英语课程与教学论 学生用补充资料2

英语课程与教学论 学生用补充资料2 There are a variety of elements that contribute to the qualities of a good language teacher. They are: ethic devotion, professional qualities and personal styles. How can one become a good language teacher? Others? experience Received Language Practice Professional Reflection Knowledge Training Competence Own Experience Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Figure 1.1 Teacher’s professional development From the above model, we can see the development of professional competence for language training involves Stage 1, Stage 2, and Goal. The first stage is language training. All English teachers are supposed to have a sound command of English. Of course, language is always changing so language training can never come to an end. The second stage seems to be more complicated because it involves three sub-stages: learning, practice, and reflection. The learning stage is actually the specific preparation that a language teacher should make before they go to practice. This preparation can be: 1. learn from others? experience (empirical knowledge) 2. learn received knowledge (such as language theories, psycholiguistics, sociolinguistics, educational psychology, language teaching methodology, etc. ) 3. learn from one?s own experience Behaviorist theory Skinner suggested language is also a form of behaviour. It can be learned the same way as an animal is trained to respond to stimuli. Stimulus-response-reinforcement Cognitive theory According to Chomsky, language is not a form of behaviour, it is an intricate rule-based system and a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system. One influential idea is 1 that students should be allowed to create their own sentences based on their understanding of certain rules. Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar (转换生成语法) Constructivist theory: It believes that learning is a process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experiences and what he/she already known. John Dewey(1859-1952) provided a foundation for constructivism. John Dewey believed that teaching should be built based on what learners already knew and engage learners in learning activities. Teachers need to design environments and interact with learners to foster inventive, creative, critical learners. Socio-constructivist theory Vygotsky (1896-1934) emphasizes interaction and engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of „Zone of Proximal Development?and scaffolding. Learning is best achieved through the dynamic interaction between the teacher and the learner and between learners. The zone of proximal development is the distance between what children can do by themselves and the next learning that they can be helped to achieve with competent assistance. The scaffolding teaching strategy provides individualized support based on the learner?s ZPD. In scaffolding instruction a more knowledgeable other provides scaffolds or supports to facilitate the learner?s development. The scaffolds facilitate a student?s ability to build on prior knowledge and internalize new information. The activities provided in scaffolding instruction are just beyond the level of what the learner can do alone. The more capable other provides the scaffolds so that the learner can accomplish (with assistance) the tasks that he or she could otherwise not complete, thus helping the learner through the ZPD. Description of Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses: the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, the Monitor hypothesis, the Natural Order hypothesis, the Input hypothesis, and the Affective Filter hypothesis. The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen's theory and the most widely known among linguists and language practitioners. 2 According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second language performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act. The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'. The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the 'monitor' or the 'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met: that is, the second language learner has sufficient time at his/her disposal, he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness, and he/she knows the rule. It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second language performance. According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is - or should be - minor, being used only to correct deviations from 'normal' speech and to give speech a more 'polished' appearance. Krashen also suggests that there is individual variation among language learners with regard to 'monitor' use. He distinguishes those learners that use the 'monitor' all the time (over-users); those learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge (under-users); and those learners that use the 'monitor' appropriately (optimal users). An evaluation of the person's psychological profile can help to determine to what group they belong. Usually extroverts are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists are over-users. Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-use of the 'monitor'. The Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings which suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the learners' age, L1 background, conditions of exposure, and although the agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100% in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition. Krashen however points out that the implication of the natural order 3 hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition. The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language. In other words, this hypothesis is Krashen's explanation of how second language acquisition takes place. So, the Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence. Finally, the fifth hypothesis, the Affective Filter hypothesis, embodies Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place. A syllabus provides a focus for what should be studied, along with a rational for how the content should be selected and ordered. Characteristics of a Syllabus 1. Consists of a comprehensive lists of - content items (words, structures, topics) - process items (tasks, methods) 2. Is ordered (easier, more essential items first) 3. Has explicit objectives (usually expressed in the introduction) 4. Is a public document 5. May indicate a time schedule 6. May indicate a preferred methodology or approach 7. May recommend materials 4 Overall Language Ability International perspectives Patriotism Cooperation Affect and Attitude Confidence Motivation Cultural Knowledge Cultural Understanding Cultural Consciousness Cross-cultural Communication Cognitive Strategies Self-management Strategies ( Metacognitive Strategies) Learning Strategies Communication Strategies Resourcing Strategies Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing Language skills Phonetics , Grammar, Vocabulary, Language Knowledge Functions, Topics 5 图2英语课程分级目标结构 6 Unit 4 Teaching the language system and skills Teaching aims: 1. What is language system? How to present the language system? 2. What is the objectives of teaching pronunciation? 3. How to teach language skills? The objective of teaching pronunciation Intelligibility: The pronunciation should be understandable to the listeners. Communicative efficiency: The pronunciation should help to convey the meaning that is intended by the speaker. Consistency: The pronunciation should be smooth and natural. Principles of teaching pronunciation 1. Using contrastive analysis to pinpoint difficult spots and decide the key points 2. Imitation Steps: listening, imitating, contrasting, and learning to use 3. Combine the sound system with reading out, listening, and speaking exercises. Teaching steps of a single sound 1. Say the sound in meaningful context. 2. Get the students to repeat the sound in chorus. 3. Get individual students to repeat the sound. 4. Explain how to make the sound. Say the sound in a word. 5. 6. Contrast it with other sounds. 7. Say the sound in meaningful context. Types of pronunciation exercises 1. Perception practice: a. Minimal pairs: Minimal pairs are pairs of words which have only one sound different from each other. e.g: will well till tell fill fell lid led ship sheep bid bed b. Which order? e.g: pit pet bet bear tear ear 1 3 2 3 1 2 c. Same or different? met meet (D) well well (S) d. Odd man out e.g: bit bit bit pit (No. 4 is different.) lid led lid lid (No. 2 is different.) e. Completion e.g: __ate __ate __ate __ate __ate 7 2. Production practice: a. Listen and repeat b. Fill in the blanks e.g: Children love to play games. Black and white make grey. After April come May. c. Make up sentences e. Using pictures d. Using meaningful text. e.g: This is old Jack. e.g: A: What?s wrong with you, He has a black cat. Mr. Bloggs? Its name is Pat. B: I hate this horrible job. It is very fat. A: What job? e. Using tongue twisters B: Washing socks. e.g: She sells sea shells on the A: What do you want to do? seashore. B: I want a holiday. Five wives drank five bottles of fine wine. VI Practicing stressing: Two kinds of stress: word-level stress, phrase-level or sentence-level stress Ways of showing the stress 1. Use gestures. The teacher can indicate the stress by clapping hands or using arm movements as if conducting music. 2. Use the voice. The teacher can raise the voice to indicate stress. This can be done with some exaggeration sometimes. 3. Use the blackboard. The teacher can highlight the stress parts by underling them or writing them with colored chalks or in different size. The importance of practicing intonation 1. Intonation can greatly affect the intention of the speaker?s message. 2. Intonation is used by native speakers to express meanings in many subtle ways such as surprise, complaint, sarcasm, friendliness, threats, etc. 3. Intonation is “as important as grammar or lexis.” Kelly (2005: 12) provides a useful summary which may be adapted for classroom practice. Rising or falling Example Indication a. Falling on a He?s moved to I?m telling something I think statement Glasgow. you don?t know. b. Falling and rising He?s moved to I haven?t finished yet (there is within a statement Glasgow. (about a more information to come). 