例中，身体 的大面积区域则可能会被感染。 Breathing passages are especially vulnerable to infection. Fortunately, they are lined with mucus-secreting cells that trap tiny organisms and dust particles. Also, minute hairs called cilia line the breathing passages, wave like a field of wheat, and gently sweep matter out of the respiratory tract. In addition, foreign matter in the breathing passages can often be ejected by nose blowing, coughing, sneezing, and throat clearing. Unfortunately, repeated infection, smoking and other causes can damage the respiratory passageways and make them more susceptible to infection.呼吸通道尤其容易受到感染，幸运的是，呼吸道内覆 盖满了能分泌粘液的细胞，它们能捕捉微小的有机体和尘粒。另外，被叫做纤毛的细小的毛 发也覆盖了呼吸道，它们象微风下麦田里的小麦一样舞动着，轻轻地将异物扫出呼吸道。除 此之外，呼吸道内的异物还常常因为擤鼻涕、咳嗽、打喷嚏和清喉咙而被弹出。不幸的是反 复感染、抽烟或其它别的原因会损坏呼吸道，并且使它们容易受到感染 Many potential invaders cannot stand body temperature (98.6 ?F or 37 ?C). Even those that thrive at that temperature may be destroyed when the body assumes higher, fever temperatures. 很多潜在的人侵者不能在华氏98.6度或摄氏37度下生存。如果体温再升高一点，达到高烧 温度，甚至一些在先前温度下能蓬勃繁殖的病菌也可能会因此而遭到毁灭。 Wax in the outer ear canals and tears from eye ducts can slow the growth of some bacteria. And stomach acid can destroy certain swallowed germs.外耳道里的蜡质和泪管里的眼泪能减缓一些细 菌的生长速度，而胃酸也能毁掉某种吞食进去的病菌。 The body's second line of defense is in the blood and lymph. Certain white blood cells flock to infected areas and try to localize the infection by forming pus-filled abscesses. Unless the abscess breaks and allows the pus to drain, the infection is likely to spread. When this happens, the infection is first blocked by local lymph glands. For example, an infection in the hand travels up the arm, producing red streaks and swollen, tender lymph glands in the armpit. Unless the infection is brought under control, it will result in blood poisoning. 身体的第二条防线是在血液和淋巴里。某些白细胞群聚集在被感染区，并通过形 成脓块使感染局部化。如果脓块不破裂，里面的脓不排除掉，感染很可能会扩大。当这发生 时，感染首先被该区域的淋巴腺挡住。例如，手上的感染在向上传到手臂时，手臂上会出现 红线条，腋窝处会肿胀，有触痛。如果不及时控制住感染的上传，将会导致血液中毒。 Phagocytes are located at various sites to minimize infection. One type in the spleen and liver keeps the blood clean. Others in such high-risk areas as the walls of the bronchi and the intestines remove certain bacteria and shattered cells. 吞噬细胞 处于身体多种不同的部位而使得感染的机会变小。位于肝脾内的一类能使身体的血液保持干 净。其它的位于像支气管壁和肠壁这样高危险区的类型能清除某类细茵和已解体的细胞。 How We Become Immune to Disease我们是怎样变得对疾病有免疫力的身体处理感染有其特殊的 方法。 The body has a special way of handling infection. It has a system that fends off the first traces of an infectious substance and then, through a "memory," gives the body a long-lasting immunity against future attacks by the same kind of invader.它有一个系统，能够一开始就阻止感染性物质的侵袭，然后通过“记忆”，它能给身体—个 长期的免疫力来抵抗将来由同种入侵者引起的侵袭。 Many substances could harm the body if they ever entered it. These substances, or antigens, range from bacteria and pollen to a transplanted organ (viewed by the body as an invader). To fight them the body makes special chemicals known as antibodies.许多物质对身体有害，如果它们一旦进入 身体的话。这些物质，或称为抗原，包括从细菌，花粉到被移植的器官都被身体视为人侵者。 为了抵抗它们身体制造出了特殊的化学物质，这就是抗体。 Antibodies are a class of proteins called immunoglobulins. Each antibody is made of a heavy chain of chemical subunits, or amino acids, and a light chain of them. The light chain has special sites where the amino acids can link with their complements on the antigen molecule. When an antibody hooks up with an antigen, it often puts the antigen out of action by inactivating or covering a key portion of the harmful substance. In some cases, through the process of opsonization, antibodies "butter" the surface of some antigens and make them "tastier" to phagocytes, which engulf the antigens. Sometimes an antibody hooks to a bacterial antigen but needs an intermediate, or complement, to actually destroy the bacterium. As the antibody- antigen complex circulates in the blood, the complex "fixes" complement to it. In turn, the complement causes powerful enzymes to eat through the bacterial cell wall and make the organism burst.