【精品】Lesson 1 英语中的时态 Tenses in English95

【精品】Lesson 1 英语中的时态 Tenses in English95 第 1 页 共 81 页 Lesson 1 英语中的时态 Tenses in English 时态(Tense)是表示行为、动作和状态在各种时间条件下的动词形式。因此，当我们说时态结构的时候，指的是相应时态下的动词形式。英语时态分为16种:一般现在、一般过去、一般将来、过去将来时，以及这四者的进行时、完成时和完成进行时。下面着重讲解英语考试中经常出现的几种时态的用法。 1. 一般现在时的用法 用法:A) 表示现在发生的动作、情况、状态和特征。 例如:If it ______ too much trouble, I'd love a cup of tea. A) isn't B) wasn't C) weren't D) hadn't been 本句是日常生活中常用的口语。I'd是I would的缩写，表示一种委婉语气。全句的意思是:“要是不太麻烦的话，我想要一杯茶”。答案是A)。很多考生误选了C) weren't。if it weren't是虚拟语气现在时，表示与现在事实相反的情况。本句说话人认为要一杯茶并不是很麻烦的事，只是说的委婉一些，因此不应该用虚拟语气。选项B) wasn't 或D) hadn't been都和主句发生的时间不符，所以是错误的。 B) 习惯用语 例如:_________ it or not, his discovery had created a stir in scientific circles. A) Believe B) Believing C) To believe D) Believed 口语中常说believe it or not，意思是:“信不信由你”，“我说的是真的”。believe it or not是一个固定说法，相当一个插入语，短语中的believe没有词形变化。因此答案是A) Believe。 C) 经常性、习惯性动作。例如:He always helps others. (他总是帮助别人。) D) 客观事实和普遍真理。尤其要注意，如果前后文不是一般现在时，则无法保持主句、从句时态一致。 例如:Once environmental damage __________, it takes many years for the system to recover. A) has done B) is to do C) does D) is done 本句的意思是:“环境一旦遭到破坏，需要多年时间才能恢复过来。”do作为及物动词有“引起，产生”的含义，do damage的意思是“造成破坏”。主语damage是及物动词do的动作对象，谓语应当用被动语态。所以本题答案是D) is done。其它选项都是主动语态，所以都是错误的。 E) 表示一个按规定、或安排要发生的动作，(仅限于某些表示“来、去、动、停、开始、结束、继续”等的动词 )可以与表示未来时间的状语搭配使用。常见的用法是:飞机、火车、轮船、汽车等定期定点运行的交通方式。 例:The next train leaves at 3 o„clock this afternoon. (下一趟火车今天下午3点开车。) F) 在时间和条件状语从句里经常用一般现在(有时也用现在完成时)表示将来事情。 例如:When you have finished the report, I will have waited for about 3 hours.(等你完成这份报告的时候，我就已经等了将近3个小时了。) 2. 现在进行时(be doing) 的用法 例如:The fifth generation computers, with artificial intelligence, _______ and perfected now. A) developed B) have developed C) are being developed D) will have been developed 题中develop 和perfect是并列的两各位与动词，动词perfect只能做及物动词用，因此在本句中应为被动语态，与之并列作谓语的动词develop也应是被动语态。此外，句中时间状语now表示谓语应是现在正在进行的动作。由此可见，答案是C) are being developed。全句的意思是:"具有人工智能的第五代计算机目前正在开发和完善之中"。 3. 现在完成时(have done) 用法:A) 表示动作到现在为止已经完成或刚刚完成 例如:I bought a new house, but I _________ my old one yet, so at the moment I have two houses. A) didn't sell B) sold C) haven't sold D) would sell 第 2 页 共 81 页 B) 表示从过去某时刻开始，持续到现在的动作或情况，并且有可能会继续延续下去。此时经常用延续性动词。时间状语常用since加一个过去的时间点，或for加一段时间，或by加一个现在时间。 例如:Great as Newton was, many of his ideas ___________ today and are being modified by the work of scientists of our time. A) are to challenge C) have been challenged B) may be challenged D) are challenging 全句的意思是:“虽然牛顿是个伟大的人物，但他的许多见解直到今天还在受到挑战，并且被现代科学家的工作所修 正。”challenge是及物动词，在本句中应当是被动语态;其动作延续到今天，所以要用现在完成时态。可见答案是C) have been challenged。A) are to challenge和D) are challenging都是主动语态，不可能是答案。B) may be challenged虽然是被动语态， 但意思与全句内容不合，所以不对。 C) 表示发生在过去，但对现在仍有影响的动作或情况。通常用点动词，如:arrive, begin, find, give, lose等。 例如:John has broken his left leg.(约翰摔断了左腿。) 4. 一般过去时 用法:A) 表示过去某个时间发生的动作或情况。 例如:I decided to go to the library as soon as I _______. A) finish what I did B) finished what I did C) would finish what I was doing D) finished what I was doing 结合四个选项来看，全句的意思是:“我决定一做完手头的工作就去图书馆”。本题首先要判断的是as soon as(一…… 就)引出的时间状语从句中谓语动词的时态。从句中的动作“做完手头的工作”是预计将要发生的动作，而去句的谓语动词用 的是过去时(decided)。在这种场合，从句中通常用一般过去时，而不用过去将来时。所以选项A和C不可能是答案。句子 指的是“完成正在做的工作”，do要用进行式。因此选D。 B) 表示过去习惯性动作。特别是由would/ used to do表达的句型，本身表示的就是过去时。 例如:He used to visit his mother once a week.(他以前总是每周看望一次他的母亲。) C) 有时可代替一般现在时，表达一种婉转、客气、礼貌、商量的语气。 例如:Would you mind my sitting here?(您介意我坐在这里吗,) 注意事项: A) 注意时间状语的搭配。一般过去时的时间状语应该是表示过去某个时间的词或词组，如:yesterday, last month, in 1999, two days ago等，绝对不可与recently, in the past 10 years, this month等连用，因为这样的时间状语都与现在有关系，应该用现在 完成时或一般现在时。 B) used to do的否定形式和疑问形式很特别:你怎么写都正确。以否定形式为例:used not to do, didn't used to do, didn't use to do都对。 Used to do经常与 be used to doing sth/ sth结构进行对比。前者表示"过去常常或过去曾经"，要求加动词原形;后者表示"习 惯于"，要求加名词或动名词。 5. 过去完成时(had done) 用法:表示在过去的某个时间或动作以前已经发生的动作或已经存在的状态。就是我们常说的:表示“过去的过去的动作或 状态”。 例如:Until then, his family _________ from him for six months. A) didn„t hear C) hasn?t heard B) hasn't been hearing D) hadn't heard 全句的意思是:“到那时为止，他家里已经有六个月没得到他的消息了。”由此可以看出，谓语动词的动作延续到过去的 第 3 页 共 81 页 某一时刻才完成，因此谓语要用过去完成时。答案是D)。其它选项中:A) didn't hear，因为一般过去时只表示过去发生的事情或存在的状态，所以不能与时间状语for six months连用。B) hasn't been hearing，现在完成进行时表示过去某时刻继续到现在或现在还在进行的动作，与题意不符。C) hasn't heard，现在完成时表示从过去某一时刻到现在为止发生的动作。而题中的then只表示过去的某一时刻，不能表示现在时间。 注意事项:“过去的过去”这种逻辑关系常通过上下文体现出来，而不一定受某个时间状语的限制。 There had been some one in our room just now, because I noticed a burning cigarette end on 例如: the floor when we opened the front door. (刚才有人在我们的房间里，因为我们打开前门进来时，我注意到地板上有一支仍在燃烧的香烟。) 分析:虽然时间状语是just now，似乎应该使用一般过去时，但是“在房间里”这个状态是在"开门"和"注意"这两个过去的动作之前就存在的，所以应该用过去完成时 6. 过去将来时(would/ should do) 用法:表示从过去的某个时间看将要发生的事。 例如:I thought he would not attend that evening party.(我认为他不会去参加那个晚会。) 7. 过去进行时(was/ were doing) 用法:A) 表示在过去一个比较具体的时间正在发生的动作。 例如:Mary was listening to light music 10 minutes ago.(10分钟前，玛丽正在听轻音乐。) B) 如果when, while这样的时间状语引导词所引导的主从句之一是一般过去时，则另一个句子常用过去进行时。 例如:I was washing my hair when you knocked at the front door.(你敲前门时我正在洗头发。) 8. 一般将来时 用法:A) 基本结构是will / shall do。 例如:We shall send her a glass hand-made craft as her birthday gift.(我们将送给她一个玻璃的手工制品，作为给她的生日礼物。) B) 有些动词，如:arrive, be close, come, do, done, go, have, leave, open, play, return, sleep, start, stay 等，用于一般进行时，并且通常与一个表示将来时间的时间状语连用，可以表示将来时。 例如:My mother is coming to visit me next week and is staying here until May.(我妈妈下周将来看我，并会呆到5月。) C) 表示“打算去……，要……”时，可用be going to do。 例如:This is just what I am going to say.(这正是我想说的。) D) 表示“即将、正要”时，可用be about to do。强调近期内或马上要做的事。 例如:Don't worry, I am about to make a close examination on you.(别担心，我马上就给你做一次仔细的检查。) 9.将来进行时(will be doing) 用法:强调在将来的某个具体时间正在发生的动作或事情。 例如:Don't worry, you won't miss her. She will be wearing a red T-shirt and a white skirt at that time.(别担心，你不会认不出她的。她到时会穿一件红色的T恤衫和一条白色的短裙。) 10. 将来完成时(will have done) 用法:表示从将来的某一时间开始、延续到另一个将来时间的动作或状态，或是发生在某个将来时间，但对其后的另一个将来时间有影响的动作或状态。就好象把现在完成时平移到时间轴的将来时时段一样。其用法从和过去及现在有关，变成了和将来及将来的将来有关。 第 4 页 共 81 页 It is reported that by the end of this month the output of cement in the factory ______ by about 例如: 10%. A) will have risen B) has risen C) will be rising D) has been rising 根据by the end of this month可知，答案为A) will have risen。意思是“据报道，到本月底该厂的水泥产量可提高到大约10%”。 Lesson 2 英语考试中的介词 介词又称前置词，是英语中十分活跃的一个词类，可以与名词或名词性词语结合成介词短语，说明地点、方向、时间、原因、方法等，在句子中主要起状语和定语的作用，也可以充当表语和补语，还可以充当主语和介词宾语。在大学英语考试 的语法项目中，介词的考点主要是搭配题，即短语动词类、名词短语类、形容词短语类中的动词、名词、形容词与介词的固 定搭配以及介词短语和短语介词。下面就考试出现的介词考点作一个分析。 一、名词短语类 有些名词与一定的介词搭配而构成特定的名词短语。英语考试中通常与名词搭配的介词有以下几个:with, from, to, on, in等。 例如:The person that have the greatest influence _______ children are their teachers. A). to B) in C) on D) for 本题答案为C)。英语名词 influence或effect 与介词on 搭配构成名词短语，意思是“对‥‥有影响力”。 本句的意思 是“对孩子们影响最大的是他们的老师”。 2. It was difficult to guess what her _____ to the news would be. (CET---4, 1991/6) A) impression B) reaction C) comment D) opinion 本题答案为B)。本题是考查四个选项中能与介词to搭配的名词。A)impression(印象)后面要接介词of ，about 或 on ; B)reaction(反应)后接介词to ，表示“对 ‥‥的反应”; C)comment(评论、意见)后接介词on ，upon 或about ; D)opinion(意见、)后接介词of ，about 或on 。通过分析，答案应该是B)。 二、短语动词类 这类考题主要是要求学生掌握并运用一定数量的动词与介词、副词或名词的搭配。这也是四级考试中的一大难点，考生应 引起高度重视。 例如: The soldier was _____ of running away when the enemy attacked. A) scolded B) charged C) accused D) punished 本题答案为C)。本题考查四个选项中能与介词of 连用的动词。A)scold 后面一般接介词for ，意为“责骂”; B) charge后接介词 with，意为“控告”;D)punish后接介词for ，意为“惩罚”;C)accuse 后接介词of ，意为“控告”，根据题 意可知，B)accuse为正确答案。本句的意思是“这个士兵因为在敌人进攻时逃跑而受到了指控”。 2. The destruction of these treasures was a loss for mankind that no amount of money could ______ . A) put up with B) come up with C) make up for D) stand up to 本题答案为C)。题中的四个选项都是由“动词+副词(up)+加介词”构成的短语动词。A)put up with意思是“容忍、 忍受”;B)come up with 意思为“提出、产生”;C)make up for 意思为“弥补、补偿”;D)stand up to意思为“经受得起”。 根据题意，A)、B)、D)、都不正确，故答案是C)。本句意思是“对我们人类来说，这些珍宝遭到破坏所造成的损失是任何 金钱都难以弥补的”。 三、介词短语和短语介词类 每年的考试都有特定的介词与特定的名词或再加上介词可以搭配成介词短语或短语介词的内容。考生应该特别注意这一点。 例如: 1. We regret to inform you that the materials you ordered are ____ . A)out of work B) out of stock C) out of reach D) out of practice 本题答案为B)。 本题中的四个选择项都是介词与不同的名词进行的搭配，构成了不同意思的介词短语。A)out of work 第 5 页 共 81 页 意为“失去工作、失业“;C) out of reach 意为”够不着“;D)out of practice 意为“缺乏练习”;B)out of stock 意为“脱销”，正 好符合题意。本句的意思是“我们非常遗憾地通知你，你所订购的材料现在没有货了”。 2. Will all those ____ the proposal raise their hands? (A) in relation to B) in contrast to C) in excess of D) in favor of 本题答案为D)。题中的四个选项都是由“介词+ 名词+ 介词”构成的介词短语。A)in relation to意为“与 ‥‥ 有关”; B)in contrast to 意为“与 ‥‥形成对照”; C)in excess of 意为“超过”;D)in favor of 意为“赞成、支持”，根据题意，D) 是正确答案。本句的意思是“赞成该提议的请举手”。 四、形容词短语类 与名词一样，有些形容词常常跟一定的介词搭配而构成具有特定意义的形容词短语。英语中通常与形容词搭配的介 词有:to, at, for, about, of, with, in, from等等。例如: 1.By 1929, Micky Mouse was as popular _____ children as Coca-Cola. A) for B) in C) to D) with 本题答案为D)。 题中的四个选择项中只有D)with 才可以与形容词popular搭配构成形容词词组，意思是“受到‥‥ 的欢迎”。其他三个选项都不能与popular搭配。本句的意思是“到了1929年，米老鼠与可口可乐一样，受到了孩子们的欢迎”。 2. He was _____ of having asked such a silly question. A) sorry B) guilty C) ashamed D) miserable 本题答案为C)。A)sorry 表示“难过、抱歉”， 后面通常接for 或about，但不能接介词of ;B)guilty 表示“有罪 的、内疚的”，与of 连用时表示交代的罪行的类别，如:He was guilty of murder. 他犯了杀人罪。D)miserable表示“痛苦的”， 后面不接介词of ，但可接介词at，如:I was miserable at not getting his help. 没有得到他的帮助，我很难过。C) 表示“不 好意思的、惭愧的”，后面接of 或 that 从句，表示惭愧的原因，根据题意，C)ashamed为正确答案。本句的意思是“他因 为问了一个愚蠢的问题而感到很不好意思”。 Lesson 3 英语考试中的虚拟语气 一、虚拟语气在条件状语从句中的应用 1. 一般现在时的虚拟语气中， if 从句的谓语动词用它的过去式(be 一般用were)，主句用would/ should/ could/ might +动词原形。 例如:If I knew the meaning of the word, I wouldn't have to ask for help. 