8 year ago). c. Falling on a question Where do you live? I?m asking a genuine question. I know you?ve told me before d. Rising on a question Where do you live? but… The role of grammar in language learning , Teaching grammar is less important for children than for adults. , Teaching grammar is less important in listening and reading than in writing. Grammar presentation The deductive method: The deductive method relies on reasoning, analyzing and comparing. , First, the teacher writes an example on the board or draws attention to an example in the textbook. , Then the teacher explains the underlying rules regarding the forms and positions of certain structural words. , The explanations are often done in the student?s native language and use grammatical terms. , Sometimes, comparisons are made between the native language and the target language or between the newly presented structure and previously learned structures. , Finally, the students practise applying the rule to produce sentences with given prompts. The demerits of the deductive method , It teaches grammar in an isolated way. , Little attention is paid to meaning. , Practice is often mechanical. The merits of the deductive method , It could be very successful with selected and motivated students. , It could save time when students are confronted with a grammar rule which is complex but which has to be learned. , It may help increase students? confidence in those examination which are written with accuracy as the main criterion of success. The inductive method In the inductive method, the teacher provides learners with authentic language data and induces the learners to realize grammar rules without any form of explicit explanation. 9 , It is believed that the rules swill become evident if the students are given enough appropriate examples. , After several similar examples, it is hoped students will understand that newly presented structure to produce sentences with given visual aids or verbal prompts. , The teacher tries to say nothing except to correct when necessary. , Finally, but optionally, the teacher may elicit the grammar rule from the students. The guided discovery method , The guided discovery method is similar to the inductive method in that the students are induced to discover rules by themselves but different in that the process of the discovery is carefully guided and assisted by the teacher and the rules are then elicited and taught explicitly. , In the guided discovery method, students are presented with contextualized scenarios illustrating a specific structure. Students are then guided to discover the underlying rule of the structure as well as its meaning in context followed by explicit teaching and learning of the target structure. Notice In practice, learner variables and instructional variables need to be considered when teachers decide which method to use in presenting a particular grammatical structure. Whatever methods you use, Ur (1996:81) reminds us that „the presentation should not take longer than five minutes.? Grammar practice Factors contribute to successful practice , Pre-learning. Practice is more effective when new language is clearly perceived and taken into short-term memory by the learners. , Volume and repetition. The more language the learners are exposed to or produce, the more they are likely to learn. The learners should have plenty of time and opportunities to listen to, speak, read and write different examples of the structure?s form and meaning. , Success-orientation. Practice is most effective if it is based on successful practice. , Heterogeneity. Practice should be able to elicit different sentences and generate different levels of answers from different learners. , Teacher assistance. Practice is most effective when teacher assistance is available such as suggestions, hints and prompts. , Interest. Interest is an essential feature of successful practice. Learners who 10 are bored find it difficult to concentrate and their attention wanders. Mechanical practice and Meaningful/communicative practice Mechanical practice , Mechanical practice involves activities that are aimed at form accuracy. , By doing mechanical practice, the students pay repeated attention to a key element is a structure. , Substitution and transformation drills are most frequently used in mechanical practice. , In substitution drills, the students substitute a part in a structure so that they get to know how that part functions in a sentence. , In transformation drills, the students change a given structure in a way so that they are exposed to another similar structure. This type of exercise also helps the students have a deeper understanding of how the structures are formed and how they are used. Meaningful practice , In meaningful practice the focus is on the production, comprehension or exchange of meaning though the students „keeping an eye on? the way newly learned structures are used in the process. , Meaningful practice usually comes after mechanical practice. Notice: There is no clear cut between mechanical and meaningful practice. Very often an activity can have elements of both. Receptive and productive vocabulary , Receptive / passive vocabulary refers to words that one is able to recognize and comprehend in reading or listening but unable to use automatically in speaking or writing. , Productive/active vocabulary are those that is not only able to recognize but also able to use in speech and writing are considered as one?s productive/active vocabulary. , As teachers, we need to make decisions when teaching vocabulary what words should become the learners? productive vocabulary so that we can design various activities to help learners use the words actively and automatically when they are speaking or writing. Ways of presenting vocabulary 1. Try to provide a visual or physical demonstration whenever possible, using pictures, photos, video clips, mime or gestures to show meaning. 11 2. Provide a verbal context to demonstrate meaning. Then ask students to tell the meaning first before it is offered by the teacher. 3. Use synonyms or antonyms to explain meanings. 4. Use lexical sets or hyponyms to show relations of words and their meanings, e.g. cook: fry, boil, bake, grill, etc. 5. Translate and exemplify, especially with technical words or words with abstract meaning. 