抗体是 一类被称为免疫球蛋白的蛋白质。每一个抗体由一条化学亚单位(即氨基酸)的重链和一条 轻链所构成。这条轻链上有特别的部位，在那里，氨基酸能使其补体和抗原分子相连。当一 个抗体与一个抗原粘和上以后，氨基酸常通过使抗原失去活性或覆盖，它的关键有害部分来 使抗原失去其作用。在某些情况下，通过调理素作用的过程，抗体在抗原表面涂抹上一些“奶 油”，让吞噬细胞更喜欢吞噬它们。在另一些情况下，抗体和一个细菌抗原粘和上以后，却 需要一个中间体，或补体来实施对该细菌的消灭。于是，当抗体和抗原的结合体随血液循环 时，该结合体会有一个补体附体。结果是补体产生一种强烈的酶，咬穿了细菌的细胞壁，细 菌有机体就爆开了。 There are several kinds of immunoglobulins - IgM, the largest; IgG, the most plentiful and versatile; and IgA, the next most plentiful and specially adapted to work in areas where body secretions could damage other antibodies. Other immunoglobulins are tied in with allergic reactions, IgM is made at the first signs of an antigen, and it is later supplanted by the more effective IgG.抗体有若干种 免疫球蛋白:体积最大的是igM，数量最多、用途最多的是IgG，而IgA的数量次多，但它特 别适合在其它抗体易被身体内分泌物杀死的部位工作，还有其它的免疫球蛋白专门在过敏物 质出现时启动。一有抗原出现，igM首先被产生，稍后被更有效的IgG所取代。 When infection first strikes, the immunity system does not seem to be working. During the first day or so, antibodies against the infection cannot be found in the blood. But this is only because the basic cells involved in antibody production have been triggered by the presence of antigen to multiply themselves. The antibody level starts to rise on about the second day of infection and then zooms upward. By the fifth day the antibody level has risen a thousandfold.当传染病首次进攻，免疫系统似乎没有运转起 来。在第一天左右，血液中没有发现对付传染病的抗体。但是，这只是因为涉及抗体制造的 基本细胞已被当前的抗原存在所触发而正准备开始繁殖。大约在感染的第二天，抗体水平开 始升高，接着直线上升，大约在第五天抗体水平已升高了千倍。 The first antibodies, the large IgM type, are not the best qualified to fight a wide range of antigens, but they are particularly effective against bacteria. The more versatile IgG is circulating in the blood on about the fourth day of infection. Its production is stimulated by the rising level of IgM in the blood. At this time, IgM production drops off and the immunity systems concentrates on making IgG. The IgG type of antibody sticks well to antigens and eventually covers them so that the antigens can no longer stimulate the immune response and IgG production is switched off. This is an example of negative feedback control. 最开始出现的抗体，及大个的IgM，不是对付广谱抗原的 最好选择。但它们对付细菌特别有效。而用途广泛的IgG自感染第四天开始在血液中循环， 它的产生是因为受了血液中IgM水平增高的刺激。至此，IgM的产量下降，免疫系统集中制 造IgG，IgG能很好的与抗原粘连，甚至能覆盖抗原，使抗原不能再激发免疫反应，而系统最 终停止生产IgG。这是消极反馈控制的一个例子。 第一章中，通过对人体的概论，即解剖学 与生理学，我们对两种被认为是医学基础的不同学科有了一个大致的印象。然而如果我们不 考虑病理学，这门涉及由疾病带来的结构和功能变化的学科，上述的人体概论就不是完整的。 实际上，现代对疾病的研究方法强调了病理学与生理学方面的密切关系，强调了我们在治疗 任何人体疾病方面需要了解病理学与生理学基础的重要性。 那么什么是疾病呢,它可能被定 义为正常的功能或是部分功能遭受损害时的一种状态。每一种生物、植物和动物，都会受制 于疾病。例如，人类常常被微小的细菌所感染，但是，反过来说，细菌又能够被甚至更加微 小的病毒所感染。 许多种疾病存在于世。每一种都有其特定的症状、征兆和线索，医生能以 此诊断疾病之所在。症状是病人自己就能觉察到的，比如，高烧、流血，或是疼痛。而征兆 则是医生能够观察到的，比如，血管扩张或是体内器官肿大。 疾病可以划分为不同的种类， 例如，流行病是一种在某一社区内侵袭许多人的疾病。当它年复一年地袭击同一社区，就成 了一种地方病。急性病发作快，但病程短，举个例子来说，急性心脏病发作常常没有前兆， 而且会很快致命。慢性病发作则慢，但病程有时会长达几年之久。风湿热正是由于发病慢、 病程长而成为一种慢性失调病(慢性病)。而介于急性与慢性之间的另一种类型，就被称为亚 急性。 疾病也可以依其病原体来划分，例如，传染病也叫作可传播的疾病，就是一种通过咳 嗽和打喷嚏造成的空气小粒来传播的疾病。极小的有机体，如，细菌和真菌可导致传染病。 病毒和小虫子也不例外。不论病原体会是什么样，只要它存活于人体内就能够传染给别人。 有时，一个致病的有机体侵人人体后，该人却没有显示带病的症状。于是无症状的病原携带 者甚至在自己也不知情的情况下就把疾病传染给了他人。 非传染性疾病是由身体功能失调引 起的。这包括血管或组织退化、异常细胞生成，以及异常的血液生成和血液循环。当然其中 也包括胃、肠、内分泌系统和泌尿生殖系统的紊乱。一些疾病也可能是由饮食不足、身体抵 抗力下降、或是神经系统工作不造成的。 心理因素和社会因素也会引发残废和疾病，这些病 包括吸毒成性、肥胖、营养不良和由污染造成的健康问题。 而且，有上千种乃至为数更多的 遗传性出生缺陷是由于基因变化而造成的。由于小小的基因负责着生产许多身体所需的化学 物质，它的遗失或是工作状态不良都会严重损害健康。因基因失调而被影响了的身体化学反 应被称之为先天性代谢失调。一些眢力发育迟缓就是因遗传而造成的。病菌是怎样侵袭身体 人类生活在有一个有许多其它生物竞争食物和求得繁衍的世界里。很多致病的有机体或病原 体，通常被我们广义地称为病菌的东西能侵入人体并利用其细胞和组织液来供它们自身的需 求。一般来讲，身体防御系统能够阻止这些入侵者。 病原有机体能通过多种方式进入身体。 它们的一些是被呼吸进体内的，比如那些引起普通感冒、肺炎和肺结核的病菌;其它的是通 过人体性接触进入的，比如那些引起花柳病的病原体;还有另外的一些是通过污染了的食物、 水或器皿进入体内的，比如那些引起肝炎、霍乱和伤寒热的病原体。 昆虫作为媒介动物或是 病原携带者会传播疾病。苍蝇能将病菌从人类的废物或其它腐烂的材料中带到食物和饮料中去。通过蚊子、虱子或其它媒介动物的叮咬，病菌也可能进入体内。身体是怎样抵抗疾病的 作为第一条防线，一个健康的身体有许多屏障来抵御感染的发生。覆盖在体表或者器官开口处的皮肤和粘膜能在很大程度上抵抗细菌或其它感染体的入侵。如果这些屏障遭到了损坏或烧伤，身体对感染的抵抗力就会下降。在一些病情较轻的病例中，疥子和小脓胞可能会发生。在病情较重的病例中，身体的大面积区域则可能会被感染。 呼吸通道尤其容易受到感染，幸运的是，呼吸道内覆盖满了能分泌粘液的细胞，它们能捕捉微小的有机体和尘粒。另外，被叫做纤毛的细小的毛发也覆盖了呼吸道，它们象微风下麦田里的小麦一样舞动着，轻轻地将异物扫出呼吸道。除此之外，呼吸道内的异物还常常因为擤鼻涕、咳嗽、打喷嚏和清喉咙而被弹出。不幸的是反复感染、抽烟或其它别的原因会损坏呼吸道，并且使它们容易受到感染。 很多潜在的人侵者不能在华氏98.6度或摄氏37度下生存。如果体温再升高一点，达到高烧温度，甚至一些在先前温度下能蓬勃繁殖的病菌也可能会因此而遭到毁灭。 外耳道里的蜡质和泪管里的眼泪能减缓一些细菌的生长速度，而胃酸也能毁掉某种吞食进去的病菌。 身体的第二条防线是在血液和淋巴里。某些白细胞群聚集在被感染区，并通过形成脓块使感染局部化。如果脓块不破裂，里面的脓不排除掉，感染很可能会扩大。当这发生时，感染首先被该区域的淋巴腺挡住。例如，手上的感染在向上传到手臂时，手臂上会出现红线条，腋窝处会肿胀，有触痛。如果不及时控制住感染的上传，将会导致血液中毒。 吞噬细胞处于身体多种不同的部位而使得感染的机会变小。位于肝脾内的一类能使身体的血液保持干净。其它的位于像支气管壁和肠壁这样高危险区的类型能清除某类细茵和已解体的细胞。我们是怎样变得对疾病有免疫力的身体处理感染有其特殊的方法。它有一个系统，能够一开始就阻止感染性物质的侵袭，然后通过“记忆”，它能给身体—个长期的免疫力来抵抗将来由同种入侵者引起的侵袭。许多物质对身体有害，如果它们一旦进入身体的话。这些物质，或称为抗原，包括从细菌，花粉到被移植的器官都被身体视为人侵者。为了抵抗它们身体制造出了特殊的化学物质，这就是抗体。 抗体是一类被称为免疫球蛋白的蛋白质。每一个抗体由一条化学亚单位(即氨基酸)的重链和一条轻链所构成。这条轻链上有特别的部位，在那里，氨基酸能使其补体和抗原分子相连。当一个抗体与一个抗原粘和上以后，氨基酸常通过使抗原失去活性或覆盖，它的关键有害部分来使抗原失去其作用。在某些情况下，通过调理素作用的过程，抗体在抗原表面涂抹上一些“奶油”，让吞噬细胞更喜欢吞噬它们。在另一些情况下，抗体和一个细菌抗原粘和上以后，却需要一个中间体，或补体来实施对该细菌的消灭。于是，当抗体和抗原的结合体随血液循环时，该结合体会有一个补体附体。结果是补体产生一种强烈的酶，咬穿了细菌的细胞壁，细菌有机体就爆开了。 抗体有若干种免疫球蛋白:体积最大的是igM，数量最多、用途最多的是IgG，而IgA的数量次多，但它特别适合在其它抗体易被身体内分泌物杀死的部位工作，还有其它的免疫球蛋白专门在过敏物质出现时启动。一有抗原出现，igM首先被产生，稍后被更有效的IgG所取代。 当传染病首次进攻，免疫系统似乎没有运转起来。在第一天左右，血液中没有发现对付传染病的抗体。但是，这只是因为涉及抗体制造的基本细胞已被当前的抗原存在所触发而正准备开始繁殖。大约在感染的第二天，抗体水平开始升高，接着直线上升，大约在第五天抗体水平已升高了千倍。 最开始出现的抗体，及大个的IgM，不是对付广谱抗原的最好选择。但它们对付细菌特别有效。而用途广泛的IgG自感染第四天开始在血液中循环，它的产生是因为受了血液中IgM水平增高的刺激。至此，IgM的产量下降，免疫系统集中制造IgG，IgG能很好的与抗原粘连，甚至能覆盖抗原，使抗原不能再激发免疫反应，而系统最终停止生产IgG。这是消极反馈控制的一个例子。第三单元 肌肉( Passage One) 肌肉是坚韧而又具有弹性的组织，能使身体部位活动。除了最低级的动物外，所有的动物都具有某种形式的肌肉。 人使用肌肉进行各种运动，如走路、跳跃或投掷。肌肉在人体成长和保持健康所需的活动中亦有帮助作用，例如，使用腭部的肌肉来咀 嚼食物。消化道的其它部位肌肉可帮助食物在胃部和肠道中移动，帮助消化。心肌和血管肌肉迫使血液循环。没有胸部的肌肉，呼吸也是不可能的。 肌肉的类型人体主要肌肉有600多块，其中240块有专有的名称。总体上，肌肉可分为以下三类:(1)骨骼肌，(2)平滑肌和(3)心肌。 骨骼肌把骨架的各种骨头组合在一起，使人体有了一个形状。它们也使身体能够运动。骨骼肌在腿、手臂、腹部、颈和脸部的组合中占有很大的比例。这些肌肉视作用之不同，大小差异很大，例如，眼肌的体积就很小，且相对的脆弱，但是大腿的肌肉体积就很大，而且很强壮。 人直立时，许多骨骼肌都产生收缩，使身体直挺。骨骼肌也可以使身体的一部分运动而另一部分继续地保持强直。骨骼肌能同时做两动作，这是因为肌肉的成对运动。每对中有一块肌肉被称为屈肌，它令关节弯曲，使肢体靠近躯体。而另一块肌肉伸肌，则做相反的动作。具体说，前上臂的肱二头肌就是一块屈肌，当它运动时，肘部弯曲，前臂和手就向肩部运动。而后上臂的肱三头肌则是一块伸肌，当它运动时，肘部就伸直，而前臂和手就离开了肩部。与此同时，肱二头肌放松，使肱三头肌能够把它恢复到原位。 如果您愿意的话，您可以通过曲臂来感受到你上臂肱二头肌的肌腹。试着用手掌去抬桌子边，就可感受到肱二头肌，它应该更加坚实，因为它正在做更强有力的收缩。顺肌腹摸向肘关节，可感受到肱二头肌的肌腱，如果你想感受一块肌肉时，可令它做某种运动以使肌腹强有力地收缩而更容易被察觉。 肱二头肌、肱三头肌和其它类的骨骼肌也被称为随意肌，这是因为它们接受入主观意愿的驱使。随意肌均由肌性部位(肌腹)和末端的腱性部分(肌腱)组成。肌腱跨过关节牢固连接相邻的两块骨头，而肌腹则与骨头紧密相接。肌腹收缩拉动肌腱使关节运动。而肌腱本身的长度是不变的。 为了使关节处运动，肌肉的一端必须固定，不可移动。肌肉所做的运动被叫做肌肉的功能。某块肌肉的功能可能是收缩，使骨骼屈曲，而肌腱的长度不变。肌肉的附着点，即不动或固定的一端，被称为肌起端。而另一个在收缩过程中发生了移动的附着点被称为肌止端。(图l[a]和[b]) 肌腱作为肌肉组成的一部分具有几个优点，假设整块肌肉全是肌腹，那么腕关节、踝关节势必粗大。肌腱还非常坚韧，对关节处活动的骨头有很强的抗磨能力。 骨骼肌亦被称为随意条纹肌。所谓条纹一词来源于显微镜下肌肉组织所呈现的横状条纹特色。这些条纹是因肌纤维中蛋白分子的排列而引起的，可使肌纤维变短或收缩。 随意条纹肌纤维在肌肉中成束排列。在横纹肌的横截面上可见一组肌纤维被肌纤维结缔组织包绕形成纤维束。许多纤维束又被纤维结缔组织筋膜所包绕，最后形成肌肉的肌腹部分。 肌束和肌腱之间的关系是:肌束被纤维结缔组织包绕并连接在一起，纤维结缔组织又与肌腱部分的纤维结缔组织相延续。 第二种类型的肌肉被称为平滑肌，它构成血管壁和,肖化道的内壁，经常表现为围绕管状结构的一层肌肉纤维鞘。在显微镜下，肌肉中不呈现条纹，再则，因为它不受主观意志的控制，又被称为不随意非条纹肌。 心肌是我们想要谈及的第三类肌肉。它具有骨骼肌和平滑肌的某些特点。和骨骼肌一样，心肌细胞呈现条纹;像平滑肌纤维，每一个心肌细胞只有一个细胞核，而它的收缩和放松并不受主观意志的驱使。据此原因，它又被称为不随意条纹肌。 肌肉组织由很纤细的纤维所组成。心肌纤维交叉组合，形成网状排列。心脏的收缩由一个位于心脏内部，被称为窦房结的天然起搏器发出的电脉冲开始。心脏有自己的电传导系统，控制心肌收缩的频率和节律。 肌肉的损伤被破坏的肌纤维不能再生。由于没有分化能力，人出生时有多少肌纤维，终坐如此。成人和婴儿时相比肌肉体积的增长是因为肌纤维体积的增长，而不是数量上的增多。肌肉体积的增大称为“肥大”。锻炼可促使肌肉肥大。 神经、肌腱和供血在一块肌肉中神经纤维可分枝出许多神经末梢，分配到每块肌纤维中。如果切断支配某一块肌肉的神经，那么这块肌肉的肌纤维会逐渐地改变。肌纤维变细，而且肌肉总体积缩小。此现象被称为肌肉萎缩，如果这块肌肉在12个月内没有接受到其它的神经纤维，肌纤维将被纤维结缔组织代替，肌肉将永久丧失功能。 肌肉有广泛的血液供应，运动可强烈刺激血液加速流向肌肉。老年人当中，血管可能常因病而形成血管腔狭窄，肌肉痉挛常可因为供血不足而产生。一块肌肉的供血若被完全切断，在很短的时间内肌纤维将发 生坏死。为控制动脉出血而在肢体上扎上止血带时，其持续时间不应超过20~30分钟，因为 在完全切断供血的情况下肌纤维会发生不可逆转的损害。第四单元Passage one The Skeletal System骨骼系统 Without the skeletal system we would be unable to perform movements, such as walking or grasping. The slightest jar to the head or chest could damage the brain or heart. It would even be impossible to chew food. The framework of bones and cartilage that protects our organs and allows us to move is called the skeletal system.没有骨骼系统我们不会完成运动,如行走或抓握。轻微的撞击头部或胸部就会损伤头部或心脏。 