如果我知道这个单词的意思，我就不必寻求别人的帮助了。 2. 过去时的虚拟语气中，if 从句的谓语动词用它的过去完成时形式即had，过去分词，主句用would / should / could / might + have +过去分词。 例如:We didn't know his telephone number, otherwise we _____ him. A) would have telephoned B) must have telephoned C) would telephone D) had telephoned 本题答案为A)。本句是过去时的虚拟句，这点从前面的didn?t 可以看出来，后半部分相当于if we had known his telephone number，we would have telephoned him。 3.将来时的虚拟语气中，If从句的谓语形式用动词一般过去式或用were to / should +动词原形，主句用would / should /could/ might +动词原形。 例如:Jean doesn't want to work right away because she thinks that if she ______ a job she probably wouldn't be able to see her friends very often. A. has to get B. had got C. were to get D. could have got 本句的意思是:“简不想马上就工作，因为她认为要是找了工作，就不能经常看望她的朋友了”。 这说明，琼目前没有工 作。句中假设的情况在近期内并不会存在。该条件句应当用表示将来情况的虚拟语气，故C. were to get 正确。 第 6 页 共 81 页 二、虚拟语气在宾语从句中的应用 1. 在表示愿望的动词wish后的宾语从句中，需用虚拟语气。(wish后的that 常省略) I wish I ______ longer this morning, but I had to get up and come to class. 例如: A. could have slept B. slept C. might have slept D. have slept 本题后半句谓语动词用的是过去时had to get up and come, 所以前面要用过去完成时。所以, A) could have slept是正确答案。 2. 在表示愿望、请求、建议、命令等主观意愿的动词(如desire, demand, advice, insist, require, suggest, propose等) 后的宾语从句中需用虚拟语气。谓语动词用should+动词原形(should也可省略)。 例如:It is politely requested by the hotel management that radios ______ after 11 o'clock at night. A. were not played B. not be played C. not to play D. did not play 很明显，B)是正确答案。 3. would rather , would sooner也用来表达主观愿望，它们之后的宾语从句中需用虚拟语气。谓语动词用过去式表示现在或将来，用过去完成式表示与过去事实相反。 例如:I?d rather (that) you would come tomorrow. 我宁愿你明天来。 三、虚拟语气的其它用法 ,虚拟语气在表语从句和同位语从句中的运用 在表示建议、请求、命令等主观意向的名词(suggestion, proposal, requirement, demand, desire, advice, order, insistence…) 作主语，在其后面的表语从句或同位语从句中，需用虚拟语气。谓语动词用(should)+动词原形。注意这种句型中的虚拟语气形式不受主句动词时态的影响。 例如:We are all for your proposal that discussion _____.本题答案为A)。 A) be put off B). was put off C)should put off D) is to put off 2. 虚拟语气it?s (high) time中的应用 在It„s (high) time后需要用虚拟语气,谓语动词只能用过去式。 例如:It?s already 5 o„clock now. Don?t you think it„s about time _____ ?(CET-4，1995/6) A. we are going home B. if she leaves C. we went home D. if she had left 很明显，本题答案为C) 3. 虚拟语气在状语从句中的应用 1)虚拟语气在as if / as though 引导的方式状语从句中的应用(谓语动词形式与wish后的宾语从句基本相同) 例如:? He felt as if he alone were responsible for what had happened. 他感到仿佛唯独他要对发生的一切负责。 ? The tree looked as if it ______ for a long time. 本题答案为C)。 A. hasn't watered B. didn't water C. hadn't bee watered D. wasn't watered 2) 在lest 引导的状语从句中，谓语动词多用虚拟语气(should )+ 动词原形。 例如:The mad man was put in the soft-padded cell lest he _____ himself. A) injure B). injured C) had injure D) would injure 3)在if only 引起的感叹句中需用虚拟语气。谓语动词用动词的过去式或过去完成式。 例如:Look at the terrible situation I am in! if only I ____ your advice. A. follow B. had followed C. would follow D. have followed 本题答案为B)。if only 引出感叹句，意思是“要是……多好”，表示说话人的一种愿望，希望发生(事实上不可能发生)与过去事实相反的情况。 第 7 页 共 81 页 Lesson 4 英语中的简单句与并列句 英语的句子有两种分类:一种是按照句子的使用目的分类，可分为陈述句、疑问句(一般疑问句、特殊疑问句、选择疑问句和反意疑问句)、祈使句和感叹句;另一种是按照句子结构分类，可分为简单句、并列句和复合句。这里我们重点分析简单句、并列句和复合句之间的区别、连接手段和注意事项，并结合考试真题加以分析说明。 一、英语中的简单句 英语简单句就是指那些只含有一个主谓结构的句子。 1. 陈述句 An Olympic Marathon is 26 miles and 385 yards, approximately _____ from Marathon to 例如: Athens. A) distance B) is the distance C) the distance D) the distance is 本题答案为C)。本句的意思是:“奥林匹克马拉松赛跑为26英里385码，大约是从马拉松到雅典的距离”。名词短语approximately the distance from Marathon to Athens在这里作同位语，用来进一步具体说明26 miles and 385 yards到底有多长。如果选B)或D)的话，则句子结构应该分别为:…or is approximately the distance from Marathon to Athens和…and the distance is approximately from Marathon to Athens。但本题中逗号之后并没有or或and之类连接词，因此后面不应当是一个句子形式，而是一个短语。选项A) distance也不对，因为这里的distance后面有from…to…作定语，是特指，前面要加上一个定冠词才正确。 2. 疑问句 1) 一般疑问句和特殊疑问句 例1: Have you ever been to Beijing? 你到过北京吗, 例2:What is the most important thing in the world? 世界上什么东西最重要, 2) 反意疑问句 例如:If I don?t make a mistake, you used to live in Wuhan, ______ you? A) do you B) don't you C) did you D) didn't you 本句的意思是:“如果我没说错的话，你过去住在武汉，是吗?” 本题中主句为过去时态的肯定时态，所以附加疑问句应用否定式didn't you，答案是D)， used to 在英语中既可以作实义动词，也可以当作一个情态动词，本题中的used to用作实义动词，故附加疑问式用了didn?t you?，如果used to用作情态动词，则附加疑问部分用usedn?t you? 注意:如果一个句子里出现两个或更多主语共同使用一个谓语动词，或一个主语后面接两个或多个谓语，或者两个主语后面接两个谓语，我们都同样视其为简单句。 二、英语中的并列句: 英语并列句是指那些包含两个或两个以上互不依从的主谓结构，通常由一个或多个并列连词来连接的句子。 1. 表示并列关系的并列句通常由and, ,nor, neither…nor和not only …but also等连接。 例如:Turn on the television or open magazine and you ______ advertisements showing happy, balanced families. A) are often seeing B) often see C) will often see D) have often seen 本题答案为C)。句中连接词and前面的分句表示一种条件，and后面的分句表示一种结果。全句的意思是:“你一打开电视机或翻开杂志，常常会看到显示幸福、和睦家庭的各种广告”。在这种用法中，and前面部分通常是祈使句，and后面的句子用将来时，表示“会”。所以，选项C) will often see是答案。 2. 表示转折关系的并列句通常由but, however, while, even so，still和yet等连接。 例1: ________ I admit that there are problems, I don't think that they cannot be solved. A) Unless B) Until C) As D) While 本题答案为D)。全句的意思是:“尽管我承认问题的存在，但我认为他们能够解决它”。答案是D) While。While在此作连词使用，表示语气的转折，意思是“尽管、然而、但是”，其他选项都不符合题义。 第 8 页 共 81 页 John seems a nice person, _______ I don't trust him. 例2: A) even though B) even so C) therefore D) though 本题答案为B)。本题中第一句话的意思是:“约翰看起来像是个很好的人”;第二句的意思是:“我并不信任他”。根据整个上下文的意思，空格中应填入表示转折意思的副词。答案B) even so(即使如此，然而)，相当于nevertheless。选项A) even though的意思是“纵然”，是引出让步从句的连接词，不是副词。选项C) therefore虽然是副词，但意思是“因此”，所以不对。选项D)的 though(可是)虽然可用作表示转折意思的副词，但它通常置于句尾或插入句子中间。 3. 表示选择关系的并列句通常由or, otherwise, either…or等连接;表示因果关系或推论关系的并列句通常由for, therefore等连接。 例如:Dress warmly, ___________ you'll catch cold. A) on the contrary B) or rather C) or else D) in no way 本题答案为C)。本句前半部分的意思是“穿得暖和点”，后半部分的意思是“你会着凉”。无论从结构还是从意思上看，这两部分都是彼此独立的，应该是一个并列句，中间缺少一个连接词。根据整个句子的意思，这里需要一个表示"否则"意思的连接词，所以答案应该是C)，其他选项均与题义不符。 Lesson 5 英语中的形容词 形容词是英语语法中的重要组成部分，也是英语考试词汇和结构题中经常出现的一个项目。在词汇用法测试中，主要考查形容词的以下几个方面的内容:形容词意义的辨析;形容词用于修饰时的语序;某些在词义上容易混淆的形容词;有关形容词和副词比较级和最高级的用法以及由形容词与其它词所组成的固定结构和搭配等等。 一、形容词作定语时的位置 1. 前置形容词作定语的排列顺序 有一个以上的词语修饰名词时，它们的次序往往比较固定。其次序大致为:限定词(包括冠词、物主代词、指示代词、不定代词等)?数词?描绘形容词(短语在前，长词在后)?表特征的形容词(大小、形状、新旧、年龄等)?表颜色的形容词?表类属的形容词(包括专有形容词和表材料质地的形容词)+ 名词。当一个名词有几个前置修饰语时，表示最基本特征的词往往离所修饰的名词最近。 例1:a beautiful blue dress，短语中blue是dress的基本特征，所以最靠近修饰的名词dress。 例2:his four other big brown Australian hunting dog. 他的其他四只褐色的澳大利亚猎狗。 例3:Radio, television and press _________ of conveying news as information. A) are the most three common means B) are the most three common means C) are the three most common means D) are three the most common means 本题答案是C)。多个限定词修饰名词时，应该按“冠词+ 数词+ 描绘性形容词”的顺序排列。本题的意思是:“广播、电视和报纸是传播新闻和消息的三种最常见的手段”。因为Most修饰形容词common，构成形容词最高级。所以，most一定要放在所修饰的形容词common的前面，所以选项A)错误。数字通常要放在形容词前面，所以B)错误。另外，冠词一般要放在最前面，因此D)不对。 2. 后置形容词作定语 形容词一般应置于它所修饰的名词之前。但在以下两种情况下，它却要置于它所修饰的名词之后:一是形容词修饰由some--，any--，every--，no--等构成的复合不定代词时应该后置;二是部分形容词以及起形容词作用的过去分词做定语时常常要后置。常见的这类词有:enough, involved, concerned, available, left, mentioned 等。 例:(1) There ought to be something valuable in his report. 他的报告里应当有点有价值的东西。 (2)Hurry up, as there are only five minutes left, or We?ll be late for school. 快点，只剩下五分钟了，否则我们上学就迟到了。 二、 形容词词义辨析 注意:形容词词义辨析以及形容词与名词的搭配是历年考试的重要考点。 1 同义、近义形容词辨析 例1.:There were some ________ flowers on the table. A) artificial B) unnatural C) false D) unreal 第 9 页 共 81 页 本题答案为A)。本题的4个选项都是形容词，在一定的情况下都可以译作“假的”，但其含义各有侧重。描述花时，说明桌子上的花不是天然生长的，而是“人工的，人造的”，应当用A) artificial表示“假花”。其他三个选项的意思分别是:B) unnatural强调某物是“不自然的”，C) false强调的是某物带有欺骗性的假象，D) unreal是real的反义词，强调某物“不是真实的”，而是“虚假的”。 例2:Our new house is very ________ for me as I can get to the office in five minutes. A) adaptable B) comfortable C) convenient D) available 本题答案为C)。本句的意思是:“我的家对我来说很______，因为我可以在五分钟之内到办公室”。该空格要求填入一个表示“方便”之类意思的形容词。答案是C) convenient(方便的)。选项A) adaptable(可适应的)，B) comfortable (舒适的，舒服的)，D) available(可得到的)均不符题意。 例3:They took ________ measures to prevent poisonous gases from escaping. A) fruitful B) beneficial C) valid D) effective 本题答案为D)。全句的意思是:“他们采取了________措施防止有毒气体泄露”。effective“有效地，生效的”意指“能起作用的，能产生预期效果的”。valid“有法律效力的，法律上有效的”。fruitful意为“多产的，富有成效的”，beneficial意为“有益的，有利的”。所以答案是D。 例4:The shy girl felt ________ and uncomfortable when she could not answer her teacher's questions. A) amazed B) awkward C) curious D) amused 本题答案为B)。本题为近义形容词辨析。句中的uncomfortable暗示了选项B)是正确的。Awkward的意思是尴尬的。其它三个选项意思分别为:A) amazed 惊奇的，C) curious好奇的，D) amused好玩的，有趣的。 例5:Although they plant trees in this area every year, the tops of some hills are still ______. A) bare B) vacant C) blank D) hollow 本题答案为A)。尽管四个选项都有"空"的意思，但它们的意思格不相同。本句句意为:“尽管他们每年都在这个地区钟树，但是山顶仍然是_______”。答案是A) bare(赤裸的，裸露的)。选项B) vacant (空闲地，空虚的)，C) blank(空白的，空虚的)，D) hollow(空洞的)都不合题意。 例6:I'm not sure whether I can gain any profit from the investment, so I can't make a(n) _______ promise to help you. A) exact B) defined C) definite D) sure 本题答案为C)。本句的意思是:“我不能肯定这项投资能否获利，因此我不能做出许诺帮助你”。空格中应该是表示“明确”意思的词，因此C) definite(明确的、确切的)是答案，意思相当于unlikely to be changed。另外三个选项的意思分别是A) exact，exact意为“确切的、精确的”，相当于correct in every detail;B) defined(规定的);D) sure(可靠的)。 2 形近形容词辨析 例如:It is quite necessary for a qualified teacher to have good manners and _____ knowledge. A) extensive B) expansive C) intensive D) expensive 本题答案为A)。本句的意思是:“一个称职的教师必须行为端正，知识________”。空格中应该时表示“丰富、渊博”意思的形容词，因此答案是表示“广阔的、广泛的”意思的A) extensive。选项B) expansive的意思是“扩大的、膨胀的”。 C) intensive的意思是“加强的、集中的”。 D) expensive的意思是“昂贵的”。 3. 易混淆形容词辨析 例如:In Britain, the best season of the year is probably _____ spring. A) later B) last C) latter D) late 本题答案为D)。从所给的四个选项看，空格中应当填写的是表示“晚”这一意思的形容词，答案应为选项D) late。全句 第 10 页 共 81 页 意思是:“暮春也许是英国一年中的最佳季节”。形容词late作“晚的”讲，意指happening，coming or developing after the usual or proper time。