6. Use word formation rules and common affixes to build new lexical knowledge on what is already known. 7. Teach vocabulary in chunks. Chunks refer to a group of words that go together to form meaning. It is also referred to as „pre-fabricated formulaic items?. 8. Think about the context in real life where the word might be used. Relate newly learned language to students? real life to promote high motivation. 9. Think about providing different context for introducing new words. 10. Prepare for possible misunderstanding or confusion that students may have. Developing vocabulary learning strategies , Review regularly , Guess meaning from context , Organise vocabulary effectively , Use a dictionary , Manage strategy use 12 Difficulties encountered in listening , Quickly forget what is heard. , Do not recognize words they know. , Understand the words but not the intended message. , Neglect the next part when thinking about meaning. , Unable to form a mental representation from words heard. , Do not understand subsequent parts of input because of earlier problems. Listening Processes Bottom-up model: Listening comprehension is believed to start with sound meaning recognition. Top-down model: Listening for gist and making use of the contextual clues and background knowledge to construction meaning are emphasized. Three teaching stages A. Pre-listening: 1. Predicting 2. Setting the scene 3. Listening for the gist 4. Listening for specific information B. While listening: 1. No specific response 2. Listen and tick 3. Listen and sequence 4. Listen and act 5. Listen and draw 6. Listen and fill 7. Listen and take notes C. Post-listening: 1. Answering question 2. Note-taking and gap-filling 3. Dictogloss 4. Discussion Principles for teaching speaking , Balancing accuracy-based with fluency-based practice , Contextualising practice , Personalising practice , Building up confidence , Maximising meaningful interaction , Helping students develop speaking strategies: e.g.: initiating a conversation, turn taking, asking for clarification, asking for repetition, getting others? attention, getting help from others, and ending a conversation, etc. , Making the best use of classroom learning environment to provide sufficient language input and practice for the students. Factors to be considered when designing speaking activities 1. Maximum foreign talk 2. Even participation 3. High motivation 4. Right language level 13 Types of speaking tasks 1. Information-gap activities 2. Dialogues and role-plays 3. Activities using pictures 4. Problem solving activities 5. Other speaking activities: e.g.: a. Find someone who… b. Bingo activities c. Change the story What do effective readers do? , have a clear purpose in reading , read silently , read phrase by phrase, rather than word by word , concentrate on the important bits, skim the rest, and skip the insignificant parts , use different speeds and strategies for different reading tasks , perceive the information in the target language rather than mentally translate , guess the meaning of new words from the context, or ignore them , have and use background information to help understand the text Principles for teaching reading 1. The selected texts and attached tasks should be accessible to the students. 2. Tasks should be clearly given in advance. Preferably, tasks should motivate students. 3. Tasks should be designed to encourage selective and intelligent reading for the main meaning rather than test the students? understanding of trivial details. 4. Tasks should help develop students? reading skills rather than test their reading comprehension. 5. Teachers should help the students not merely to cope with one particular text in front of them but with their reading strategies and reading ability in general. 6. Teachers should help the students to read on their own. Pre-reading activities 1. Predicting 2. Setting the scene 3. Skimming: It means reading quickly to get the gist, i.e. the main idea of the text. 4. Scanning: It means to read to locate specific information. The key point in scanning is that the reader has something in his mind and he or she should ignore the irrelevant parts when reading. While-reading activities 1. Information transfer activities The way to transfer information from one from the another is called a transition device. 14 Its function in teaching reading can be illustrated in the following diagram: Sophisticated Input (SI) Transitions Device (TD) Output (OP) Some transition devices that are often used in teaching reading: Pictures Drawings Maps Tables Tree diagrams Cyclic diagrams Pie charts Bar charts Flowcharts Chronological sequence Subtitles (provide subtitles) Notes (taking notes while reading ) 2. Reading comprehension questions a. Questions of literal comprehension. These are questions whose answers are directly and explicitly expressed in the text. Usually they can be answered in the words of the text itself . b. Questions involving recognition or interpretation. These questions require students to obtain literal information from various part of the test and put it together in a new way or reinterpret it. c. Questions for inferences. This type of questions require students to consider what is implied but not explicitly stated. d. Questions for evaluation or appreciation. These questions involve making judgment about the what the writer is trying to do and how successful he/she is in achieving his/her purpose. It may also involve the reader in making judgments about whether the writer?s biased or dishonest in delivering his/her massage. e. Question for personal response. The answers to these questions depend most on the reader?s reaction to the content of the text rather than the writer?s such as Type 4 questions 3. Understanding references 4. Making inferences Post-reading activities 1. Discussion 2. Role-play 3. Gap-filling 4. Retelling 5. False summary 6. Writing Teaching writing Problems in writing tasks 1. They are mainly accuracy-based. 