它会甚至不能咀嚼食物。骨和软骨的框架下保护我们的器官中,让我们可以继续被称为的骨骼 系统。 Functions. The skeletal system performs several basic functions.功能。骨骼 系统执行几个基本功能。 ? Support: the skeletal system provides a framework for the body and, as such, it supports soft tissues and provides a point of attachment for many muscles.支持:骨骼系统,提供了一个框架,用于身体的,同样,它支持软组织的位置时, 为客户提供许多的肌肉。 ? Protection: many internal organs are protected from injury by the skeleton. For example, the brain is protected by the cranial bones, the spinal cord by the vertebrae, the heart and lungs by the rib cage, and internal reproductive organs by the pelvic bones.保护:许多内脏免受伤害骨架。例如,大脑是颅保护骨头、脊髓 的脊椎,心脏和肺的肋骨,和内部的生殖器官骨盆骨的。 ? Movement: bones serve as levers to which muscles are attached. When the muscles contract, the bones acting as levers produce movement.骨头运动:?作为杠杆来肌肉附呈。当肌肉收缩,骨骼作为杠杆生产运动。 ? Mineral storage: bones store several minerals that can be distributed to other parts of the body on demand. The principal stored minerals are calcium and phosphorus.矿产贮存:?骨头商店可以多种矿物质分发给身体的其他部分有求必应。校长储存矿物质是钙 和磷的含量。 ? Blood cell production: red marrow in certain bones is capable of producing blood cells, a process called hematopoiesis or hemopoiesis. Red marrow consists of blood cells in immature stages, fat cells, and macrophages. Red marrow produces red blood cells, some white blood cells and platelets.?血细胞生产:红色 的骨髓在某些骨头能产下血细胞,这个过程称为造血或hemopoiesis。红色的骨髓由血细胞在 不成熟的阶段,脂肪细胞和巨噬细胞。红色的骨髓产生红血球,有些白血球和血小板。 Types of bones. Almost all of the bones of the body may be classified into four principal types on the basis of shape: long, short, flat and irregular. Long bones have greater length than width and consist of a diaphysis and a variable number of epiphyses. For example, metacarpals, metatarsals, and phalanges have only one epiphysis. The femur actually has four. Other long bones have two.类型的骨头。几乎所有的身体的骨头可分 为四个主要类型的基础上,形状:长的、短的、公寓、不规则的。长骨有更大的漫长而不是宽 度和包括骨干和一个可变数目的epiphyses。例如,metacarpals、跖骨,和趾骨只有一个 epiphysis。股骨却有四个。其他长骨生两个 Long bones are slightly curved for strength. A curved bone is structurally designed to absorb the stress of the body weight at several different points so the stress is evenly distributed. If such bones were straight, the weight of the body would be unevenly distributed and the bone would easily fracture. Examples of long bones include bones of the thigh, legs, toes, arms, forearms, and fingers.长骨头稍弯曲以增加强度。弯曲的骨结构的应力专用于吸收体重不 同的点的应力是均匀分布。如果这样的骨头就直,机身重量,将分配不均和骨很容易骨折。长 骨干的例子包括大腿的骸骨、腿,脚趾、手臂、前臂和手指。 Short bones are somewhat cube-shaped and nearly equal in length and width. Their texture is spongy except at the surface, where there is a thin layer of compact bone. Examples of short bones are the wrist and ankle bones.有些短骨方形和近有着同样的长度和宽度。他们的质地松 软的除了在表面,哪里有一层薄薄的紧凑的骨头。短的例子骨头手腕和脚踝的骨头。 Flat bones are generally thin and composed of two more or less parallel plates of compact bone enclosing a layer of spongy bone. Flat bones afford considerable protection and provide extensive areas for muscle attachment. Examples of flat bones include the cranial bones(which protect the brain), the sternum and ribs(which protect organs in the thorax), and the scapulae.扁骨一般瘦,由两个或多或少的小骨附上平行板一层发 泡骨。扁骨负担得起相当大的保护和提供广阔的地域肌肉附件。扁骨的例子包括颅骨头(保护 大脑),胸片和肋骨保护器官(开始),scapulae。 Irregular bones have complex shapes and cannot be grouped into any of the three categories just described. They also vary in the amount of spongy and compact bone present. Such bones include the vertebrae and certain facial bones.不规则骨有较复杂的外形和不能被分成三大类的了。他们也不同 数量的发泡而简洁的骨礼物。这些骨头包括椎骨和一定的面部的骨头。 There are two additional types of bones that are not included in this classification by shape. Sutural or wormian bones are small bones between the joints of certain cranial bones. Their number varies greatly from person to person. Sesamoid bones are small bones in tendons where considerable pressure develops, for instance, in the wrist. These, like sutural bones, are also variable in number. Two sesamoid bones, the patellas (kneecaps), are present in all individuals.