later作形容词时，表示“下一半的”之意，常与former连用，所以A) 不正确。latter的意思是“后面的、后者 的”。last 有“上一个”的意思，last spring也就是“上一个春天”。而这句话讲的是一般情况，所以B)也不对。 三、形容词与名词的搭配 In the advanced course students must take performance tests at monthly _B____. 例1: A) gaps B) intervals C) length D) distance 全句意思是:“考生们学习高级课程必须每个一个月参加一次考核学习情况的测试”。空格中应该是表示“间隔”这一意思的词， 因此答案是选项B) intervals。at intervals表示“每隔……时间(或距离)”这里是每隔一个月(monthly)。英语中at length表 示“详尽地”。而distance与gap在寓意上虽与interval有共同之处，但不能和at monthly构成短语，因而都是错误的。 例2:Students or teachers can participate in excursions to lovely beaches around the island at regular _____. A) gaps B) rate C) length D) intervals 本题答案为D) intervals。B) rate表示“速度、比率”，at a/the rate of意为“以……速度”。rate，length，gap均不可与regular搭配。(其它解析参照上题。) 四、形容词most的用法 例如:It is reported that _____ adopted children want to know who their natural parents are. A) the most B) most of C) most D) the most of 本题答案为C)。全句意思是:“据报道，大多数被收养的孩子都先要知道他们的生身父母是谁”。空格中要求填入作为形 容词的most，因此答案是C) most。有约51%考生误选了B) most of。但是，most of后面应当接表示限定范围的名词或代词。 一些考生误选了D) the most of。在most of之前一半不用定冠词the，只有在make the most of(充分利用，极为重视)等个 别短语中most之前采用定冠词the。还有少数考生误选了A) the most。The most是much或many的最高形式，后面一般不 跟名词，用在本句中显然不合适。 五、数词+名词构成复合形容词，其构成方法及用法见下例: 例如:Despite the wonderful acting and well-developed plot the ____ movie could not hold our attention. A) three-hours B) three-hour C) three-hours' D) three-hour's 本题答案为B)。本题考核数词+名词作定语的用法。全句的意思是:“尽管这部长达3个小时的电影演技高超，情节环 环相扣，但却未能吸引我们的注意力”。按构词，“数词+名词”构成的复合词中的名词要用单数，即three-hour。此外， 这种复合词是形容词，不能加's。所以答案是B) three-hour。 六、比较和倍数的表达 英语中的形容词有三个比较等级，即原级(positive degree)、比较级(comparative degree)和最高级(superlative degree)。 同时，英语里还有几个含有比较意义的其他句型，如:superior to/inferior to 优于，高于，胜于/劣于。低于;senior to/ junior to 年长于/年幼于;anterior to/posterior 先于/后于等等。 例1:Americans eat ________ as they actually need every day. A) twice as much protein B) twice protein as much C) twice protein as much D) protein as twice much 本题的答案为A)。 根据语法规则，表示倍数的词twice 修饰同级比较结构时应置于 as .... as结构之前;同时，名词应置于as....as 结构 中，或twice as much as 之前。结合选项，本句的大意是:“美国人每天所食用的蛋白质数量是他们实际需要的两倍”。表达 倍数的方法是:…times as … as …，在两个as只见可用many(修饰可数名词)，much(修饰不可数名词)和其它相应的词。 例2: As far as the rank of position is concerned, an associate professor is _____ to a professor though they?re almost equally knowledgeable. A) attached B) subsidiary C) previous D) inferior 第 11 页 共 81 页 本题答案为D)。be inferior to是表示比较意义的常用句型，指“(在地位、等级等方面)低于....的，低等的”。因此D)项符合题意。本题的大意是:尽管副教授与教授的学问相差无几，但就级别来说，副教授比教授低。 Lesson 6 英语考试中的被动语态 语态也是动词的一种形式，英语的语态有两种形式:主动语态和被动语态。实际上英语中任何一个动词不是使用主动语态，就是使用被动语态，没有语态的动词是不存在的。主动语态表示主语是动作的执行者，而被动语态则表示主语是动作的承受者。 一、英语中使用被动语态的几种情况 中国学生由于受汉语的影响，不太习惯使用被动语态。实际上，由于英汉两种语言表达习惯的差异，英语中大量使用了被动语态。英语被动语态主要在以下几种时候使用。 1. 在动作执行者是泛指或不言而喻的情况下使用被动语态 ,The books in the library must not be taken away. 图书馆的书不得带走。(泛指:每个人都不得带走) ,China was liberated in 1949. 中国是1949年解放的。(不言而喻中国是中国共产党解放的)。 2. 在不知动作执行者是谁的情况下使用被动语态 例如:My dictionary has been stolen. 我的字典被人偷走了。 3. 为了礼貌而避免提到自己或对方时使用被动语态 例如:Enough has been said here about this problem. 关于这个问题这里已经谈得够多了。(意思是说:大家不要再说了) 4. 虽然可以说出动作的执行者，但动作的承受者是谈话的中心或特别需要强调，在这种情况下也需要使用被动语态。 例如:An agreement was reached in the end. 终于达成了一项。(这里要表达的重点是达成了一项协议)。 5. 避免变换主语以使句子行文流畅而使用被动语态。 例如:I lived in a small town, where I was born here 19 years ago.(此处用被动语态是为了避免变换句子的主语。) 二、历年英语考试中出现的被动语态 英语考试中的被动语态主要考查了一般现在时、现在进行时、现在完成时、含有情态动词等的被动语态。下面分别举例加以说明。 例1:Once environmental damage __________, it takes many years for the system to recover.(CET-4,1997/6) A) has done B) is to do C) does D) is done 本题考的是一般现在时的被动语态。本句的意思是:“环境一旦遭到破坏，需要多年时间才能恢复过来。”do作为及物动词有“引起，产生”的含义，do damage的意思是“造成破坏”。主语damage是及物动词do的动作对象，谓语应当用被动语态。所以本题答案是D) is done。其它选项都是主动语态，都是错误的。 例2:The fifth generation computers, with artificial intelligence, _______ and perfected now. (CET-4，1996/1) A) developed B) have developed C) are being developed D) will have been developed 本题考的是现在进行时的被动语态。本句中develop 和perfect是并列关系，动词perfect只能做及物动词用，因此在本句中应为被动语态，作谓语的动词develop也应是被动语态。此外，句中时间状语now表示谓语应是现在正在进行的动作。由此可见，答案是C) are being developed。全句意思:“具有人工智能的第五代计算机目前正在开发和完善之中”。 例3:Great as Newton was, many of his ideas ___________ today and are being modified by the work of scientists of our time.(CET-4，1997/1) A) are to challenge C) have been challenged B) may be challenged D) are challenging 第 12 页 共 81 页 本题考的是现在完成时的被动语态:主要考核谓语动词的时态和语态，全句的意思是:“虽然牛顿是个伟大的人物，但他的许多见解直到今天还在受到挑战，并且被现代科学家的工作所修正。challenge是及物动词，在本句中应当是被动语态;其动作延续到今天，所以要用现在完成时态。可见答案是C) have been challenged。选项A) are to challenge和D) are challenging都是主动语态，不可能是答案。选项B) may be challenged虽然是被动语态，但意思与全句内容不合。 例4:As teachers we should concern ourselves with what is said, not what we think ________. (CET-4，1997/6) A) ought to be said B) must say C) have to be said D) need to say 本题考的是英语情态动词的被动语态。全句的意思是:“作为老师，我们关心的应该是学生说了什么，而不是我们自认为学生应该说什么。”what we think和what is said一样，都是介词with后面的由what引导的名词性从句。在前一个从句中，what是主语，is said是动词的被动语态做谓语;在后面从句中，what也是主语，谓语同样也要用被动语态(注意we think是插入成分，不是谓语，去掉we think的话不影响原句的正确性)，这样，with后面的这两个宾语才能前后呼应。另外，根据句子前后的逻辑意思，我们应该选择答案A) ought to be said。虽然选项C) have to be said也是被动语态，但当what做主语时，谓语动词要用单数has，而不是have。而且，have to be said(不得不说)的意思和全句不合，不可能是本题的答案。B) must say 和D) need to say这两个选项的动词都是主动语态，因此，都不是本题的答案。 Lesson 7 英语名词性从句 英语名词性从句是指在一个句子中起名词作用的主谓结构，它可以在主从复合句中作主语、宾语(包括介词的宾语)、表语和同位语。名词性从句不管在句子中起什么作用，都要使用陈述语序。 一、主语从句 在整个句子中充当主语成分的从句叫主语从句。可以由连接代词what, which, who, whom等引导, 以及由连接副词how, when, where, why，等引导。 例如:In some countries _____ is called "equality" does not really mean equal rights for all people.(CET-4，1995/6) A) which B) what C) that D) one 本题答案为B)。全句意思是:“所谓的'平等'，在有些国家实际上并不意味着全体人民都享有平等的权利”。关系代词What相当于the thing that。what引出的从句what is called equality 在句中作主语用。 二、同位语从句 同位语从句的作用是做主语、表语或宾语的同位语(即，不是对主语、表语或宾语进行修饰和限定，而是说明其内容含义)，通常由that引导。同位语从句的先行词通常为belief, fact, idea, news, order, truth等。 例1:The mere fact __________ most people believe nuclear war would be madness does not mean that it will not occur.(CET-4，1997/6) A) what B) which C) that D) why 本题答案为C)。主句部分是"The mere fact does not mean that it will not occur."，意思是“仅仅这个事实……并不意味着核战争不会发生。”;从句部分是"most people believe nuclear war would be madness"，意思是“大多数人认为挑起核战争是一种疯狂的行为”。这一从句揭示了fact的内容，两者是同位语的关系。 例2:____ evidence that language-acquiring ability must be stimulated.(CET-4,1999/6) A) It being B) It is C) There is D) There being 本题答案为C)。分析该题题干可知，句子缺少谓语部分，首先可排除A)、D)项。在that引导的从句中，that 不做任何成分，只起连接作用，因此是evidence的同位语从句，对 evidence作进一步的解释说明。 三、表语从句 当主句的谓语是系动词，而从句位于其后，即在整个句子中充当表语，则该从句叫做表语从句。通常由that 和what引导，但有时也可由what, when, how, where, why 等来引导。 第 13 页 共 81 页 Output is now six times ____ it was before 1990.(CET-4, 1995/1) 例1: A) that B) what C) that which D) of that 本题答案为B)。关系代词 what代指1990年前的产量，同时它引导的是一个表语从句。 例2:Water will continue to be _______ it is today ------- next in importance to oxygen. A. how B. which C. as D. what 本题答案为D. what。 根据全句的意思“水在将来还是现在的状况--其重要性仅次于氧气。”判断，空格处缺少一个表语从句引导词，并且这个引导的意思是“……的状况”，在4个选项中，只有D可以表示这个意思。 四、宾语从句 1. 宾语从句的引导词 宾语从句一般由从属连词that, whether, if等引导;由连接代词what, which, who等引导;由连接副词how, when, where, why等引导。 例1:By success I don?t mean _____ usually thought of when that word is used. (CET-4, 1996/6) A) what is B) that we c) as you D) all is 本题答案为A)。该句中的宾语从句少了一个主语，主句动词mean少了一个宾语。A)项中的what作连接代词，并且is和thought of 一起构成从句的谓语，表示被动含义。 例2:This book will show the readers ____ can be used in other contexts. (CET—6,1996/1) A) how that they have observed B) that how they have observed C) how what they have observed D) that they have observed 本题答案为C)。该句中的how与后面的整个句子一起作为show的间接宾语。What they have observed作为how引导的宾语从句的主语。 注意:由于宾语从句有时会造成整个句子的结构失去平衡，所以可将宾语从句后置，使用it做形式宾语。 例如:They have discussed it for about a whole day whether we are to be allowed to take part in that concert.(他们就我们能否获准去听那场音乐会这件事已经讨论了几乎一整天。) 2. 介词后的宾语从句 有时候，英语中的宾语从句也可以作介词的宾语。 例如:Physics is the present-day equivalent of ___ used to be called natural philosophy from which most of the present-day sciences arose. (CET-6, 1993/6) A) that B) all C) which D) what 本题答案为D)。what used to be called natural philosophy作介词of的宾语从句，what作从句的主语。 五、强调句型结构中的从句 that或who (whom)用在强调句型It is...that ...或It is... Who (whom) ...中可以对句子的主语、宾语、状语进行强调。 例1:_____ she first heard of the man referred to as a specialist. (CET-4, 1990/1) A) That was from Stephen B) It was Stephen whom C) It was from Stephen that D) It was Stephen that 本题答案为C)。 本句是用It was ... that ...这种强调句型强调句中作状语的短语from Stephen。全句的意思是“它是从斯蒂芬那里第一次听说被称专家的那个人的。” 例2:When I try to understand _____ that prevents so many Americans from being as happy as one might expect, it seems to me that there are two causes. (CET—6,1998/1) A) why it does B) what it does C) what it is D) why it is 本题答案为C)。 本题属于It is ... that ...的强调结构，强调了prevents的主语部分，由what代替。全句的意思是“ 当我试图弄清楚是什么使美国人不像人们想象的那样幸福时， 我觉得似乎有两个原因。” 第 14 页 共 81 页 Lesson 8 英语中带零冠词的常用名词 众所周知，零冠词在英语中使用非常广泛。它不但可用于专有名词、抽象名词和物质名词，而且还用于类名词、集体名词以及名词化的各种词类。现将零冠词与各种名词连用的常见情况归纳如下: 1. 零冠词用于表示四季的名词 当一般地指四季，季节的名词在句中不含特定的时间概念时，英语中通常用零冠词，如:in (the) spring 在春天、in (the) summer在夏天、in (the) autumn (美国英语用 in (the) fall)在秋天、in (the) winter 在冬天。 ,如雪莱有一句名言:If winter comes, can spring be far behind? 冬天来了，春天还会远吗, 2. 零冠词用于表示时、日等的名词 零冠词还可用于表示日、夜、早、午、晚、周、年等表示时间的名词。如: ,It was late afternoon before he reached home. 傍晚时候他才到家。 ,At this time of year even the lake is frozen over. 每年这个时候连湖面都结了冰。 ,Day was fading into dark. 白昼逐渐消失在黑暗中。 3. 零冠词用于表示平行结构中的名词 如果两个名词一起放在同一平行结构中，即使单数可数名词，一般也不用冠词。 1) 同一个名词在连词或介词之后再次出现时，如:from door to door 挨门挨户地、foot by foot 逐渐地;一步一步地、 face to face 当面;面对面地、word by word 逐字地、day by day 每天;一天一天地、 hand in hand 联合地;手挽手地、eye for eye 报复;以牙还牙、 step by step 逐渐地;一步一步地。 