2. They are designed to practise certain target structures. 3. There is insufficient preparation before the writing stage. 4. There is no sense of audience. 5. There is no sense of authenticity. 6. Students are given ideas to express rather than being invited to invent their own. 15 7. There is no opportunity for creative writing, particularly for expressing unusual or original ideas. 8. Many of them are test-oriented. The product-oriented method of teaching writing pays great attention to the accuracy of the final product but ignores the process, which the students go through to reach the final goal. A process approach to writing It is a kind of approach which emphasis is on the process of writing, rather than on the finished product. 1. Creating a motivation to writing: The teacher at this stage should try to create a reason for students to write, make them feel interested and have things to say. So the topic for writing should be familiar, meaningful and relevant to students? life and interest. 2. Brainstorming: Students work together to brainstorm ideas for writing, because students? thoughts can be inspired by each other?s sparkling points. 3. Mapping: Mapping helps students organize these ideas. A diagram or an outline can be used to do this. 4. Freewriting: It refers to the stage when students start writing freely about the topic following mapping. At this stage they do not need to care too much about spelling or grammar. It can help students develop fluency in writing. 5. Outlining: After students have gathered enough ideas they need to write a more detailed outline. It may also include an introduction and a conclusion. It need not be fixed, it can be changed if the writer has better ideas. 6. Drafting: At this stage, the development of ideas is more important than getting grammatical structures, punctuation or spelling correct. 7. Editing (peer editing & self-editing): Checking the clarity of ideas or the logical development of their argument and checking carefully the grammar, spelling and punctuation of their writings. 8. Revising: It is the stage when teachers guide students to make necessary improvements in both organization and contents based on either self-editing or peer editing. 9. Proofreading: It is the final stage before one hands in the final draft. At this stage, students should be guided to read their writings again carefully for any mistakes in grammar, spelling, punctuation, or capitalization. 10. Conferencing: It refers to a private meeting between the teacher and each individual students.The following is a grammar exercise designed in a way to allow students to discover and apply the rules by themselves. Please look at the following examples. 16 Used to and would Read the sentences below and find more examples of „used to? and „would? in the text. Did the people do these things regularly or just once? Do they still do them now? We used to live in a Visitors would come to Did they use to travel a crowded flat. see us. lot? We didn?t use to go to the We would grow No, they didn?t. market. vegetables in our won garden. Ways of consolidating vocabulary 1. Labeling 2. Spotting the differences 3. Describing and drawing 4. Playing a game 5. Using word series 6. Using word bingo 7. Using word association 8. Finding Synonyms and antonyms 9. Using categories 10. Using word net-work 11. Using the Internet resources for more ideas Dictogloss: It is a type of activity in which the teacher reads out a passage in normal speed for two or three times and students are to note down the words they could catch as they listen as much as possible. Then they discuss their understanding of the overall meaning with their classmates. The aim is to stress the use of various listening strategies for overall understanding and „to guide students towards noting the differences between their reconstructed text and the original and then discover the reasons for their listening difficulties.? Stages: 1. Preparation 2. Dictation 3. Reconstruction 4. Analysis and correction What do effective readers do? , have a clear purpose in reading , read silently 17 , read phrase by phrase, rather than word by word , concentrate on the important bits, skim the rest, and skip the insignificant parts , use different speeds and strategies for different reading tasks , perceive the information in the target language rather than mentally translate , guess the meaning of new words from the context, or ignore them , have and use background information to help understand the text Bottom-up model It is believed that reading comprehension is based on the mastery of new words and new structures as well as a lot of reading aloud practice. Teaching reading is to introduce new vocabulary and structures first and then go over the text sentence by sentence and paragraph by paragraph with the students. Top-down model It is believed that one?s background knowledge plays a most important role than new words and new structures in reading comprehension. Teaching reading is to teach the background knowledge first so that students equipped with such