有两个额外的类型的骨头,不包括在这分级 的形状。wormian针脚或骨头小骨头关节之间的某些颅的骨头。他们的数目人来说是不相同 的。Sesamoid的骨头小骨肌腱相当大的压力在发展,例如,在手腕。这些如同针脚骨头,也变 多。两sesamoid超负荷的骨头,patellas(),存在于所有的个体。 Bone replacement. Bones undergoing either intramembranous or endochondral ossification are continually remodeled from the time that initial calcification occurs until the final structure appears. Remodeling is the replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue. Compact bone is formed by the transformation of spongy bone. The diameter of a long bone is increased by the destruction of the bone closest to the marrow cavity and the construction of new bone around the outside of the diaphysis. However, even after bones have reached their adult shapes and sizes, old bone is perpetually destroyed and new bone tissue is formed in its place. Bone is never metabolically at rest; it constantly remodels and reappropriates its matrix and minerals along lines of mechanical stress.骨更换。intramembranous或endochondral接受或骨骨化常帮自从初始 钙化直到最后结构出现。重建旧的是将由新骨组织骨组织。紧凑的骨形成的转型发泡骨。直 径长骨被破坏了我的骨头骨髓腔最近,为建设新骨外线超越了骨干。然而,即使是在成人已经 达到他们的骨头形状和大小,老骨头被毁,永远是新生骨形成组织是在自己的地方。骨从不新 陈代谢的作用,在休息,本公司不断重新改型和reappropriates它的矩阵里沿着线和矿物质 机械应力。 Bones shares with skin the feature of replacing itself throughout adult life. Remodeling takes place at different rates in various body regions. The distal portion of the femur (thighbone) is replaced about every 4 months. By contrast, bone in certain areas of the shaft will not be completely replaced during the individual’s life. Remodeling allows worn or injured bone to be removed and replaced with new tissue. It also allows bone to serve as the body’s storage area for calcium. Many other tissues in the body need calcium in order to perform their functions. For example, a nerve cell needs calcium for nerve impulse conduction, muscle needs calcium to contract, and blood needs calcium to clot. The blood continually trades off calcium with the bones, removing calcium when it and other tissues are not receiving enough of this element and resupplying the bones with dietary calcium to keep them from losing too much bone mass.骨头的特点与肌肤股票取代本身在适应成年人的生活作好准备。重构以 不同的比率发生在不同的身体地区。远端部分股骨(病症)代替大约每4个月。相比之下,骨头 的某些区域轴就不可能完全取代了经个人的生命。重塑允许穿或受伤的骨头被拆卸和更换新 组织。它也允许骨作为人体的区域存放的钙。许多其他组织的身体需要钙为了完成他们的功 能。例如,一个神经细胞需要钙质,使肌肉神经冲动传导需要钙,和血液需要钙质血块。不 断地交易的血钙与骨了的时候,消除钙和其他组织都没有得到足够的这个元素和补给作战骨 钙与饮食,使他们免遭失去太多的骨骼。 The cells believed to be responsible for the resorption (loss of a substance through a physiological or pathological process) of bone tissue are osteoclasts. In the healthy adult, a delicate homeostasis is maintained between the action of the osteoclasts in removing calcium and the action of bone-making osteblasts in depositing calcium. Should too much new tissue be formed, the bones become abnormally thick and heavy. If too much calcium is deposited in the bone, the surplus may form thick bumps, or spurs, on the bone that interferes with movement at joints. A loss of too much tissue or calcium weakens the bones and allows them to break easily or to become very flexible. A greatly accelerated remodeling process results in a condition called Paget’s disease. 这些细胞被认为是负责吸收(亏 损的物质通过的生理或病理过程中骨组织是破骨细胞。在健康的成年人,一个精致的稳态关键 之间保持破骨细胞的作用除钙和作用的存款osteblasts bone-making钙。应该太多形成新组 织,骨头变得异常很厚实。如果太过于钙沉积在骨的贸易顺差可能形成厚撞击,与马刺,骨头上 的运动,它会妨碍到关节。失去太多的组织或钙削弱的骨头,并允许他们易碎,或是想成为高度 的灵活性。一个极大地加速过程重构的结果名为帕哲病的症状,条件。 In the process of resorption, it is believed that osteoclasts send out projections that secrete protein-digesting enzymes released from lysosomes and several acids (lactic and citric). The enzymes may function by digesting the collagen and other organic substances, while the acids may cause the bone salts (minerals) to dissolve. It is also presumed that the osteoclastic projections may phagocytose whole fragments of collagen and bone salts. Magnesium deficiency inhibits the activity of osteoclasts. 