英美法律制度3PPT课件

2.ENGLISHCOURTSANDCOMMONLAWAfewforewordsThecommonlawofEngland:aNormancreationBeforetheconquest:folkcustom,variedfromplacetoplaceAftertheconquest:nodirectinterference,theoldlocalcourtscontinuedtooperate;sentjudgesoncircuit,ironingoutlocaldifferencesCourt:curia(Latin)1.therectangularenclosedyard;2.agroupofpersonsgatheredtogether;TheearlyEnglishlawcourts,composedofanumberof"suitors,"werecalledcourtsbecausetheyweregroupsofpersons.TheearlyEnglishroyalcouncilswerereferredtoascuriaeorcourts.2.1ANCIENTCOURTSBeforetheNormanConquest,therewerethecommunalcourtsoftheshireandhundred,theseignorialcourts,andtheboroughcourtsthatapplieddifferent,incoherentfolkcustoms.1108HenryI:凡我臣民均应知晓，本王许可并命令，从今以后本王治下的所有郡法院和所有百户区法院均应像在爱德华王时代一样，在相同的地点并按相同的任期而不是以其他方式履行职务。我不希望我的郡守因其自己的需要和利益而另搞一套。至于我自己，如果我愿意，如果本王的利益需要，我将按照我自己的喜好召集法庭。如果将来在我自己的主佃户之间发生的有关土地分配或土地扣押的纠纷，就由我自己的法院审理。但是如果纠纷发生在本王治下的任何男爵的属臣之间，应由纠纷各方的共同领主的法院管辖。但如果纠纷发生在不同领主的属臣之间，应由郡法院管辖。……我希望并命令按照本王这番要求参加郡法院和百户区法院的郡内民众依据爱德华王时期的方式行事。2.1.1HundredandShireCourtsThehundredcourt:▲madeupofsuitors(whowererequiredtoattendthecourtinordertoholdtheirland);▲presidedoverbythehundredreeve.Courtsleet:somelordspurchasedthehundredcourts.Thereasoniseconomic:bysettlingthedisputes,thelordwouldcollectfeesandreceiveone-thirdofanydamagesrecovered,inadditiontovariousfees.Thejurisdictionofthehundredcourts:AftertheConquestthejurisdictionofthehundredcourtsoverlanddisputesandsomecriminalcaseswasremovedtotheshirecourts.Theyreservedjurisdictionoverotherdisputesofordinarycitizens.The“frank-pledge”processThehundredcourtsdevelopedthe“frank-pledge”processfromanAnglo-Saxonpredecessor.Itisafirststepinthecriminaljusticsystemtoconvictacriminal,whowasnotcaughtatthespotandwhoseviolationwasnotsupportedbyenoughevidence.Familiesweredividedintogroupsofabouttenfamiliescalled“tithings”.Tithingswereresponsibleforproducingmembersofthetithingthatwereaccusedofcrime.Thesheriff,orthelordsofcourtsleet,wouldappearatthelargesemi-annualmeetingsofthehundredcourtandmakesurethatallinhabitantsofthehundredwereinatithing.Thiswascalled“viewoffrank-pledge.”Thoseaccusedofsmallercrimeswouldbetriedonthespot,andthoseaccusedofmajoroffenseswouldbeheldoverfortheshirecourt.TheshirecourtsItcoveredaterritoryincludingnumeroushundreds.Itssuitorsandlitigantswerethemoreimportantpersonsintheshire.Theywerecourtsofgeneralcivilandcriminaljurisdiction.InthefirstcenturyaftertheConquesttheshirecourtswasofthegreatestpopularityandinfluence.JudgementbypeersIn1166,theAssizeofClarendonwaspromulgatedtostrengthentheadministrationofthecriminallaw.Itrequiredtwelvemenfromeachvillandfourfromeachhundredtocometothelargesemi-annualmeetingsoftheshirecourtandreportonoffensescommittedintheirhundredsandproducetheoffenders,ifpossible.Iftheoffenderwasnotproduced,theshirecourtwouldissueasummons,andiftheaccuseddidnotappearafterfiveconsecutivesummonseshecouldbedeclaredan“outlaw.”Anoutlawhadnorights,andwasoutsidetheprotectionofthelaw.ShrinkingofthejurisdictionBythesame1166statute,jurisdictionoverthemostimportantcriminalcases,knownasPleasoftheCrown,wastakenfromtheshirecourtsandgiventotheemergingroyalcourts.ShirecourtjurisdictionoverlanddisputeswasalsotakenfromthemduringthereignofHenryII(1154-1189)andassumedbytheroyalcourts.BothdevelopmentswerepartofthecentralizationofEnglishgovernmentinthehandsoftheroyalgovernmentatWestminster