knowledge will be able to guess meaning from the printed page. Pre-reading activities 1. Predicting , Predicting based on the title e.g.: A Nation of Pet-Lovers T: What is a pet? What are pets for? Why do people love pets? Are there any problems with pet? Save the Jungle: Save the world T: What is a jungle? Where can you find jungles? What do you think has happened to the jungles? Police Hunt for Child T: What happened to the child? How do you think the parents would feel? What could the police do? , Predicting based on vocabulary , Predicting based on the T/F questions 2. Setting the scene It means getting the students familiarized with the cultural and social background knowledge relevant to the reading text. , Discussing culture-bound aspects of the text , Relating what students already know to what they want to know. e.g.: ask the students to write down three things that they would like to know concerning the theme of a text they are about to read. , Using visual aids whenever possible to set the scene 18 Information transfer activities The way to transfer information from one from the another is called a transition device. Its function in teaching reading can be illustrated in the following diagram: Sophisticated Input (SI) Transitions Device (TD) Output (OP) Some transition devices that are often used in teaching reading: Pictures Drawings Maps Tables Tree diagrams Cyclic diagrams Pie charts Bar charts Flowcharts Chronological sequence Subtitles (provide subtitles) Notes (taking notes while reading ) Purposes of transition device: , Focus attention on the main meaning of the text , Be able to simplify sophisticated input so that it becomes the basis for outputting. , Allow students to perform tasks while they are reading , Highlight the main structural organization of a text/part of a text, and show how the structure relates to meaning , Involve all the students in clearly defined reading tasks , Precede one step at a time (e.e. students should do easier tasks before doing more complicated ones) , When a TD is completed, use it as a basis for further oral an/or written language practice. The product-oriented method of teaching writing pays great attention to the accuracy of the final product but ignores the process, which the students go through to reach the final goal. A process approach to writing It is a kind of approach which emphasis is on the process of writing, rather than on the finished product. 11. Creating a motivation to write: The teacher at this stage should try to create a reason for students to write, make them feel interested and have things to say. So the topic for writing should be familiar, meaningful and relevant to students? life and interest. Motivate students to write [1] Make the topic of writing as close as possible to the students? life [2] Leave students enough room for creativity and imagination. [3] Prepare students well before writing. [4] Encourage collaborative group writing as well as individual writing. [5] Provide opportunities for students to share their writings. [6] Provide constructive and positive feedback. [7] Treat students? errors strategically. 19 [8] Give students a sense of achievement from time to time. 12. Brainstorming: Students work together to brainstorm ideas for writing, because students? thoughts can be inspired by each other?s sparkling points. E.g.: If students are asked to write a composition on „Smoking?, they may brainstorm the following ideas: Smoking [1] Bad for health [2] Expensive [3] Pollute the air [4] Dangerous [5] Waste of money [6] Cause lung cancer [7] Bad for non-smoker [8] Cause fire [9] … 13. Mapping: Mapping helps students organize these ideas. A diagram or an outline can be used to do this. Smoking a) Bad for health: Cause lung cancer; Bad for non-smoker b) Expensive: Waste of money c) Pollute the air: Indoor smoking; Smoking in public place d) Dangerous: Cause fire; … Bad for indoor smoking Public places Cause lung cancer non-smoker bad for health Pollute the air SMOKING dangerous expensive waste of money cause fire 14. Freewriting: It refers to the stage when students start writing freely about the topic following mapping. At this stage they do not need to care too much about 20 spelling or grammar. It can help students develop fluency in writing. 15. Outlining: After students have gathered enough ideas they need to write a more detailed outline. It may also include an introduction and a conclusion. It need not be fixed, it can be changed if the writer has better ideas. 16. Drafting: At this stage, the development of ideas is more important than getting grammatical structures, punctuation or spelling correct. 17. Editing (peer editing & self-editing): Checking the clarity of ideas or the logical development of their argument and checking carefully the grammar, spelling and punctuation of their writings. 18. Revising: It is the stage when teachers guide students to make necessary improvements in both organization and contents based on either self-editing or peer editing. 19. Proofreading: It is the final stage before one hands in the final draft. At this stage, students should be guided to read their writings again carefully for any mistakes in grammar, spelling, punctuation, or capitalization. 20. Conferencing: It refers to a private meeting between the teacher and each individual students. 