吸收的过程中,据说破骨细胞发出后,protein-digesting释放分泌酶溶酶体和几个酸(乳酸 和柠檬)。消化的酶可能功能的胶原质及其他有机物质,而酸可以使骨盐(矿物质溶解。它也是 假定那骨质预测可能phagocytose整个碎片的胶原蛋白和骨盐。缺乏镁抑制破的活动。 Normal bone growth in the young and bone replacement in the adult depend on several factors. First, sufficient quantities of calcium and phosphorus, components of the primary salt that makes bone hard, must be included in the diet. Manganese may also be important in bone growth. It has been shown that manganese deficiency significantly inhibits laying down new bone tissue. Second, the individual must obtain sufficient amounts of vitamins, particularly vitamin D, which participates in the absorption of calcium from the gastrointestinal tract into the blood, calcium removal from bone, and kidney reabsorption of calcium that might be otherwise be lost in urine.正常 骨生长在年轻的和骨置换在成人取决于几个因素。首先,足够数量的钙、磷、部件的主要盐使 骨硬,必须包含在饮食。锰可能也有重要的骨骼生长。有证据表明,锰缺陷显著抑制躺新骨组 织。其次,每个人都必须获得足够的大量的维生素,尤其是维他命D,它参与吸收钙从胃肠道进 入血液、钙的清除、肾重吸收变化骨钙,可能是其他迷失在尿液。 Third, the body must manufacture the proper amounts of the hormones responsible for bone tissue activity. Growth hormone (GH) secreted by the pituitary gland, is responsible for the general growth of bones. Too much or too little of this hormone during childhood makes the adult abnormally tall or short. Other hormones specialize in regulating the osteoclasts. Calcitonin (CT), produced by the thyroid gland, inhibits ostoclastic activity and accelerates calcium absorption by bones, while parathormone (PTH ), synthesized by the parathyroid glands, increases the number and activity of osteoclasts. PTH also releases calcium and phosphate from bones into blood, transports phosphate from blood into urine. And still others, especially the sex hormone, aid osteoblastic activity and thus promote the growth of new bone. The sex hormones act as a double-edged sword. They aid in the growth of new bone, but they also bring about the degeneration of all the cartilage cells in epiphyseal plates. Because of the sex hormones, the typical adolescent experiences a spurt of growth during puberty, when sex hormone levels start to increase. The individual then quickly completes the growth process as the epiphyseal cartilage disappears. Premature puberty can actually prevent one from reaching an average adult height because of the simultaneous premature degeneration of the plates. 第三,身体必须制造适当的大 量的荷尔蒙负责骨骼组织的活动。生长激素(GH)由脑垂体分泌,负责一般生长骸骨。过多或过 少的这种激素在儿童时期使成人异常高或短。其它植物激素的破专业。降钙素(CT),所生 产的甲状腺ostoclastic活动和加速,可抑制也钙质吸收,而甲状旁腺激素摘要镀通孔、合成 而甲状旁腺,增加了和活动、破骨细胞。也可以释放一部分钙和磷镀通孔失效从骨头变为血、 运输钙血流在尿液。还有些人,特别是性激素,援助,故成骨的促进生长的新生骨。性荷尔蒙作 为双刃剑。他们帮助的新生骨,而他们也带来的所有的退化在epiphyseal软骨细胞板。因为 性激素,典型的青少年,经历了一股增长青春期,当性激素水平开始增加。个人就完成的成长过 程中epiphyseal软骨消失了。过早青春期确实能预防一个成年人平均到达高度因为同时过早 贬低的这些盘子。 Aging and the skeletal system. There are two principal effects of aging on the skeletal system. The first effect is the loss of calcium from bones. This loss usually begins after age 40 in females and continues thereafter until as much as 30 percent of the calcium in bones is lost by age 70. in males, calcium loss typically does not begin until after age 60. the loss of calcium from bones is one of the factors related to a condition called osteoporosis.老龄化和骨骼系统。有两 个主要的老化作用的骨骼系统。就是失去了第一个效应从钙的骨头。通常这一损失女性在40 岁后才开始后继续直到高达30%的钙在骨骼年龄所损失的70.于男性,钙损失通常才开始在60 岁以后。钙的损失从骨骼等相关因素之一的这种状况被称为骨质疏松症。 The second principal effect of aging on the skeletal system is a decrease in the rate of protein formation that results in a decreased ability to produce the organic portion of bone matrix. As a consequence, bone matrix accumulates a lesser proportion of organic matrix and a greater proportion of inorganic matrix. In some elderly individuals, this process can cause their bones to become quite brittle and more susceptible to fracture.