2) 一个名词与另一个具有相反意义的名词相平衡，如:from beginning to end 从头到尾; sun and moon 日月、 day and night 日夜、 hand and foot 手脚一起;辛勤地、man and boy 从儿童时代起;从小到大、husband and wife 夫妇、 father and son 父子、from head to toe 从头到脚;全身;完全。 4. 零冠词用于呼语中 零冠词常用于用作呼语、命令语或感叹语的名词，如: (1)Thanks a lot, doctor. 非常感谢，大夫。 (2)Smart chap that cabman. 那个出租车司机真聪明。 (3)Hands up! 举起手来～ 5. 零冠词用于日常惯例的各餐名词，如:have breakfast 吃早饭、 have dinner 吃正餐(晚餐)、have brunch (尤其在美国)吃早午餐、 have supper吃晚饭、 have tea (尤其在英国)喝茶。 但如果特指某一次的早、中、晚餐，则用 the 来表示，如: ,The lunch was well cooked. 午饭做得很好。 ,如果表示具体的一餐时则用a 。如: ,Yesterday I had a nice dinner. 昨天我吃了一顿很好的晚餐。 6. 零冠词用于同位语。 英语中“零冠词+ 名词”可表示同位关系。如: (1)Thomas Hardy, author of Tess of the d?Urbervilles, was born in 1840 and died in 1928. 《德雷家的苔丝》的作者托马斯?哈代生于1840年，死于1928年。 (2)There is a camera here under some of these clothes, nice little Nicon. 这些衣服的下面有一架照相机， 是一架小巧的尼康。 7. 零冠词用于交通、通讯的名词 在表示使用何种交通和通讯工具的by--词组中，交通、通讯工具名词前通常不使用冠词。如: (1)go ( come; travel ; leave ) by bus ( plane; car; train; boat; subway;) 乘公共汽车( 飞机;小汽车;火车;船;地铁) 第 15 页 共 81 页 on foot ( horseback) 步行( 骑马)。 (2) communicate/communication by e—mail ( telephone; telex; fax; satellite) 电子邮件( 电话通讯; 用户电报通讯;电传; 卫星通讯) 8. 零冠词用于习语中。 这些习语多从历史传下来(古时的英语较少用冠词)，一直为人们所使用。这种零冠词多保留在动词与介词的宾语中。 如: (1)I hope that you will take this unpleasant advice from me in good part. 我希望你能乐意接受我这个不讨人喜欢的劝告。 (2)The new President has been sworn into office. 新总统已经宣誓就职。 (3)The ship was moving full steam ahead. 轮船开足马力前进。 ,其他类似的习语还有: catch fire 着火、change gear 换档、 eat humble pie 忍辱负重、 give battle 挑战斗、 give way 让路、 leave school 毕业、 lost heart 丧失勇气、take place 发生、talk sense 说有意义的话、according to plan 按照计划、at home 在家、 by chance 偶然、 on hand 在手头、 by heart 通过记忆、 out of date 过时、 out of mind 忘却、 with child 怀孕、 in fear 恐惧、 in time 及时、 without question 毫无疑问、 in front of 在......前面、 in spite of 尽管、 in place of 代替、 catch sight of 看到、 do duty for 当......用、 find fault with 挑剔、 get wind of 得到 风声、keep pace with 与......同步前进、make use of 利用、 take hold of 抓住、 take part in 参加、make fun of 取笑、 take advantage of 利用、lose sight of 看不见。 9. 零冠词用于表示游戏、运动的名词 零冠词既可以用于表游戏、运动的单数名词，也可以复数名词。如: (1)Football is one of several games played by two teams with a leather ball. 足球是几种由两队玩一个皮球的游戏之一。 (2) Bridge is a type of card game. 桥牌是一种纸牌游戏。 (3) Many children like playing marbles. 许多儿童喜欢弹玻璃球。 (4) Do you know how to play billiards? 你知道怎样玩台球吗, Lesson 9 定语从句中不能用关系代词 Which 的几种情况 大家都知道，定语从句中的关系代词that与which在指物时，往往是可以互换的，它们在定语从句中作宾语时还可以省略。但在下列12种情况下却多用关系代词that，而不能用which。 1. 当先行词为all, little, much, few, everything, none 等不定代词时，关系代词用that而不用which。 例如: ,All that glitters is not gold. 闪光的东西未必都是金子。 ,There are few books that you can read in this book store. 该书店供你读的书太少。 2. 当先行词既有人又有物时,关系代词用that, 不用which。例如: He asked about the factories and workers that he had visited. 3 .当先行词有形容词最高级修饰时,关系代词用that, 而不用which。 例如: It was the largest map that I ever saw. ,Hangzhou is one of the most beautiful cities that I have ever visited. 4 .当先行词有序数词修饰时,关系代词用that, 不用which. 例如: The first sight that was caught at the Great Wall has made a lasting impression on him. 5 .当先行词被the only, the very, the same, the right等修饰时,关系代词用that,不用which. 例如: That is the very thing that we can do. It is the only book that he bought himself. 第 16 页 共 81 页 6. 当先行词被all, every, any, much, little, few, no等修饰时,关系代词用that,不用which. 例如(1) You can take any book that you like. (2) There is no clothes that fit you in this department store. 7. 当主句是以which开头的特殊问句时,为了避免重复，定语从句的关系代词一般用that，而不用which。 例如: Which was the hotel that was recommended to you? 8. 在强调句型" It is ... that ..." 中,只能用that,不能用which. 例如: It was liberation that brought about a complete change in his life. 9 .在" such (the same) ... as ..." 句型中,关系代词要用as, 而不用which. 例如: We need such materials as (not which) can bear high temperature. 10 表示" 正如... 那样 "," 正象..." 之意时, 用as, 不用which. 例如: Mary was late again, as had been expected. 11. As 引导的定语从句可以放在主句前面, 也可放在主句后面或主句中间,而由 which引导的定语从句只能放在主句后面。 例如:As we all know, oceans cover more than 70% of the earth. 12 在某些固有的用法中，一般用that 而不用which。例如: ,There is a house that has bay windows. Lesson 10 大学英语考试中的倒装结构 英语的最基本的结构是主、谓结构，倒装(inversion)就是将这种比较固定的词序加以颠倒。英语的倒装有两种形式。 一种是将句子的主语和谓语完全颠倒过来，称为完全倒装(complete inversion)，如:Then began an eight-year war between Iran and Iraq. (于是伊朗和伊拉克之间开始了长达八年的战争); 另一种是只将助动词(包括情态助动词)移到主语之前，称为部分倒装(partial inversion)，如:Seldom can she finish her task in a short time. (她很难在短时间内完成任务)。 ,当主语在谓语前出现时叫顺序(the natural order)。在某些情况下，我们可以把谓语成分放在主语前面，这种词序叫做倒 装( the inverted order)。 ,倒装分两种:配合语法条例的倒装，叫“grammatical inversion”;配合强调语势的叫“emphatic inversion”。 ,引起倒装的情况有很多， 在大学英语考试种常见的主要有以下几种。 ,语法上的倒装句是强制性的，包括下列 7 种: ?疑问句，如: ? Can you do it? ? How old are you? ? When did you know him? ? Why did you elect him as captain? ? Which of these apples do you prefer? 但疑问代词做主语时，不必倒置，如: ? Who is your English teacher? ? What happened last night? 第 17 页 共 81 页 ?表示“愿望”的句子，如: ? May God bless you. ? Long live the king! ?“There”引导的句子，如: ? There are many cars on the road. ? There stand some big trees near the river. ? There is a security guard outside the bank. ?感叹句，如: ? How beautiful the flower is! ? What a smart boy you are! ?有连接词“so, neither, nor”的句子，如: ? Tom can ride a bicycle; so can I. ? She can't sing; neither can he. ? John has never been late; nor have I. ?省略连词“if”的条件副词分句，如: ? Were I you, I would not do such a thing. ? Should the machine break down again, send it back to us. ? Had you worked harder, you would have passed. ?“as, however”连接的让步副词分句，如: ? Small as the pen is, it is a powerful weapon. ? However busy you are, you should spend some time reading Zaobao weekly. 谈过了语法上的倒装句，现在谈强调的倒装句。 ? Never have I seen such a wicked man. ? On no account must this employee be removed. ? Not until he told me had I heard anything of it. ? No sooner had I left than the rain came. ? Up jumped the puppy. ? In came John. ? Down fell the rotten branches from the tree. ? Out came a woman and her maid. 一、虚拟条件句中的倒装 如果虚拟条件句中的谓语部分含有were 、had 或should，可以把它们放在句首，省掉连词if ，变成倒装句。 例1:______ for my illness, I would have lent him a helping hand. A) Not being B) Had it not been C) Without being D) Not having been 本题答案为B)。本句意思是:要是我没有生病，我肯定会给他帮助的。从主句的谓语可以看出，本题是过去时的虚拟语气，从句谓语应该用过去完成时。由于省略了连词if ，所以将 had 移到句首构成倒装结构。故B)正确。 例2:_____ before we depart the day after tomorrow, we should have a wonderful dinner party. A) Had they arrived B) Would they arrive C) Were they arriving D) Were they to arrive 本题答案为D)。本句是将来时的虚拟语气，这点从从句的时间状语the day after tomorrow 可以看出。因此从句的 谓语应用should或were to+ 动词原形。由于从句省略了连词if，就应将should或were移到句首，形成倒装。 第 18 页 共 81 页 二、表示否定意义的词或词组位于句首 这类词或词组常用的有:1)never, seldom, little, rarely, scarcely, barely; 2) neither...(nor), no sooner...(than), hardly ... (when), nowhere, not only...but also, not a, not often; 3) not until, by no means, in no time, in no case, in no way, under no condition, under no circumstances, at no time等等。但 是，如果位于句首的否定词修饰句子的主语，构成主语的一部分时，就不可以用倒装结构了，如:Not a word was said./ Scarcely a drop of rain fell last week. :No sooner had we reached the top of the hill ____ we all sat down to rest. 例1 A) when B) then C) than D) until 本题答案为 C)。 和no sooner连用的是than，hardly才与A)when连用。本句意思是:我们一到山顶就都坐下来休息。 例2:We have been told that under no circumstances _____ the telephone in the office for personal affairs. A) may we use B) we may use C) we could use D) did we use 本题答案为A)。本句中的否定短语under no circumstances位于宾语从句句首，句子需要用倒装 ，故B)和C) 错误，D)项时态不对。本句意思是:我们被告之，在任何情况下都不能因私事而使用办公室的电话。 例3:Not until the game had begun ______ at the sports ground. A) should he have arrived B) had he arrive C) did he arrive D) would he have arrived 本题答案为C)。本句将not until置于句首，主句要倒装。由于从句用的是过去完成时，因此主句应用一般过去时。 本句意思是:直到比赛开始了，他才到运动场。 三、让步状语从句的倒装 在由 as, though, however, no matter how, what 等引导的让步状语从句中，以及在省略了whether或though的 虚拟让步状语从句中，要采用倒装语序。 例如:______, he does get annoyed with her sometimes. A) As he likes her much B) Although much he likes her C) Much as he likes her D) Much although he likes her 本题答案为C)。本句是由as引导的让步状语从句，需要使用倒装语序，将状语放到句首，故C)正确。本句 意思是:虽然他很喜欢她，但他有时候也觉得她很讨厌。 四、only位于句首的倒装 当“only+状语”位于句首表示强调时用倒装语序，但如果不是位于句首或在句首但不 是修饰状语时仍然用正常语序。如:Only a woman took great pity on the old man. 例如:Only under special circumstances _____ to take make-up tests. (CET—4, 1997/6) A) are freshmen permitted B) freshmen are permitted C) permitted are freshmen D) are permitted freshmen 本题答案为A)。以“ only + 副词(介词短语、状语从句)”开头的句子需要用倒装结构，B)和C)没有用倒 装结构，而D)却用了错误的倒装结构。本句的意思是:一年级的学生只有在特殊情况下才允许补考。 五、neither, nor, so等位于句首的倒装 当so, neither, nor等位于句首，来表示相同或不同主语同样动作的肯定或否定时，就需要使用倒装结构。 例如:I could not persuade him to accept it, _____ make him see the importance of it. A) if only I could not B) no more than I could C) or I could not D) nor could I 本题答案为D)。本句是考查nor引导的倒装结构，nor表示“也不”的意思。本句意思是:我无法说服他接受它，我也无 法让他认识到这件事的重要性。 六、为了保持句子的平衡而使用的倒装:语句子有时候会出现主语太长而谓语太短的情况，为了保持句子的平衡，或者为了 使句子与前文的衔接紧凑，常常将谓语和状语一起放在主语之前。有时为了强调，将某一成分移到句首，因而形成倒装结构。 例1:They erect a bronze tablet on which is carved “The Yellow River Source”. 他们立了一面铜牌，上面写着“黄河之源”。 第 19 页 共 81 页 The girl who loves him so deeply finds herself unable to forgive his mistake. Around this point 例,: develops the sketch, which is humorous and full of a strong local flavor. 那个爱他的女孩觉得她不能原谅他的错误。围绕这一点就写成了这一短剧。它不但幽默，而且充满了浓郁的地方风味。 