21 Components of a lesson plan 1. Background information 2. Teaching aims Task: Work in pairs and compare the two of statements, and decide which set is more suitable for the aims of the lesson and which is not, why? 1 To learn the use of Able to use a number of comparative adjectives comparative forms of to compare things of people adjectives 2 To learn the structure be Able to talk about what their future plans are going to by heart 3 To listen to a dialogue Able to understand a conversation about shopping 4 To read an article about Can write a personal letter about one?s school safety life 5 To learn the new vocabulary Able to understand the main idea of an article of sports by heart about safety and can write a list of safety rules for the school 6 To learn to express their own Able to name different sports in English using opinion about military pictures as cues and able to tell each other what training sports they like 7 To learn to express their own Can talk about their opinions of feelings about military training to each other 8 To do a role play Can role play the dialogue of going shopping 3. Language contents and skills 4. Stages and procedures 5. Teaching aids 6. End of lesson summary 7. Optional activities and assignment 8. After lesson reflection 22 Macro planning vs. micro planning Macro planning: is planning over a longer period of time, for instance, planning for a whole programme or a whole-year course. Micro planning is planning for a specific unit or a lesson, which usually lasts from one to two weeks or forty to fifty minutes respectively. Micro planning should be based on macro planning, and macro planning is apt to be modified as lessons go on. Macro planning involves the following: 1. knowing about the profession: language contents and skills; materials, teaching aids, methods and techniques; 2. knowing about the institution: the institution?s arrangements regarding time, length, frequency of lessons, physical conditions of classrooms, and exam requirements. 3. knowing about the learners: students? age range, sex proportion, social background, motivation, attitudes, interests, learning needs and other individual factors. 4. knowing about the curriculum/syllabus: principles, purposes, requirements and objectives, methodological suggestions and assessment requirement 5. knowing about the textbook: its philosophy of teaching, organization of learning contents, major topics, recommended teaching methodology, unit components and ways of assessment. 6. knowing about the objectives: what learners are expected to achieve and able to do after one semester or a year?s learning so that he/she can design suitable activities to meet the objectives. Principles for good lesson planning: 1. Variety: planning a number of different types of activities and where possible, introducing students to a wide selection of materials so that learning is always interesting, motivating and never selection of materials so that learning is always interesting, motivation and never monotonous for the students. 2. Flexibility: preparing some extra and alternative tasks and activities as the class does not always go according to the plan so that teachers always have the options to cope with the unexpected situations rather than being the slaves of written plans or one methodology. 3. Learnability: the contents and tasks planned fro the lesson should be within the learning capability of the students. 4. Linkage: the stages and the steps within each stage are planned in such a way than they are someway linked with one another. 23 Testing: It often takes the „pencil and paper? form and it is usually done at the end of a learning period. The result is often expressed by a mark ( 60,75, 90, etc. ), a grade( A, B, C, D) or a ratio (7/10, 85/100, 95/120). Assessment: It involves the collecting of information or evidence of a learner?s learning progress and achievement over a period of time for the purposes of improving teaching and learning. It is not based on one test or one task, nor is it expressed by a mark or grade, but rather in a report form with scales or levels as well as description and comment from the teacher. Evaluation: It is a whole range of issues in and beyond language education: lesson, courses, programs, and skills can all be evaluated. It involves making an overall judgment about one?s work or a whole school?s work. It produces making an overall judgment about one?s work or a whole school work. Formative evaluation: the process of providing information to curriculum developers during the development of a curriculum or programme, in order to improve it. Formative evaluation is also used in syllabus design and the development of language teaching programmes and materials. Summative evaluation: the process of providing information to decision makers, after the programme is completed, about whether or not the programme was effective and successful. Formative assessment: It is based on information collected in the classroom during the teaching process for the purposes of improving teaching and learning. Summative assessment: It is mainly based on testing. It is done mostly at the end of a learning period or the end of a school year. Formative test : a test which is given during a course of instruction and which informs both the student and the teacher how well the student is doing. A formative test includes only topics which have been taught, and shows whether the student needs extra work or attention. It is usually a pass or fail test. If a student fails he or she is able to do more study and take the test again. Summative test: a test given at the end of course of instruction, and which measures or graded test, i.e. it is marked according to a scale or set of grades. 24