.Theshirecourtsexercisedjurisdictionovermanycivildisputesaswellassomelessseriouscrimes.In1236,suitors,whohadbeenimportantmen,werepermittedtosendattorneystotheshirecourtsintheirstead.Thisisseenasthedeclineinprestigeoftheshirecourts.Inthelate13thcentury,theshirecourtswerenotallowedtohearcasesforamountsoverfortyshillings.Thisamountstohavingdeprivedshirecourtsofanyjurisdictionovertheimportantcases.2.1.2SeignorialCourtsTheseignorialcourtscameintoexistencebeforetheConquest,thoughnotasoldasthecommunalcourts.Thetheoryunderlieswasthenotionthatlordshadtherightanddutytoholdcourtfortheirsubordinates.Subinfeudation采邑分租kingtenantin-chieftenant-in-servicetenant-in-demesnelordworkedthelandthroughvilleinsEachtenantinservicehadtherightanddutytoholdcourtforhisjuniortenants.Thiscourt,composedofallthetenants,decidedtheirdisputesandcouldbeaskedtoadvisethelordonproblemsofmutualconcern.TheCuriaRegis:thegreatestoftheseignorialcourtswasthecourtoftheking,whowasatthetopofthefeudalpyramid.ItwasknownastheCuriaRegis.ThemanorialcourtThemanorialcourtforthetenantsorvilleinsonthelandwasthecourtofthetenantindemesne.Courtsforvilleinshadthelordorhisstewardforajudge;thosewithjurisdictionoverfreemenhowever,hadthelordorhisstewardforpresidingofficerandfreemenassuitors.2.1.3BoroughCourtsTheboroughscourts:◆Theburgesseswerethesuitors;nocriminaljurisdiction.◆Ifapersonwithinaboroughownedlandunderalord,healsoowedsuittothecourtofthatlord.TheboroughscourtsandcommerciallawTheboroughswerecentersoftradeandcommerce.Theywereparticularlyadeptinthosebranchesofthelawconcernedwiththeircommerciallife.Incontrast,theroyallaw,whichemergedlater,wasconcernedmainlywithproblemsofrealestatetobuildupthelandedaristocracy.Boroughcourtswereinpartresponsibleforthedevelopmentofcommerciallaw,sincemanyofthedisputesthatcamebeforetheminvolvedmerchantsandartisans.BoroughcourtsresistedencroachmentsofroyaljurisdictionforcenturiesandwerestillapotentforceatthetimetheAmericancolonieswerefounded.Indeed,someauthoritiesmaintainthatboroughlawwasthelawmostfamiliartomanyoftheearlysettlers,andthatearlyAmericanlawcontainedaheavyadmixtureofboroughlaw.BriefReviewCo-existenceofmultiplejurisdictionscommunalcourts(hundreds&shires)seignorialcourts(magnacuria,etc.)boroughcourts2.2BEGINNINGSOFTHEROYALCOURTSBeforetheNormanConquest,therewerenouniformrulesappliedthroughoutthekingdom,courtsapplieddifferentlocalcustoms.Commonlawemergedastheroyalcourts’comingintoexistence.Royalcourtsdispensedjusticeapplyinguniformrulesandthoseruleswereappliedindiscriminatelythroughoutthecountry,thusthename“common”.Sounderstandingthedevelopmentofroyalcourtsiscrucialtotheunderstandingofcommonlaw.MagnaCuria◆Theking’sMagnaCuria,orGreatCouncil,wasthemostmajesticofEnglishcourts.◆Itwasnotajudicialcourtinthemodernsense.Itperformedallexecutive,legislative,andjudicialduties.◆Itconsistedofallthetenantsinchief,othermagnates,andgreatecclesiastics.Theking’spersonaladvisersalsometwithit.Whentheking’spersonaladvisersmetalone,theyconstitutedtheLesserCuria.TheLesserCuria◆Fromthemembersofthisbody,thekingchosejusticestotakecareofhisaffairsthroughouttherealm,including:▲thedispensingofjustice,particularlycriminaljustice;▲supervisionovertheshires;▲supervisionoverthecollectionoftaxesbythesheriffs;▲imposingpunishmentoffensesofPleasoftheCrown;▲and,whentheyvisitedtheshirecourtstheypresidedoverthecourtinsteadofthesheriff.TheyalsojourneyedtoFrance,foralmostfourhundredyearsaftertheConquest,sincethekingofEnglandwasconcurrentlydukeoflargeareasofFrance.Theking’spersonalrepresentativesweregivenmoreandmorespecializeddutiesinyears:▲JusticesofGaolDelivery:triedsmallercriminalcases;▲TravelingCommissionersofOyerandTerminer:(tohearanddecide):decidedimportantcriminalcasesUntilthefourteenthcentury,withtheofficeoftheGeneralEyreoftheJusticesinEyre,theEyresystemwascompleted.JusticeofthePeace▲From1195onward,theCrownappointedlocalcitizenstoaidintheadministrationofjustice.TheywereorganizedbytheStatuteofWinchester(1285)and,ingeneral,hadthedutyofkeepingcustodyofindictedprisonersuntiltheking’sjusticesarrivedtotrythem.Permanentappointmentcommencedin1327.▲In1344,inconjunctionwithotherpersonsinthecountywhowere“learnedisthelaw,”theyweregiventhepowertotryprisonersforfeloniesandbreachesofthepeace.In1368theywereempoweredtotrysomeprisonersbythemselves.Itwasaroundthistimethattheyacquiredthetitleofjusticeofthepeace.2.3REFORMSOFHENRYIIANDORIGINSOFCENTRALCOURTSInthereignofHenryII(1154-1189)thekingcarriedoutaseriesofeventsthatbroughtaboutradicalchangesinsystemofroyalcourtsandalawcommontoallofEngland.ThemovementstartedwithanimplementationoftheroyalclaimtoownershipofallthelandinEngland.Thewritsystemcompare:filingofcomplaints(serviceprocess)purchaseofawrit◆Typesandnumbersofthewrits—RegisterofWritsCouncildeterminedthetypesofwritsthatcouldbeissued◆FunctionsofwritsRemovaloftheadministrationofjusticefromcommunal(local)andseignorialcourtstowardcentraladministrationofjustice;Chiefsourcewerelandcases.◆Beginningoftheissuanceof“writofright”Theking’scourtconcernedmainlywithimportantcases.Ithadalwayshadpowertodecidelandcasesinvolvingtenantsinchief,whohelddirectlyoftheCrown.Disputesbetweenlesserlordsweredecidedinthecourtofthelord.Earlyinthetwelfthcenturythekingbegantointerferewiththisjurisdictionbyadecreestatingthatthelord’scourtcouldhearacaseinvolvingimportantinterestsinlandonlyifa“writofright”hadbeendirectedtohimbytheking.Thiswrit,orletter,fromthekingdirectedthelordtodojusticebetweentheplaintiff,whodemandedtheland,andthedefendantwhowasinpossession,andstatedthatifthiswerenotdonethekingwouldhearthecase(indeed,heusuallydid).Later,onthefictionthatthelordhadsurrenderedtothekinghisrighttoholdcourt,writwasissueddirectlytothedefendant,thusbypassingthelord’scourtandbringinglanddirectlyintotheroyalcourts.◆PossessoryassizesIn1166HenryIIdevisedthefirstofanewseriesofwritscalledthepossessoryassizes.Theyweredesignedtoremedythedefectsinthewritofright.e.g.▲NovelDisseisin(newlydispossessed),directedthesheriffofthecountyinwhichthelandlaytogathertwelvemenoftheneighborhoodtodeterminewhetherthepersononthelandhad,infact,wrongfullytakenitfromtheplaintiff,asalleged.Wherethereisnowrit,thereisnoright.2.3.1TheCourtofCommonPleasFormationoftheCourtofCommonPleasTheKing’sCouncilcouldassertjurisdictiontoawidescopeofcasesthroughissuanceofthewrit(possessoryassizes).Butthecaseswerehugeinnumberthatitcouldnothandleallthecasesbrought.In1178fivejusticeswereappointedfromtheking’sattendantstohearthem.Asthesejusticeswereappointedbytheking,theyaresubservienttotheCouncilandreportedtoit.Buttheirpositionwasdifferentfromthatofotherking’sjusticesinthattheyhadacontinuingcommissionanddidnotoperateonanadhocbasis.TheirconclusionswerereportedinCouncil,andintheorytheCouncilmadetheactualdecision.Inthecenturyfollowing1178,thiscourt,firstcalledthe“bench”,graduallygainedindependencefromtheCouncil.In1234itstartedtokeepitsownrecords,andin1272itwasgivenachiefjustice.AfterMagnaCarta(1215)itslocationwasfixedatWestminster.Inthethirddecadeofthethirteenthcenturyitacquireditsfinalname,theCourtofCommonPleas.ThejurisdictionoftheCourtofCommonPleas▲landcases▲othercivildisputes,forexample,actionstoenforceobligationsunderasealedinstrumentbythewritofcovenant,actionstoenforcepaymentoftheagreedpriceofgoodssoldanddeliveredbythewritofdebt.2.3.2TheCourtofKing’sBenchNotwithstandingtheexpansionofjurisdictionoftheCourtofCommonPleas,theKinginCouncilstillretainedcontrolovermanyofothercases,includingthoseimportantcriminalmattercalledPleasoftheCrown,andtheyweredelegatedtopermanentbodiesastheybecamemorenumerousandtimeconsuming.Criminalcasesweredelegatedtoabodywhichwascalled,initsfullname,“TheJusticesAssignedfortheholdingofPleasbeforetheKingHimself.”ItscommonnameisKing’sBench.Intheorytheking,butactuallytheassignedjustices,decideditscases.ThiscourtwassomuchapartoftheKing’sCouncilthatnoblemembersoftheCouncilattendedsomeofitssessions.BythereignofEdwardI(1272-1307)itwassufficientlydisengagedfromtheCounciltoberecognizedasaseparatecourt.PoweroftheCourtofKing’sBenchovertheking’sotherofficials▲thewritquowarranto:“bywhatauthority”theyheldacertainofficeordidacertainact.Poweroverothercourts▲writsofprohibitionorderedanothercourttoceaseitsconsiderationofacase.▲writsofmandamusorderedapublicofficialorbodytoperformanactorrestoreaprivilege.▲writsofcertiorariorderedanothercourttosendupitrecordforreview.▲writsoferrorandbillsofexceptionweredevelopedforthepurposeofviewingCommonPleaserrorsontherecord.ThepowerofKing’sBenchtoreviewcasesdecidedinCommonPleasderivedfromthefactthatCommonPleasdecisionshadbeensubjecttoreviewbythefullCouncilatthetimewhenKing’sBenchwasstillanintegralpartofit.WhenjudicialdutiesweredelegatedtoKing’sBench,thepowertoreviewCommonPleasdecisionswasamongthem;andwhenKing’sBenchfinallyseparatedfullyfromtheCouncil,thisjurisdictioncontinued.Theerrorsreviewedwereprimarilytechnicalorprocedural,andthereviewwasnottheequivalentofamodernappeal.ExtensionofJurisdictiontoCivilSuitsAtitsinception,King’sBenchwasacriminalcourtandacourtofreviewovercivilcasesfromCommonPleas.Mostcriminalacts,particularlythoseofaviolenttype,alsoinvolvecivilaspects.Ifone,forinstance,commitsassaultandbattery,heislikelytobeprosecutedcriminallyandtopayafineorgotojailiffoundguilty.Heisalsosubjecttoacivilsuitformoneydamagesbyhisvictim.King’sBenchhadjurisdictionoverthecriminalaspectofsuchcasesand,attheinstanceoftheinjuredparty,camebythereignofEdwardI(1272-1307)toextenditsjurisdictiontothecivilsideofthecase.Ittookjurisdictionoverthedefendantbecausehehadcommittedabreachoftheking’speace,thendroppedthecriminalaspectandtriedthecivilsuit.2.3.3ExchequerofPleasTheExchequer:thetreasuryoftheking.Mainfunction:todecidelegalquestionsoftaxliabilitytotheCrown.ThewritquominusItdeveloped,around1326,thefamousprocedureofthewritquominus,whichmayhaveariseninthisway:ApersonwashailedbeforetheExchequertoansweraclaimfortaxes.Heallegedthathewouldbegladtopay,butthathecouldnotpaybecauseJohnDoeowedhimmoneyandrefusedtopayhim.ThentheExchequerwouldcallJohnDoebeforeittofindoutwhetherheactuallyowedtheCrown’sdebtorthemoney.Ifhedid,theExchequerwouldorderJohnDoetopay.Anidealwaytocollectadebt:ByusingtheCourtofExchequerofPleas,theplaintiffhadthefullpoweroftheCrownbehindhim.TheobligationofJohnDoe,iffoundtobedue,wasowedtothecourtitself;therefore,theplaintiffdidnothavetofollowtheusualmodesofexecutiononajudgment,butcouldhavetheCrowncollectthemoneyforhim.TheallegationthattheplaintiffowedtheCrownmoneybecameentirelyfictitious.ExchequerofPleasthusexpandeditsjurisdictionintocompletecivilcoverage.2.3.4TheCourtofChancery--EquityBythefifteenthcenturythesystemoflawcreatedbythecourtsofCommonPleas,King’sBench,andExchequerofPleaswashighlydeveloped.Variouscircumstancescombined,however,toslowdowntheprocessoffurtherlegaldevelopmentandgrowth.AppealsforextraordinaryremediesweredirectedtothekingandCouncilTheKing’sCouncil,inaccordancewithusualadministrativepractice,referredcertainmatterstooneofitsmembersforaction,andthatmemberwasthechancellor,themostimportantmemberoftheCouncil.Thechancellor,before1474,heardappealsforextraordinaryremediesandrelatedhisrecommendationsbacktotheCouncilforfinalaction.Sometimeshewasinstructedhowtodisposeofacase,butmoreoftenhemadesuggestionstotheCouncil.ProceedingsinChancerywerebegunbyabill,whichdifferedfromawritintwosignificantways:1.Ithadnosetformandcouldbesimplyageneralrequestforrelief.2.Itwasissueddirectlyfromthecourtanddidnotrequiretheapprovalofanyotherbody.UnusualPowersenjoyedbytheChancellor▲Issuingwritofsubpoenaorderedpartiestoappearbeforehimunderpenaltyoffine/imprisonmentforrefusal▲informality:Hewasnotboundbythetechnicalrulesofpleadingandprocedureofthecommon-lawcourts.▲trialwithoutajuryAdvantagesofCourtofChancery▲relativeinformality▲acourtofextraordinaryrelief▲theclericalbackgroundofpre-Reformationchancellors.Theseparateprinciplesitdevelopedbecameknownasequitableratherthanlegal.Someexamplesofequitablemaxims:Equitywillnotsufferawrongtobewithoutremedy.(wherethereisaright,thereisaremedy.)Equityfollowsthelaw.(ifthecommonlawrecognizearight,equityshallrecognizeitaswell.)Hewhocomestoequitymustcomewithcleanhands.Hewhoseeksequitymustdoequity.(Ifaplaintiffistoseekequitableremedy,hemustnothavedoneanywrongdoings.)Equityactsinpersonam.Equitylooksattheintentratherthantheform.Equityimputesanintentiontofulfillanobligation.Delaydefeatsequity.Equityisequity.Conflictwithcommon-lawcourtsBy1474Chanceryhadbecomeaseparatecourt.Itswidejurisdictioncontinued.Sinceitsprimarymissionwastograntreliefunobtainableincommon-lawcourtsbecauseofadeficiencythereofeitherintheoryorremedy,conflictwiththosecourtswasinevitable.1.Chancerycreatednewfieldsoflawinareasleftopenbythecommonlaw,suchastheenforcementoftrusts,thelawoffraud,andreliefagainstpenaltyclausesincontracts.2.Itcreatednewremediessuchasspecificperformanceandinjunctions.3.Ittookuponitselfmoredirectinterferencewithcommon-lawprocesses.Forexample,onrequestofapetitionerwhowasbeingsuedinacommon-lawcourt,Chancerymightorderalitigantnottoproceedinthecommon-lawcourt.Onoccasionitwouldtakeacasealreadydecidedinthecommon-lawcourtsanddecideitanew,withthedecisionoftengoingtheotherway.Insuchcasesitwouldissueawritofprohibitionagainstthepartywhohadwoninthecommon-lawcourt,forbiddinghimtoproceedonthebasisofthatcourt’sdecision.Theseclaimstosupremacywerevindicatedintheearlyseventeenthcentury.DeclinationoftheCourtofChanceryBecausethechancellorwasaCrownofficial,hisofficesupportedtheclaimsofJamesI(1603-1625)andCharlesI(1625-1649)toprerogativepowers,i.e.,theclaimthatallgovernmentalpowerstemmedfromthekingand,therefore,thatParliamentandthecommon-lawcourtsweresubsidiarytohim.Parliament,ofcourse,opposedtheseclaims.ThisstrugglereacheditsclimaxandresultedintheexecutionofCharlesIin1649andtheabolitionofthemonarchy.ForatimeParliamenttheoreticallyreignedsupremeinaso-calledCommonwealthperiodfollowed,in1654,byaProtectorateheadedbyOliverCromwell,whoheldthetitleofLordProtectorbutinfact,althoughnotintheory,helddictatorialpowers.Cromwelldiedin1658,andvirtualanarchyensueduntiltherestorationofthemonarchywiththerecallofthesonoftheexecutedking,whowascrownedasCharlesIIin1660.DuringtheCommonwealthperiod,Chancerywentintoeclipse,toregainitspoweronlywiththeRestoration.Duringtheeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturies.Chancery’srigidityinprocedureandtechnicalityinsubstancerivaledandevensurpassedthatofthecommon-lawcourts.Inaddition,thefactthatithadonlyonechiefofficer,thechancellorwhomightbeaskedtoreviewanycasedecidedbythemastersinChancery,madeitintolerablyslow.FinalreformofChanceryproceduredidnotoccuruntilthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury.Equityisaroguishthing,foritvarieswiththelengthoftheChancellor’sfoot.–JohnSelden,agreatEnglishhistorian.Nowequityisnopartofthelaw,butamoralvirtue,whichqualifies,moderates,andreformstherigour,hardnessandedgeofthelaw,andisauniversaltruth,itdoesalsoassistthelawwhereitisdefectiveandweakintheconstitutionanddefendsthelawfromcraftyevasions,delusions,andnewsubtleties,inventedandcontrivedtoevadeanddeludethecommonlaw,wherebysuchashaveundoubtedrightaremaderemediless;andthisistheofficeofequity,tosupportandprotectthecommonlawfromshiftsandcraftycontrivancesagainstthejusticeofthelaw.Equitythereforedoesnotdestroythelaw,norcreateit,butassistit.----LordCowper(1705)2.3.5StarChamberThelastofthemajorcourtscreatedbeforetheparliamentaryrevolutionoftheseventeenthcenturywastheStarChamber.Itsoriginisuncertain,butitappearstohavebeentheremnantofthemedievalKing’sCouncilaftertheseparationofChanceryfromthatbody.TheHouseofLordshadgrownoutoftheMagnaCurialongbefore1474,andtheHouseofCommonshadbeeninexistenceforatleastacenturyandahalfbythattime.UnderHenryVII(1485-1509),thefirstoftheTudors,twoactswerepassedthateitherconferredorrecognizedStarChamber’sjurisdiction.AfterthecreationofthePrivyCounciltoassistinexecutivemattersinthe1530’s,StarChamberbecamepurelyacourt.Itdealtwithmattersinvolvingmagnateswhomightdefytheregularcourts,andwithmattersthatthreatenedthesecurityoftherealm,suchascriminallibel,conspiracy,forgery,and,later,fraudandthepunishmentofjudges.Initsinception,StarChamberwas,inatruesense,acourtofequity.Butitsseventeenthcenturyassociationwiththeking’sprerogative,itsapplicationtocriminalandpoliticalcasesofequity’straditionalbroadanduncheckeddiscretion,itsuseoftorturetoobtainevidence,anditsofteninhumanepenaltiesmadeitslaterreputationsomewhatlessthanenviable.ItfinallywasabolishedbyParliamentin1641.Withitspassing,theoriginaljurisdictionoftheKing’sCounciloverlegalmattersdisappeared.2.4MODERNENGLISHCOURTSTheJudicatureActof1873consolidatedaseriesofstatutes,redraftedintheSupremeCourtofJudicature(Consolidation)Actof1925,andoverturnedthewholeclassicalstructureoftheEnglishcourts.