练习 ,. ____ for your help, I wouldn?t have got what I have today. A) It were not B) Were it not C) If were not D) Were not it 2. He didn?t watch TV last week, ______ did his younger sister. A) or B) and C) but D) neither 3. _____ on the ground was an old man aged nearly 60. A) Lying B) Laying C) Laid D) Slept 4. ______ but he also proved himself a good cook. A) He showed himself not only a good worker B) Not only he showed himself a good worker C) He showed not only himself a good worker D) Not only did he show himself a good worker 5. _____ do we hear fine singing from school choirs. A) Seldom B) Not C) Almost D) Rather 6. At no time and in no circumstances ____ our personal interest first. A) we should place B) we did place C) should we place D) did we place 7. “ Tom and his brother watch TV all the time.” “_____ do I.” A) Either B) So C) Also D) Neither 8. Only after you have received the telephone ______ the time of his arrival. A) know you B) you ought to know C) can you know D) you can know Lesson 11 英语中的动词不定式 一、动词不定式作宾语 1) 动词+ 不定式 常跟动词不定式作宾语的动词有以下这些: afford aim appear agree arrange ask be decide bother care choose come dare demand desire determine expect elect endeavor hope fail happen help hesitate learn long mean manage offer ought plan prepare pretend promise refuse seem tend wait wish undertake 例如:(1) The driver failed to see the other car in time. 司机没能及时看见另一辆车。 (2) I happen to know the answer to your question. 2)动词+不定式 ;动词+宾语+不定式 ask, beg, choose, expect , hate, help intend like, love, need prefer, prepare, promise, want, wish… 例如:I like to keep everything tidy. 我喜欢每件东西都保持整洁。 I like you to keep everything tidy. 我喜欢你年使每件东西都保持整洁。 I want to speak to Tom. 我想和汤姆谈话。 I want you to speak to Tom. 我想让你和汤姆谈话。 第 20 页 共 81 页 3) 动词+疑问词+ to decide, know, consider forget, learn, remember, show, understand, see, wonder, hear, find out, explain, tell :Please show us where to put the dishes. 例如 请指点我该把这些餐具放在哪里。 There are so many kinds of tape-recorders on sale that I can't make up my mind which to buy. 有这么多的录音机，我都拿不定主意买哪一种。 二、动词不定式作补语 1) 动词+宾语+不定式(to do) advise allow appoint believe cause challenge command compel consider declare drive enable encourage find forbid force guess hire imagine impel induce inform instruct invite judge know like order permit persuade remind report request require select send state suppose tell think train trust understand urge warn 例如:Father will not allow us to play on the street. 父亲不让我们在街上玩耍。 2) to + be 的不定式结构，作补语的动词。 acknowledge, believe, consider, think, declare(声称), discover, fancy(设想), feel，find, guess, judge, imagine, know, prove, see(理解), show, suppose, take(以为), understand 例如:We consider Tom to be one of the best students in our class. 我们认为汤姆是班上最好的学生之一。 3) to be +形容词 seem, appear, be said, be supposed, be believed, be thought, be known, be reported, hope, wish, desire, want, plan, expect, mean… 例如:The book is believed to be uninteresting. 人们认为这本书没什么意思。 4) there be+不定式 believe, expect, intend, like, love, mean, prefer, want, wish, understand 例如:We didn't expect there to be so many people there. 我们没料到会有那么多人在哪里。 三、不定式作主语 1) It's easy (for me) to do that.句型 类似的形容词还有:easy, difficult, hard, important, possible, impossible, comfortable, necessary, better，the first, the next, the last, the best, too much, too little, not enough 例如:It„s so nice to hear your voice. 听到你的声音真高兴。 It's necessary for you to lock the car when you do not use it. 当你不用车的时候，锁车是有必要的。 2) It„s very kind of you to help us. 句型 类似的形容词还有:kind, nice, stupid, rude, clever, foolish, thoughtful, thoughtless, brave, considerate(考虑周到的), silly, selfish(自私的) 例如: It was silly of us to believe him. 我们真愚蠢，竟然相信了他。 四、It's for sb.和 It's of sb. 1)for sb. 常用于表示事物的特征特点，表示客观形式的形容词，如easy, hard, difficult, interesting, impossible等: 例如:It's very hard for him to study two languages. 对他来说学两门外语是很难的。 第 21 页 共 81 页 2)of sb的句型一般用表示人物的性格，品德，表示主观感情或态度的形容词，如good, kind, nice, clever, foolish, right。 :It's very nice of you to help me. 你来帮助我，你真是太好了。 例如 五、动词不定式作表语 不定式可放在be动词后面，形成表语。例如: My suggestion is to carry out the plan right now 六、不定式作定语 不定式做定语通常要放在被修饰的词后。例如: He is not a person to do things by halves. 他不是一个做事半途而废的人。 七、不定式作状语 1)作目的状语 to… only to (仅仅为了), in order to, so as to, so (such)… as to… (如此……以便……) He ran so fast as to catch the first bus. 他飞快地跑以便赶上第一班车。 2)作结果状语，表事先没有预料到的，要放在句子后面。 What have I said to make you angry. 3)表示原因 I'm glad to see you. 八、 用作介词的to to 有两种用法: 一是作为不定式符号+动词原形;二是作为介词+名词/动名词, to 在下面的用法中是第二种，即to+ 名词/动名词:admit to承认， confess to承认，be accustomed to 习惯于， be used to 习惯于， stick to 坚持，turn to开始，着手于，devote oneself to 献身于，be devoted to 致力于，look forward to 盼望，pay attention to 注意 九、 省略to 的动词不定式 1) 情态动词 ( 除ought 外，ought to): 2) 使役动词 let, have, make等 3) 感官动词 see, watch, look at, notice , observe, hear, listen to, smell, feel, find 等后作宾补，要省略to。 注意:在被动语态中则to 不能省掉。 I saw him dance.=He was seen to dance. The boss made them work the whole night.=They were made to work the whole night. 4) would rather，had better，cannot but, cannot help but, may/might as well, would....rather than 5) Why… / why not…: 6) help 可带to，也可不带to, help sb (to) do sth 7) but和except:but前是动词do时，后面出现的动词用不带to的动词不定式。 8) 由and, or和than连接的两个不定式，第二个to 可以省去: 9) 通常在discover, imagine, suppose, think, understand等词后，可以省去to be: He is supposed (to be) nice. 他应该是个好人。 十、 不定式的特殊句型too…to… 1)too…to 太…以至于… 例如:He is too angry to speak. 他太生气了，说不出话来。 2) 如在too前有否定词，则整个句子用否定词表达肯定， too 后那个词表达一种委婉含义，意 为"不太"。 It's never too late to mend. (谚语) 改过不嫌晚。 第 22 页 共 81 页 3) 当too 前面有only, all, but时，意思是:非常… 等于very。 :I„m only too pleased to be able to help you. 我非常高兴能帮助你。 例如 He was but too eager to get home. 他非常想回家。 十一、 不定式的特殊句型so as to 1) 表示目的;它的否定式是so as not to do。 例如:Tom kept quiet about the accident so as not to lose his job. 汤姆对事故保持沉默是为了不丢掉他的工作。 Go in quietly so as not to wake the baby. 轻点进去，别惊醒了婴儿。 2) so kind as to ---劳驾 例如:Would you be so kind as to tell me the time? 劳驾，现在几点了。 十二、不定式的特殊句型Why not "Why not +动词原形"表示向某人提出建议，一般翻译为:"为什么不……?" "干吗不……?" 例如:Why not see a movie? 干吗不去看电影? Lesson 12 英语强调表示方法种种 英语中表示强调的方法和表现手段是多种多样的。一谈到强调用法，很多人首先就会想到“It is•••••• that •••••• ”这种 强调结构，诚然，这种强调结构在英语中用得较多，也为大多数人所熟悉。但除此结构之外，英语中还有多种表示强调的用 法同样需要广大英语学习者掌握。下面就分别加以介绍: 一、通过句子的倒装来表示强调 用倒装语序来表示强调就是把所要强调的部分放置句首的强调方法。 例如: ,Only in this way can she achieve great success. (强调状语only in this way) ,French he had studied for nearly ten years. (强调宾语French) ,Such would be our home in the future. (强调表语such) ,Go you must, rain or shine. (强调谓语动词) ,The door opened and in came Tom and his father. (强调状语in) 二、用动词的进行时表示强调 谓语动词的进行时常可用来强调说话人当时的想法、感觉等心理活动，而不是表示动作正在进行。例如: 1. She is looking ill today. 她今天看上去有病。(比She looks ill today语气要强烈) 2. She is always doing things for other people. 她总是为别人做好事。 (比She always does things for other people语气要强烈) ,另外，用“情态动词+ 不定式的进行时“的形式来加强语气，在英语中也较为常见。例如: 3. You must not always be talking so much. 你不应该老是讲这么多话。 4. When a person is learning a foreign language, he must not always be translating everything into his own language. 当一个人在学习外语时，不要老是把什么都翻译成自己的本族语。 三、用“形容词最高级 + of短语“来表示强调 ,The truest of friends is he who helps others when they are in difficulty. 最真实的朋友是在别人有困难的时候去帮助他们的人。 (比The truest friends is he who helps others when they are in difficulty 语气强烈) 第 23 页 共 81 页 ,He is the meanest of the men. 他是最下贱最卑鄙不过的了。 (比He is the meanest man 语气要强烈) 四、用否定形式来表示强调语气 1. can?t句的强调作用 1)He can?t be more foolish. 他苯得不能再苯了。 (比较:He is very foolish 他很苯。) 2)The job couldn?t have been easier.那件工作再容易不过了。( 比较:The job was very easy 那件工作非常容易。) 从上面两个例子可以看出，当can?t 与形容词或副词的比较级形式连用时，往往不在于否定谓语动词，而是在于加强全句的语势。此外，can?t的习惯搭配也常具有特殊的强调功能。例如: 3)I couldn?t agree with you more. 我完成同意你的看法。 4)I can?t praise this film too much. 这部电影无论怎样赞扬也不为过分。 (本句与I can’t praise this film highly enough. 同义。不能翻译为:我不能过分地赞扬这部电影。) 2. 用一般疑问句的否定形式表示强调。否定形式的一般疑问句，实际上是一种修辞问句，往往不要求对方回答，但要求用降调才能表示肯定句或感叹句的强调语气。例如: ※ Isn?t it a funny thing? 真是怪事～ (相当于It is really a funny thing. 或 What a funny thing it is～) ※ Isn?t the whole living-room a mess? 这起居室杂乱极了～ ※ Isn?t it cold today? 今天的天气真冷呀～ 3. 用双重否定形式来表示强调 ※ Nothing can live without water and electricity. 没有水和电，什么都活不成。 ※ It is impossible for this careless student not to commit errors. 这个粗心的学生肯定要犯错误。 (试比较:It is possible for this careless student to commit errors. 这个粗心的学生有可能要犯错误。) 五、通过各种不同的词汇和短语来表示强调 1. 在人称代词所有格的后面加上 来表示强调 ,I saw this accident with my own eyes. ,He can?t read his own handwriting . 2. 用助动词 do来表示强调 ※ Do come early tomorrow if you can. ※ You did give me a help in my English study. 3. 在疑问代词和疑问副词后加上in the world, on earth, the hell, the devil, every 等来表示强调。 ,What on earth are you doing here? ,When( Where, How) ever did you lose your English dictionary? 4. 用强调性形容词来表示强调。注意使用very时，必须和this, the, that或人称代词所有格连用。 ,What he said was utter nonsense. ,He did it under your very eyes. , 5. 在形容词和副词比较级的前面加上 far, much, still, even, a great deal 等，最高级的前面加上by far, by no means, much 等来表示强调。 ,He is by far/ much/ by no means the best student in our class. ,The new theater is even/ much/ far/ a great deal larger than the old one. 第 24 页 共 81 页 6.在否定句中用at all, a damn, let alone, in the least, a bit等来表示强调。 ,He can?t speak his own native language well, let alone foreign language. ,I don?t care a damn what he does. 7. 用 not to mention, to say nothing of, not to speak of 等来表示强调。 ,You have wasted at least three hours, to say nothing of the material. ,The dampness is unpleasant, not to mention the cold. 以上列举了几种非常常见的表示强调的方法和手段。实际上，英语中表示强调的方法还有很多，由于篇幅所限，恕不一一列举。 Lesson 13 英语定语从句 概述 1.