第二个主要效果上的老化骨骼系统的发生率下降,其结果在蛋白质形成的生产能力 下降的有机部分骨基质。因此,骨基质累积比例较小的有机矩阵和大量的无机矩阵。在一些老 年人,这个过程可使骨头变得相当脆弱,更容易骨折。 四单元2PPassage two Disorders of bones and joints骨和关节障碍 Disorders of the skeleton often involve surrounding tissues---ligaments, tendons, and muscles, and may be studied together as diseases of the musculoskeletal system. The medical specialty that concentrates on diseases of the skeletal and muscular systems is orthopedics. Physical therapists and occupational therapists must also understand these systems.疾病的骨骼通常包括周围 组织——-ligaments、肌腱、及肌肉,一起可研究骨骼肌肉系统的疾病。医学专业致力于骨骼 和肌肉疾病的骨科系统。物理治疗家和职业治疗师也必须理解这些系统。 Most abnormalities of the bones and joints appear on simple x-rays. Radioactive bone scans, CT, and MRI scans are used as well. Also indicative of disorders are changes in blood levels of calcium and alkaline phosphatase, an enzyme needed for calcification of bone.大多数骨头、关节的异常出现在简单的x射线。放射性骨扫瞄,CT、MRI扫描在使用。 象征的疾病也在发生变化的钙和血压水平碱性磷酸酶需要一种酶,钙化的骨头。 Infection. Osteomyelitis is an inflammation of bone caused by pus-forming bacteria that enter through a wound or are carried by the blood. Often the blood-rich ends of the long bones are invaded, and the infection then spreads to other regions, such as the bone marrow and even the joints. The use of antibiotics has greatly reduced the threat of osteomyelitis.感染。骨髓炎是一炎症的骨pus-forming细菌引起进去的伤口或所携带的 血。经常是含长骨的两端,并且感染侵犯然后扩散到其它地区,如骨髓甚至关节。而使用抗生 素的威胁,大大降低了骨髓炎。 Tuberculosis may spread to bone, especially the long bones of the arms and the legs and the bones of the wrist and ankle. Tuberculosis of the spine is Pott’s disease. Infected vertebrae are weakened and may collapse, causing pain, deformity, and pressure on the spinal cord. Antibiotics can be used to control tuberculosis as long as the strains are not resistant to these drugs and the host is not weakened by other diseases.肺结核传播,特别是长到骨骨武器和腿部及 腕部的骨骼和脚踝。放入是脊柱结核的疾病。被感染的椎骨会被削弱,并可能会倒塌,造成疼 痛、畸形和脊髓的压力。抗生素可以用来控制结核病只要菌不耐这些药物和主机不被其他疾 病。 Fractures. A fracture is a break in a bone. The effects of a fracture depend on the location and severity of the break, the amount of associated injury, possible complications, such as infections, and success of healing, which may take months. In a closed or simple fracture, the skin is not broken. If the fracture is accompanied by a wound in the skin, it is described as an open fracture. Various types of fractures are listed in Table One. Reduction of a fracture refers to realignment of the broken bone. If no surgery is required, the reduction is described as closed; an open reduction is one that requires surgery to place the bone in proper position (also see Figure 4-1)骨折。骨折就是打破一根骨头。骨折的影响取决于位置和严重程度相关破裂, 数量的伤害,可能的并发症,如感染、与成功的治疗,这可能花上几个月。在一个封闭的或简单 的骨裂,皮肤也不折断。如果骨折伴随有伤口皮肤后,它被描述为一个开放的骨折。各种类型 的断口列于表。降低骨折是指骨头的再次。如果没有手术是必需的,减少封闭,被描述为一个 开放复位内固定是需要手术把骨头在适当的位置(也见图4 - 1) Metabolic bone diseases. Osteoporosis is a loss of bone mass that results in weakening of the bones. A decline in estrogen after menopause makes women over 50 most susceptible to this disorder. Efforts to prevent osteoporosis include adequate intake of calcium, engaging in weight-bearing exercise, and estrogen replacement therapy (ERT). Osteoporosis may also be caused by nutritional deficiencies, disuse, as in paralysis or immobilization in a cast, and excess steroids from the adrenal cortex.代谢性骨病。骨质疏松症是一 种损失骨量导致坝体的骨头。绝经后雌激素的减少会使妇女超过50岁的人最容易受到这种紊 乱。努力预防骨质疏松症包括足够的钙的摄入量,是一家专业从事负重运动,雌激素替代疗法 急诊室剖胸)。骨质疏松症也可能是由于营养不足,淘汰,在中风或固定和多余打了石膏,从肾 上腺皮质类固醇激素。) In osteomalacia there is a softening of bone tissue due to lack of formation of a calcium salts. Possible causes include deficiency of vitamin D (needed to absorb calcium and phosphorus from the intestine), renal disorders, liver disease, and certain intestinal disorders. When osteomalacia occurs in children, the disease is called rickets. It is usually due to deficiency of vitamin D.