定义:一个句子做定语叫做定语从句。 ,She is our new teacher who has just come back from the United States. 她是我们的新老师，刚从美国回来。 2.先行词:被修饰的部分叫先行词。先行词可以是一个词，也可以是一个句子。定语从句一般要在先行词之后。 ,a. This is the bady whom you will look after. 这就是你要照料的婴儿。 ,b. They have invited me to visit their country, which is very kind of them. 他们十分友好，邀请我访问他们的国家。 3. 关系词 1.关系代词:that, which, who, whom, as, 在从句中作主语，宾语或表语;作宾语时一般可省略;whose在从句中作定语。 ,a. That was all that I wanted to tell you about . 那是我想要告诉你的一切。(宾语) ,b. A scientist is a person who does scientific research. 科学家是搞科学研究的人。(主语) ,c. The house whose door is brown is mine. 棕色的门的房子是我的。(宾语) 2.关系副词:where, when, why 在从句中作状语。 ,a. This is the school where I studied twenty years ago. 这是我二十年前学习过的学校。 ※ b. I thought of my childhood when I lived in the village. 我想起了在村里度过的童年。 ,c. That's the reason why I'm not in favour of your plan. 那就是我不赞成你的计划的原因。 定语从句种类: 1.限定性定语从句:与主句关系密切，不可拿掉，否则整个句子的意思不完整。 ,The small town where I was born has developed into a big industrial city. 我出生的小城镇已经发展成为一个大的工业城市。 2.非限定性定语从句:对所修饰的部分作进一步说明，拿掉之后其他部分仍然成立。 ,I was born in a small town, which has developed into a big industrial city. 我出生在一个小城镇，它已经发展成了一个大的工业城市。 只用that引导的定语从句 在定语从句中，which 和that都可用来指物。一般可以互换，但下列情况只能用that 引导。 1.先行词前有 the only, any, few, little, one of , no, every, the very 等词修饰时。 ,a. This is the only reason that I can give you. 这是我能给你的唯一理由。 ,b. There is no difficulty that can stop us from moving on . 没什么困难能阻止我们能继续前进。 第 25 页 共 81 页 ,2.先行词是不定代词all, everything, anything, nothing, the one, none, few, little, much 等词时。 ,c. Is there anything that I can do for you? 有什么我可以为你效劳的事吗, ,d. This is all that I want to say. 这是我想说的一切。 3.以 which, who, what开头的问句时。 ,e. Which is the pen that you father gave you ? 哪一只是你父亲给你的钢笔, ,f. Who is the girl that is reading there? 在那儿读书的女孩是谁, ,g. What have you learnt that makes you so happy? 你听说什么了，使你这么高兴, 4.被修饰成分作表语或关系词本身作表语时。 ,h. She is not the little girl that she was ten years ago. 她不是十年前的小姑娘了。 ,i. China is no longer the country that it used to be. 中国不再是以前的老样子了。 5.先行词被形容词最高级修饰时。 ,j. This is the best film that I have ever seen. 这是我看过的最好的电影。 ,k. This is the most beautiful place that we have visited. 这是我访问过的最美的地方。 6.先行词被序数词修饰时。 ,l. I'll never forget the first day that we spent together. 我永远也忘不了我们在一起的第一天。 ,m. The last time that I met her was in 1976. 我最后一次见到她是1976年。 7.先行词为基数词时。 ,n. I've bought five books. You can still see the three that are on the desk. 我买了五本书。你仍可看到写字台上的三本。 8.先行词既有人又有物时。 ,o. They're talking about the people and the things that they saw. 他们谈论着所见到的人和事。 只用which 引导的定语从句 which 和that有时不可互换。以下情况只可用which。 1.引导非限制性定语从句。 ,a. He has a good knowledge of electricity, which helps him a lot in his work. 他在电学方面有良好的知识，这一点对他的工作帮助很大。 ,b. She was very patient towards the children, which her husband seldom was. 她对孩子非常耐心，她丈夫很少这样。 2.使用“介词+关系代词”这一结构时。 ,c. This is the room in which I lived twenty years ago. 这是我二十年前居住过的房间。 ,d. This is the question about which we've had so much discussion. 这是我们以讨论了多次的问题。 关系代词“ as ”的用法 as 引起定语从句时，可以放在主语前面;不可省略;多和 such, same连用。 ,a. As could be expected, he was against the plan. 正如预料的那样，他反对这个计划。 ,b. Such people as you describe are rare nowadays. 你所描述的人现在已很少见了。 ,c. I've the same trouble as you have. 我和你有同样的麻烦。 该用关系副词还是关系代词 先行词是表示时间或地点的名词时，并不都是用关系副词引导，而是要看关系词在从句中所作的成份。作状语时，用关系副词;作宾语时，仍然要用关系代词。 第 26 页 共 81 页 ,a. She is going to spend the summer holidays in Qingdao, where she has some relatives. 她打算去青岛过暑假，在那儿她有一些亲戚。(作状语) ,b. This is the place which I visited last year. 这是我去年参观过的地方。(作宾语) ,c. Did you still remember the days that we spent together in Hainan? 你还记得我们在海南一起度过的日子吗,(作宾语) ,d. October 1st is the day which we Chinese people will never forget. 十月一日是我们中国人民永远不会忘记的日子。(作宾语) 关系代词的省略 1.在限定性宾语从句中作宾语或表语时一般都可省略: ,a. Here is the man (whom) you've been looking for. 你一直在找的人在这儿。 ,b. He is no longer the man (that) he was. 他不再是以前的他了。 2.使用“介词+关系代词”结构时，不可省略: ,a. This is the hospital in which I was born. 我是在这所医院出生的。 ,b. The old man with whom you talked yesterday is my grandfather. 昨天和你交谈的那老人是我爷 3.非限定性定语从句中，宾语和表语也不可省略: ,a. Tom, as everyone knows, is a bright boy. 大家都知道，汤姆是个聪明的男孩。 ,b. When deeply absorbed in work, which he often was, he would forget all about eating and sleeping.. 他常常聚精会神做工作，这时他会废寝忘食。 Lesson 14 英语中 it用法 ,It used as Personal Pronoun or Demonstrative Pronoun. it作人称代词, 指示代词 ,"It" is a real subject or object, indicating all singular living things and matter, also an animal or a baby of unknown sex. "It"是真正的主语或宾语，指一切单数的生物和事物，也可以指不明性别的婴幼儿。 *In ancient times people ate meat without cooking it. 古代人们吃生肉 。 (it=meat 宾语 ) ,What a beautiful baby! Is it a boy? 多好看的小娃娃～它是男孩吗, (it= a baby 主语 ) ,"It" plays a role of "this or that", indicating the thing mentioned above, concrete or abstract. "It" 起 "this或 that"的作用，代表前面提到的事物，可具体，也可抽象。 ,Hong Kong will return to China on July 1st 1997. It surely is a great historical event at the end of this century. 香港1997年7月1日归还中国，这必定是本世纪末的重大历史事件 。 (it=前面情况 ) ,As. Non-Personal Pronoun 作非人称代词 ,"It" is an empty subject with no meaning. Its existence is only because an English sentence must contain a subject and a predicate. "It"是虚主语。无意义，它的存在只是因为英语句子必须含有一个主语和一个谓语动词。 1.Indicate time, date, weather, natural phenomenon, environment, price, weights and measures etc. 表示时间、日期、天气、自然现象、环境、价格、度量衡等。 2.Refer to the person concerned in the sentence 表示句中所涉及之人 It's lovely in the garden, Let,s go for a walk. 花园里真美，咱们走走吧。 (环境) —May I come in?—我能进来吗, —Who is it? —谁呀, —It's me.是我。(句中涉及之人) 第 27 页 共 81 页 As Antecedent 作先行词 "It" acts as antecedent subject or antecedent object. It only helps the formal one (infinitive, gerund, noun clause) be placed behind in order to keep the sentence balance. "It"作先行主语或先行宾语，帮助真正的主语或宾语。(不定式、动名词、名词从句)后移使句子保持平衡。 ,It's necessary to use a short-wave radio to pick up the programmes. 必须用一台短波收音机才能收听这些节目。(it=to use a short-wave radio) ,It was like being on a boat. (it=being on a boat) 就象在船上一样。 ,It was clear that they had no desire for peace. 很清楚他们没有渴望和平的愿望。 (it=that they had no desire for peace) ,As Stressing Pronoun 作强调代词 "It is (was)+ 强调部分 +that (who) "is used to stress a certain word or phrase. It is called "Separating Sentence"', for "it" separates a sentence into two. 我们用"It is (was)+强调部分 +that (who)结构来强调句子的某个词或词组，它叫做“分裂句”，因为"it"将一个句子分裂为两个。 notice: Stress subject with subject case. And object with object case. 注意:强调主语用主格、强调宾语用宾格。 ,Don't be angry. It is me whom (that) she blamed, not you. 别生气。她责备的是我不是你。 重点难点分析 1.怎样辨别it是人称代词还是非人称代词, 如果是人称代词，一般代替前面的单数名词，极少情况下代词在前，所代的名词在后。 ,Although we can't see it, there is air all around us. 虽然我们看不见空气，但在我们周围都有空气。(it =air) ,it 作非人称代词，其后面的内容都是自然现象时间度量衡等等。 , 2. 逻辑主语用什么表示,for or of? ,在 it 作先行主语的句子中，如需要说明动作是“谁”做的，用for 短语。 ,It is a prize for a country to hold the Olympic Games. 对一个国家来说举办奥运会就是一份丰厚的奖品。 (=for a country to hold the Olympic Games) ,如要说明动作的主语是“什么样”的，用of 短语。前面的形容词多为表示说话人对作主语的看法和情绪。 ,It is very nice of you to come to see me. 你来看我真太好了。 (=You are nice to come to see me ) ,常用的形容词为 good, nice, kind, right, wise, clever, careful, rude, considerate (周到)以及他们的反义词。 ,3.It is time+虚拟语气。 在It is time to do sth. 和It is time for sth 句型中，表示的是真实情况。但当我们觉得在某一确的定时刻应该干某事 可这个时刻已经过去而该干的事未干，此时可用: ,It is time+从句(从句动词用过去式或should +动词原形) ,It's time you went to bed, Little Frank. It's ten o'clock. 你该去睡觉了，小弗郎克。已经10点了。 意思是“你早该去睡了。”但事实上说话的双方还坐在那里。用虚拟语气使说话的口气婉转。 4. 如何辨别It is (was)…that是否是强调结构, 如果是强调结构，去掉it is (was)…that仍能单独成句。反之，则为其它结构。 ,It is from the sun that we get heat and light.(强调句) 正是从太阳那我们得到热和光。 第 28 页 共 81 页 It is strange that he was absent yesterday. (非强调句 that引导主语从句 ) 很奇怪他昨天缺席了。 去掉It is …that 后，strange无法处理。 5.如何用 it 强调 not…until 结构, 原句:I didn't know the answer to the problem until you told me. 直到你告诉了我，我才知道问题的答案。 ,可改写为:Not until you told me did I know the answer to the problem. ,强调句:It was not until you told me that I knew the answer to the problem. ,It is (was)not until…that 已成为固定强调结构。注意从句与原句时态一致。 , 6.如何强调特殊疑问句,从句的语序是什么, ,特殊疑问句:When and where did the May 4th Movement take place? ,强调句: When and where was it that the May 4th Movement took place? ,只需将疑问词置于句首， it is (was) 改为 is (was) it 即可。从句后用陈述语序。 , 7.It is time since后不能用什么结构, , 在 It is time since结构中，主句可用一般时、完成时，从句不能用否定结构。 正: It is (has been ) three years since I met you in London last. 误: It is ten years since you didn't come to see me. 8.It 作先行主语的几个特殊句型及用法: (1)在下列句型中通常用现在完成时: ,a .It is the first/second/third time… It is the first time we have felt really relaxed for months. 几个月以来，我们第一次感到真正的放松。 ,b .It is the only… ,It was the only flying experience I have had. 那是我仅有过的一次飞行经历。 ,c. It is the best/worst… ,It is the best opera (that) I have ever watched. 这是我所看过的最好的歌剧。 (2) It is (was)+adj(表示批评或表扬的)of sb.to do sth. We all think it most foolish of you to make this mistake. 我们都认为你犯这种错误是太愚蠢了。 常用此句型的形容词如下:good, stupid, clever, cruel, rude, wise, brave, foolish, naughty, polite, careless等。 (3)在下列句型中，常用一般现在时。It doesn't matter… It's not important… ,It doesn't matter where we go on holiday. 我们去哪度假都没关系. (4) It's no use/good…句型中，常用动名词 ,It's no use arguing with him. 和他争论没有用。 (5)在 It is (was)+adj(n)+that 结构中，从句要用虚拟语气表示惋惜、惊奇、理应如此等情绪，谓语动词中should 可省略。 It's strange(a pity) that no one should like this book. 可惜)，竟无人喜欢这本书。 常用形容词:strange, necessary, important, ,名词:a pity, a shame, no wonder. , (6)在下列动词的被动结构中，主语从句的谓语动词要用虚拟语气，should 可省略。 ,常见为表示请求、命令、愿望、建议的动词:require, request, demand, recommend, order, desire, propose. ,It is required that all passengers show their tickets. 旅客都要检验车票。 第 29 页 共 81 页 Lesson 15 Grammar 语法总结 一.词类(Parts of Speech) ,名词 英文名称The Noun(缩写为n.) 表示人或事物的名称 例词boy, clock, book等 ,冠词 英文名称The Article(缩写为art.) 用在名词前帮助说明名词所指的人和或事物。 例词 a (an), the ,代词 英文名称The Pronoun(缩写为pron) 用来代替名词、形容词或是数词 例词 we, that, his, what ,形容词 英文名称The Adjective(缩写为adj.) 用以修饰名词,表示人或事物的特征 例词 old, red,fine,good. ,数词 英文名称The Numeral(缩写为num.) 表示数量或是顺序。例词 one，thirteen， first ,动词 英文名称The Verb(缩写为v.) 表示动作或状态。例词sit, go, be (am, is, are) ,副词 英文名称The Adverb(缩写为adv.) 修饰动词、形容词或其他副词。例词not too, here, very ,介词 英文单词The Preposition(缩写为prep.) 表示名词、代词等和句中其他词的关系。 例词in, on, of, to,under. ,连词 英文单词The Conjunction(缩写为conj.) 用来连接词与词、短语与短语或句与句。 例词and, or, but. ,感叹词 英文单词The Interjection(缩写为interj.) 表示说话时的喜悦、惊讶等情感。 例词oh, hello,hi,er. 二. 名词(Nouns) 1.总的说来,名词分专有名词和普通名词两类。 专有名词: 表示具体的人,事物,地点或机构的专有名称。 Lucy， China 中国 Asia 亚洲 Beijing 北京 。 ,专有名词的第一个字母要大写。 普通名词: 表示某些人,某类事物,某种物质或抽象概念的名称。例如: teacher 老师 tea 茶 reform 改革 ,普通名词又可进一步分为四类 1) 个体名称: 表示单个的人和事物。 house 马 car 汽车 room 房间 apple 苹果 fun 风扇 picture 照片 2) 集体名称: 表示一群人或一些事物的名称。 people 人们 family 家庭 army 军队 government 政府 group 集团 3) 物质名词:表示物质或不具备确定形状和大小的个体的物质。 fire 火 steel 钢 air 空气 water 水 milk 牛奶 4)抽象名词:表示动作,状态,品质或其他抽象概念。 labour 劳动 health 健康 life 生活 friendship友情 patience耐力 2.名词按其所表现的事物的性质分为可数名词和不可数名词。 ,可数名词(Countable Nouns)有复数形式, ,如: ple two apples a car some cars ,不可数名词(Uncountable Nouns)一般没有复数形式. ,抽象名词, 物质名词和专有名词一般是不可数名词。 sand 沙 sugar 糖 ,有少数名词即可作可数名词,也可作不可数名词,但含义不同。 glass 玻璃 glass 玻璃杯 paper 纸 paper 报纸,文件 第 30 页 共 81 页 名词的功能 名词在句中作主语, 宾语,介词宾语,宾语补助语,表语以及名词短语作状语。 1， The bag is in the desk. bag 作主语。书包在桌子里边。 2，I washed my clothes yesterday. clothes 作宾语。 昨天我洗了我的衣服。 3，This is a good book. book 作表语。 这是一本好书。 4，We elected him our monitor. monitor作宾语补助语。 我们选他为我们的班长。 5，Mary lives with her parents. parents作介词宾语. 玛丽和她的父母亲住在一起。 6，He is a Party member. Party 作定语. 他是一名党员。 7，They study hard day and night. day and night 作状语。 他们白天黑夜地学习。 3.可数名词有单数(the Singular Nunmber)和复数(the Plural Number)两种形式。 名词的复数形式(The Plural Form Nouns)的部分规则如下: 1) 一般情况下,在词尾加 -s. 例如: bags，maps，pens，desks，workers 2) 以s,sh,ch,x等结尾的词加-es.例如: buses watches boxes 3) 以ce,se,ze,(d)ge等结尾的词加-s.例如: licences blouses oranges 4) 以辅音字母+y结尾的词变y为i再加-es.例如: babies families 5) 名词以 -f 或 -fe 结尾的,把 -f 或-fe 变成 -ves. 例: bookshelves， wives， knives ,)以o 结尾的名词，变复数时: a. 加s，如: photo---photos piano---pianos radio---radios zoo---zoos; b. 加es，如:potato--potatoes tomato--tomatoes c. 均可，如:zero---zeros / zeroes 注:英语中有些名词的复数形式是不规则的,需要一一记忆常见的有， ,man - men woman - women foot - feet tooth - teeth mouse - nice ,ox - oxen sheep - sheep dear - dear fish – fish goose?geese , 英语中有些名词总是以复数形式出现。 scissors 剪刀 goods 货物 trousers 裤子 clothes 衣服 glasses 玻璃杯 英语里还有些名词的单复数变化较为特殊，需特别注意 analysis? analyses, bacterium? bacteria, basis? bases, crisis? crises, iterion? criteria, datum? data, formula? formulae(或formulas), fungus? fungi, phenomenon? phenomena, syllabus? syllabi, thesis? theses ,有些名词的单复数是一样的: ,aircraft, spacecraft, Chinese, deer, fish, Japanese, means, series, species. li，jin，yuan，two li，three mu，four jin 但除人民币元、角、分外，美元、英镑、法郎等都有复数形式。如: a dollar, two dollars; a meter, two meters等。 8) 在形容词最高级中，表示范围的of后要用名词复数形式 有些集体名词在形式上是单数如people(人民，人们)，police(警察)，cattle(牲畜)，staff(全体人员， 第 31 页 共 81 页 全体职员)，但它们表达复数的含意。如果这些词做主语，其谓语须用复数形式。 hair和fruit一般情况下用单数，表示总体。但如果我们要表示若干根头发或几种水果时，就要用 这两个词的复数形式 eg: He bought apples, oranges and other fruits. (“fruits”在此处意为“多种水果”) 另外还要注意:police和cattle的谓语形式总是用复数形式。 名词做定语时，不能用作复数 4.不可数名词 1). 不可数名词为物质名词和抽象名词，如information, property, advice, anger, applause, baggage, cake, chalk, chocolate, cloth(布), bread, damage(损害), equipment, fruit, furniture, gold, information, ink, jewellery, luggage, mail(邮件), money, news, paper, protection, soap, sugar, weaponry, machinery, scenery, personnel, work等 ,注:不可数名词可以与表示量的可数名词连用，借以表示“可数”的概念，我们可以加 a(n) piece ,sheet(张), suit(套), tube(管), packet(包), item(条，则), bar(条), basket(篮子), glass(杯),bunch(束), pair(双，对), bowl(碗), portion(份), herd(群), series(系列), shower(阵) etc. ,，如:a piece of advice(一条 建议) ,a basket of fruit(一篮水果) ,an item of information (一则信息),a kind of protection(一种保护) 等。 , 2). 有些抽象名词的意思可以转变成为具体名词，这时要用其复数形式 The insurance company paid $10000 in damages for the accident. (“damage”本来为不可数名词“损害”，变 复数后意思是“损失赔偿费”。) 单复数含义不同的名词还有:communication(通讯)——communications(通讯系统，通讯工具); cloth(布)——clothes(衣服);content(内容)——contents(目录);convenience(便利)——conveniences(便利 设备);humanity(人类)——humanities(人文科学);necessity(需要)——necessities(必需品);pain(疼 痛)——pains(辛劳);ruin(毁灭)——ruins(废墟，遗迹);sand(沙子)——sands(沙地，沙滩);wood(木 材)——woods(树林);work(工作)——works(工厂，著作)。 另外，有些名词通常只用复数形式，如:fundamentals(基本原则)，goods(货物), means(方法), rapids(急 流)，shorts(短裤), sweets(欢乐), valuables (贵重物品)。 同步练习(Correct errors, if any, in the following sentences:) 1. The scholars met once a year to exchange experiences. 2. Foreign ship are not allowed to fish in our territorial water. 3. I went to the doctor for an advice about my health. 4.The letter contained an important information. 5.In the afternoon I did some baby-sittings, for it is a fun looking after children. 6.The congregation(集会) was not numerous that night, but they seemed to be listening attentively to my?? lecture. 7.Poultries are dear in the city. 8.The board of director is shaking heads at the chairman?s speech. 9.The merchandises(货物) have arrived undamaged. 第 32 页 共 81 页 ,.定语名词的复数 名词作定语一般用单数，但也有以下例外。 1) 用复数作定语。 如:sports meeting 运动会 students reading-room 学生阅览室 talks table 谈判桌 the foreign languages department 外语系 2) man, woman, gentleman等作定语时，其单复数以所修饰的名词的单复数而定。 如:men workers women teachers gentlemen officials 3) 有些原有s结尾的名词，作定语时，s保留。 如:goods train (货车) arms produce 武器生产 customs papers 海关文件 clothes brush衣刷 4) 数词+名词作定语时，这个名词一般保留单数形式。 如:two-dozen eggs 两打/(二十四个鸡蛋) a ten-mile walk 十里路 two-hundred trees 两百棵树 a five-year plan. 一个五年计划 8，个别的有用复数作定语的， 如: a seven-years child ,. 不同国家的人的单复数 名称 总称(谓语用复数) 一个人 两个人 中国人 the Chinese a Chinese two Chinese 瑞士人 the Swiss a Swiss two Swiss 澳大利亚人the Australians an Australian two Australians 俄国人 the Russians a Russian two Russians 意大利人 the Italians an Italian two Italians 希腊人 the Greek a Greek two Greeks 法国人 the French a Frenchman two Frenchmen 日本人 the Japanese a Japanese two Japanese 美国人 the Americans an American two Americans 印度人 the Indians an Indian two Indians 加拿大人 the Canadians a Canadian two Canadians 德国人 the Germans a German two Germans 英国人 the English an Englishman two Englishmen 瑞典人 the Swedish a Swede two Swedes 第 33 页 共 81 页 4.名词的所有格(The Possessive Case of Nouns) ,在英语中,名词的格有三个,主格,宾格和所有格。 ,它们的形式及其变化表示与其他词的关系。 ,实际上, 主格和宾格通过它在句中的作用和位置来确定。 ,The bird is in the tree. 鸟在树上。 bird 作主语, 是主格。 ,I saw a film yesterday. 昨天我看了一场电影。 film 作宾语,是宾格。 ,名词的所有格: 名词中表示所有关系的形式叫做名词所有格。 ,Lu Xun's book is worth reading. 鲁迅的书值得一读。 ,This is my father's room. 这是我父亲的房间。 ,在英语中有些名词可以加"'s"来表示所有关系，带这种词尾的名词形式称为该名词的所有格，如:a teacher's book。名词所有格的规则如下: 1) 单数名词词尾加"'s"，复数名词词尾没有s，也要加"'s"，如the boy's bag 男孩的书包，men's room 男厕所。 2) 若名词已有复数词尾-s ，只加"'"，如:the workers' struggle 工人的斗争。 3) 凡不能加"'s"的名词，都可以用"名词+of +名词"的结构来表示所有关系，如:the title of the song 歌的名字。 4) 在表示店铺或教堂的名字或某人的家时，名词所有格的后面常常不出现它所修饰的名词，如:the barber's 理发店。 5) 如果两个名词并列，并且分别有's，则表示"分别有";只有一个's，则表示'共有'。 如:John's and Mary's room(两间) John and Mary's room(一间) 6) 复合名词或短语，'s 加在最后一个词的词尾。 如:a month or two's absence , 名词所有格的构成 9，单数名词 加's 例词:Mike's father 10， 以s结尾的复数名词 加' 例词:the teachers' room 11， 不以s结尾的复数名词 加's 例词:men's women's 三、代词(Pronouns) 12， 1.人称代词(Personal Pronouns) 13， 第一人称单数主格I(复数We) 单数宾格me(复数us) 14， 第二人称单数主格you(复数you) 单数宾格you(复数you) 15， 第三人称单数主格he, she, it(复数they) 16， 单数宾格him, her, it(复数them) 2.物主代词(Possessive Pronouns) ,形容词性物主代词第一人称单数my(复数our) ,形容词性物主代词第二人称单数your(复数your) ,形容词性物主代词第三人称单数his, her, its(复数their) ,名词性物主代词第一人称单数mine(复述ours) ,名词性物主代词第二人称单数yours(复数yours) ,名词性物主代词第三人称单数his, hers，its(复数theirs) 人称代词的用法 1)人称代词的主格在句子中作主语或主语补语，例如: John waited a while but eventually he went home. 约翰等了一会儿，最后他回家了。 第 34 页 共 81 页 John hoped the passenger would be Mary and indeed it was she. 约翰希望那位乘客是玛丽，还真是她。 说明:在复合句中，如果主句和从句主语相同，代词主语要用在从句中，名词主语用在主句中，例如: When he arrived, John went straight to the bank. 约翰一到就直接去银行了。 2)人称代词的宾格在句子中作宾语或介词宾语，但在口语中也能作主语补语，第一人称在省略句中，还可以作主语，例如: I saw her with them, at least, I thought it was her. 我看到她和他们在一起，至少我认为是她。(her做宾 语，them做介词宾语，her做主语补语) a. -- Who broke the vase? --谁打碎了花瓶, b. -- Me. --我。(me做主语补语= It's me.) 说明:在上面两例句中，her和me分别作主语补语。现代英语中多用宾格，在正式文体中这里应为she和I。 人称代词之主、宾格的替换 1) 宾格代替主格 a.在简短对话中，当人称代词单独使用或在not 后，多用宾语。 ---- I like English. --我喜欢英语。 ---- Me too. --我也喜欢。 ---- Have more wine? --再来点酒喝吗? ---- Not me. --我可不要了。 b.在表示比较的非正式的文体中，常用宾格代替主格。 但如果比较状语的谓语保留，则主语只能用主格。 He is taller than I/me. He is taller than I am. 2) 主格代替宾格 a. 在介词but，except 后，有时可用主格代替宾格。 b. 在电话用语中常用主格。 ---- I wish to speak to Mary. --我想和玛丽通话。 ---- This is she. --我就是玛丽。 注意:在动词be 或to be 后的人称代词视其前面的名词或代词而定。 I thought it was she. 我以为是她。 (主格----主格) I thought it to be her. (宾格----宾格) I was taken to be she. 我被当成了她。 (主格----主格) They took me to be her. 他们把我当成了她。(宾格----宾格) 并列人称代词的排列顺序 1) 单数人称代词并列作主语时，其顺序为: 第二人称 ,> 第三人称 ,> 第一人称 you ,> he/she; it -> I You, he and I should return on time. 2) 复数人称代词作主语时，其顺序为: 第一人称 ,> 第二人称 ,> 第三人称 we ,> you ,> They 第 35 页 共 81 页 注意: 在下列情况中，第一人称放在前面。 a. 在承认错误，承担责任时， It was I and John that made her angry. 是我和约翰惹她生气了。 b. 在长辈对晚辈，长官对下属说话时，如长官为第一人称， 如:I and you try to finish it. c. 并列主语只有第一人称和第三人称时， d. 当其他人称代词或名词被定语从句修饰时。 