在骨软化 症有软化,由于缺乏骨组织形成钙盐。可能的原因包括:缺乏维生素D(需要吸收钙和磷、肾疾 病大肠)、肝脏疾病,和一定的肠道疾病。当骨软化症发生在孩子,这种疾病被称为——佝偻病。 它通常是由于缺乏维生素D。 Paget’s disease (osteitis deformans) is a disorder of aging in which bones become larger but weaker. It usually involves the bones of the axial skeleton, causing pain, fracture, and hearing lost. With time there may be neurologic signs, heart failure, and predisposition to cancer of the bones.Paget的病例)是一种风湿性osteitis老龄化的,骨变得更大,但虚弱。它常表现中轴骨骼的骨头而 引起肌肉疼痛、骨折、听到失传。随着时间的推移可能有神经系统的症状,心衰以及易感性的 癌症的骨头 Neoplasm. Osteogenic sarcoma (osteosarcoma) most commonly occurs in the growing region of a bone, especially around the knee. This is a highly malignant tumor that often requires amputation. It most commonly metastasizes to the lungs.肿瘤。 肉瘤(骨肉瘤)最常出现的地区,骨,特别是围绕在膝部。这是个高度恶性肿瘤,往往需要截肢。 它最常metastasizes至肺部。 Chondrosarcoma usually appears in midlife. As the name implies, this tumor arises in cartilage. It most frequently metastasizes to the lungs and may require amputation.通常会在肉瘤归属感。如名字暗示的那样,该肿瘤出现在软骨。 它最常metastasizes到肺并且可能需要截肢 In cases of malignant bone tumors, early surgical removal is important to prevent metastasis. Signs of bone tumors are pain, easy fracture, and increases in serum calcium and alkaline phosphatase. Aside from primary tumors, neoplasms at other sites often metastasize to bone, most commonly to the spine.恶性骨肿瘤的病例,早期手术切除是很重要的,以防止转移。骨肿瘤的迹象是痛 苦,容易骨折、增加血清钙和碱性磷酸酶类。除了原发肿瘤,肿瘤常转移至其他网站骨,最常见 的是脊柱的位置 Arthritis. In general, arthritis means inflammation of a joint. The most common form is osteoarthritis or degenerative joint disease (DJD). This is a gradual degeneration of articular (joint) cartilage due to wear-and-tear. It usually appears at midlife and beyond and involves the weight bearing joints and joints of fingers. X-rays show narrowing of the joint cavity and thickening of the bone. The cartilage may crack and break loose, causing inflammation in the joint and exposing the underlying bone. Osteoarthritis is treated with analgesics to relieve pain, anti-inflammatory agents, such as corticosteroids, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. (NSAIDs )关节炎。一般来说,关节炎意味着的发炎关节。最常见 的形式是骨关节炎或退化性关节疾病(DJD)。这是一个逐渐退化软骨关节(接头)由于折磨人的。 它通常出现在中年,远远超出了,它包括负重手指关节和关节。x射线显示缩小联合腔和增厚 的骨头。,可能会龟裂的软骨,引起燥热挣脱了联合和揭示潜在的骨头。骨关节炎处理可以舒 缓疼痛,止痛剂、抗炎药物,例如皮质激素治疗,非甾体类抗炎药物。(非甾体类抗炎药 Rheumatoid arthritis is a systematic inflammatory disease of the joints that commonly appears in young adult women. Its exact causes are unknown, but it may involve immunologic reactions. A group of antibodies called rheumatoid factor often appears in the blood, but is not always specific for the rheumatoid arthritis, as it may occur in other systemic diseases as well. There is an overgrowth of the synovial membrane that lines the joint cavity. As this covers and destroys the joint cartilage, synovial fluid accumulates, causing swelling of the joint. There is degeneration of the underlying bone, eventually causing fusion of the bones, or ankylosis. Treatment includes rest, physical therapy, analgesics, and anti-inflammatory drugs.类风湿性 关节炎是一种系统的炎症性疾病通常出现在关节成年女性。它的确切原因不明,但它可能包括 免疫反应。一群抗体称为类风湿因子经常出现的血液,但并不总是如此专用类风湿性关节炎的 患者,因为它可能出现在其它全身性疾病。有过多的滑膜隔膜,线联合腔。作为这套破坏关节 软骨,滑膜液积淀,导致浮肿的关节。有贬低的潜在的骨头,最终导致融合骨骼或者黏连。治疗 包括休息,物理治疗,止痛剂及抗炎药物。 Gout is caused by an increased level of uric acid in the blood, salts of which are deposited in the joints. It mostly occurs in middle-aged men and almost always involves pain at the base of the great toe. The cause may be a primary metabolic disturbance or a secondary effect of another disease, as of the kidneys. Gout is treated with drugs to suppress formation of uric acid or to increase elimination of uric acid (uricosuric agent).痛风是水平增加引起的血、 尿酸盐是存放在关节。主要发生在中年男性和几乎总是包括疼痛在该基地的大脚趾。产生的 原因可能是主要的代谢失调或者一个继发效应的其他疾病,如肾脏。痛风与药物来抑制形成尿 酸或增加消除尿酸(uricosuric剂)。