物主代词 1)物主代词既有表示所属的作用又有指代作用，例如: John had cut his finger; apparently there was a broken glass on his desk. 约翰割破了手指，显而易见，他桌子上有个破玻璃杯。 物主代词有形容词性(my, your等)和名词性(mine, yours等)两种，形容词性的物主代词属于限定词。名词性的物主代词在用法上相当于省略了中心名词的 --'s属格结构，例如: Jack's cap 意为 The cap is Jack's. His cap 意为 The cap is his. 2) 名词性物主代词的句法功能 a. 作主语，例如: May I use your pen? Yours works better. 我可以用一用你的钢笔吗, 你的比我的好用。 b. 作宾语，例如: I love my motherland as much as you love yours. 我爱我的祖国就像你爱你的祖国一样深。 c. 作介词宾语，例如: Your should interpret what I said in my sense of the word, not in yours. 你应当按我所用的词义去解释我说的话，而不能按你自己的意义去解释。 d. 作主语补语，例如: The life I have is yours. It„s yours. It?s yours. 我的生命属于你，属于你，属于你。 代词同步练习 Archibald Motley?s artistic talent ,A, was apparent ,B, by the time him ,C, enrolled ,D, in high school. 2) Legends often contain an element ,A, of fact， but ,B, sometimes it is ,C, totally ,D, untrue. 3) Unlike ,A, road vehicles， Hovercrafts have no physical ,B, contact with the surface over which ,C, them ,D, travel. 4) Let you and I ,A, promise that we shall always ,B, dare to do ,C, what is ,D, right. 5) Most of we ,A, know that conductors direct their orchestras with a baton， but how many ,B, are aware that ,C, they also direct with their faces， hands ,D, ， and shoulders? 代词同步练习 A scientist bases its ,A, work on hypotheses that ,B, have been checked ,C, through careful ,D, experimentation. 2) Crude rubber is an ,A, elastic(有弹性的) solid with a specific gravity of 0.911 and a refractive index(折 第 36 页 共 81 页 射率) of 1.591， though it ,B, composition varies with different latexes(橡浆) as well as ,C, with the way it is prepared ,D, at the plantation. 3) Manufacturers ,A, of consumer goods ,B, often change ,C, the styles of them ,D, products. 四、数词(Numeral) 一、数词的分类: 数词分为序数词(one, two, three, four…)、基数词(first, second, third, fourth…)和分数词(one third, two thirds, four fifths…)。表示单一的数词与单数名词连用，但有些数词和名词连用，表示复数时仍用单数形式 four dozen eggs(四十八个鸡蛋)， two score people (四十个人)， three hundred years(三百年)， a few thousand horses (好几千匹马)， eight million pounds (八百万英磅)。 注意:被这些数词修饰的名词一定是复数，反过来，如果被修饰的名词是复数，那么就用数词的单数形式，如 a(one) thousand years: 二、关于“千”“百”“百万”的数词: 如果“hundred”、“thousand”和“million”前边没有表示数字和其他限定词修饰时(如“a few”、“one”、“ ten”等)，则可用复数形式，表示不定数，后面再加“of，名词”:hundreds of (数以百计的)，thousands and thousands of (成千上万的)，millions of (数以百万计的) 三、关于连字符连接的数词: 在连字符连接的“数词，普通名词，形容词”中，“数词”和“普通名词”都要用单数形式 a three yearold girl, a threemilelong walk 四、基数词中表示“几十”的复数形式可以表达人的岁数或年代 He is in his late twenties. 他快30了。 五、分数词:分数词是由基数词和序数词组成的，分子是基数词，分母是序数词。除了表示“1”以外，分母序数词都用复数 六、百分数: 表示百分比的percent用单数，如ninty percent(90%) 五、动词(Verb) 一般现在时(The Simple Present Tense) 一般现在时表示现在的状态 如:He is twelve.She is at home. 表示经常的或是习惯性的动作. 如:I go to school at 7:30 every day. 表示主语具备的的性格和能力等 如:She like apple.They know English. 1.动词be(Verb to be) 肯定式I am......否定I am not.... 肯定式You are...否定式You are not.... 肯定式He/She/It is....否定式He/She/It is not.. 疑问句和简略答语 Am I ....? Yes, you are./No, I you are not. Are you....? Yes, I am./No, I am not. 第 37 页 共 81 页 2.There be结构 "There is/are+某物/某人+某地/某时"这样一种句型,大致相当于汉语"某地/某时有某物/某人"的说法.句子的is/are和后面所跟的名词在数方面必须是一致. 肯定式:There is (There's) a table in your room. There are (There're) some pencils on the desk. 否定式:There is not(There isn't)any cats here. There are not(aren't)any cats here. 疑问式和简略答语 Is there a ruler in your bag? Yes,there is./No,there is not(isn't). Are there any people in that house? Yes,there are./No,there are not(aren't). How many kites are there in the sky? There are thirteen. 六、介词(Prepositions) 介词一般用于名词或代词前,表示该词与句子其他成分的关系.介词后面的名词或代词称为介词宾语.介词和介词宾语一起构成介词短语. 本册课本出现的介词短语如下: at: at home at school at six thirty behind: behind the door/tree behind one's chair beside: beside the door beside the house from: from one to a hundred in: in Row/Team/Class/Grade4 in one's school/grade/class/team/room in your desk/pencil-box/bedroom in the picture in the same class in different classes in English in the hat in the morning/afternoon like: like this/that near: near the window near the door of: a picture of a classroom a map of China the name of her cat the wall of their classroom on: on the desk/chair on the floor on the wall on the bike on the duty to: (a quarter) to ten (go) to school/bed/work under: under the desk/table under the tree/window under one's chair/bed 介词的用法:(1) 表示时间: at: 表示某一时间点 如: at noon on: 表示特定的日子 如: on Christmas in: 表示一段不具体的时间 如: in the morning， in the Second world war 如表示在某一特定的早上、下午则用on 如: on a cold morning, on a hot afternoon, on Sunday morning during: 表示期间内的某个时期 第 38 页 共 81 页 如: during the night, during the Second World War for: 其后接表示一段时间长度的词如: for three days through: 表示在整个期间没有间歇 例: It snowed through the night. till/until: 表示动作持续的终点 例:I studied hard till twelve o'clock last night. by: 表示动作完成期限 例: I'll be back by five o'clock. since: 表示某动作的起始点 例:I have studied English since 1990( (2) 表示地点: at: 表示较小的地点 如: arrived at the school gate in: 表示较大的地点 如: arrived in Shanghai for: 表示目的地 例: I'll leave for Shanghai. above: 表示上面，上方，其反意词是below over: 表示垂直上方，其反意词是under 例: The dog jumped over the table. through: 表示穿过 如: through the forest across: 表示平原上的跨越 例: I want to walk across the road. 七、句子的种类(Kinds of Sentences) 英语的句子按照用途可分为以下四类: 陈述句 用途是用来说明事实或说话人的看法 例句: I can see a map on the wall. I think it's his. 疑问句 用途是用来提出问题. 例句:Are you Mr Green? Can you find it ? How old are you? 祈使句 用途是用来表示请求和命令. 例句: Stand up. Come in, please. Let's play games. 感叹句 用途是用来表达强烈的感情. 例句:What a fine day it is! How beautiful the flowers are! 八、一般疑问句和 特殊疑问句 一般疑问句(General Question)一般是指用Yes或No回答的疑问句。 例如:Is she at school today? Yes, she is/ No,she isn't. Can you see a pencil on the desk? Yes,I can./No, I can't. Do you play football? Yes,they do./No,they don't. 特殊疑问句是以特殊疑问词开头的疑问句. 第 39 页 共 81 页 祈使句结构 祈使句用以表达命令，要求，请求，劝告等。 1) 祈使句有两种类型，一种是以动词原形开头，在动词原形之前加do (但只限于省略第二人称主语的句子)。 Take this seat. Do be careful. 否定结构: Don't move. Don't be late. 2) 第二种祈使句以let开头。 Let 的反意疑问句 a. Let's 包括说话者 Let's have another try，shall we / shan't we? = Shall we have another try? b. Let us 不包括说话者 Let us have another try，will you / won't you? = Will you please let us have another try? 否定结构: Let's not talk of that matter. Let us not talk of that matter. 感叹句结构 感叹句通常有what, how引导，表示赞美、惊叹、喜 悦、等感情。 what修饰名词，how 修饰形容词，副词或动词，感叹句结构主要有以下几种: 掌握它的搭配，即掌握了感叹句的重点。 How +形容词+ a +名词+ 陈述语序 How+形容词或副词+ 陈述语序 What +名词+ 陈述语序 What+a+形容词+名词+ 陈述语序 What+ 形容词+复数名词+ 陈述语序 What+ 形容词+不可数名词+ 陈述语序 How clever a boy he is! How lovely the baby is! What noise they are making! What a clever boy he is! What wonderful ideas (we have)! What cold weather it is! 感叹句的省略形式为: What a clever boy (he is)! 典型例题 1)___ food you've cooked! A. How a nice B. What a nice C. How nice D. What nice 答案D. 由于How 修饰形容词，副词;what修饰名词。且food为不可数名词，因此A，B 排除。 第 40 页 共 81 页 C How + adj. 后面不能再加名词，因此只有D正确，其句型为What + adj. +n. (不可数) 2)___terrible weather we've been having these days! A. What B. What a C. How D. How a 答案A. weather为不可数名词，B，D排除。C为how + adj. 后面不应有名词。只有A，符合句型What +形容词+不可数名词 3) --- _____ I had! --- You really suffered a lot. A. What a time B. What time C. How a time D. how time 答案A. 感叹句分两类: 1:What + n.+主谓部分 2:How + adj. / adv. / v.+主谓部分。本题属第一种，但省略了bad，相对于 What a bad time I had! 这是个习惯用语。 强调句结构 常考的强调句结构是it 引导的句子。 It is (was) 被强调部分+ that (who) + 句子其他部分。 此结构强调的成分仅限于主语，宾语和状语。 It is from the sun that we get light and heat. It was not until I had read your letter that I understood the true state of affairs. 典型例题 1) It was last night ___ I see the comet. A. the time B. when C. that D. which 答案C. 强调句的结构是: It +be +强调部分 + that (who) + 主谓句。 强调句的连词只有两个，that和who。当强调的部分是人，且为句子的主语时，才用 "who"，其余用that。 原句: My father did the experiment in the lab yesterday evening. 强调主语: It was my father who did the experiment in the lab yesterday evening. 强调宾语: It was the experiment that my father did in the lab yesterday evening. 强调时间: It was yesterday evening that my father did the experiment in the lab. (注意不用when) 强调地点: It was in the lab that my father did the experiment yesterday evening. 2)It is ten years ___ Miss Green returned to Canada. A. that B. when C. since D. as 答案C. 考点是连词用法。 本题易误选为A. that. 其实本句不是强调句。若是，去掉It be… that还应是一个完整的句子。而本句去掉 'It is…that'，只剩下ten years Miss Green returned to Canada. 不成句。因此本句不是强调句。 It is /was +时间+ since… 其中is<---> has been was <---> had been. 反意疑问句 1) 陈述部分的主语是I，疑问部分要用 aren't I. I'm as tall as your sister，aren't I? 2) 陈述部分的谓语是wish，疑问部分要用may +主语。 I wish to have a word with you, may I? 第 41 页 共 81 页 3) 陈述部分用 no, nothing, nobody, never, few, seldom, hardly, rarely, little等否定含义的词时，疑问部分用肯定含义。 The Swede made no answer, did he / she? Some plants never blown (开花), do they ? 4) 含有ought to 的反意疑问句，陈述部分是肯定的，疑问部分用shouldn't / oughtn't +主语。 He ought to know what to do, oughtn't he? / shouldn't he? 5) 陈述部分有have to +v. (had to + v.)，疑问部分常用don't +主语(didn't +主语)。 We have to get there at eight tomorrow, don't we? 6) 陈述部分的谓语是used to 时，疑问部分用didn't +主语或 usedn't +主语。 He used to take pictures there, didn't he? / usedn't he? 7) 陈述部分有had better + v. 疑问句部分用hadn't you? You'd better read it by yourself, hadn't you? 8) 陈述部分有would rather +v.，疑问部分多用 wouldn't +主语。 He would rather read it ten times than recite it, wouldn't he? 9) 陈述部分有You'd like to +v. 疑问部分用wouldn't +主语。 You'd like to go with me, wouldn't you? 10) 陈述部分有must 的疑问句，疑问部分根据实际情况而定。 He must be a doctor, isn't he? You must have studied English for three years, haven't you? / didn't you? He must have finished it yesterday, didn't he? 11) 感叹句中，疑问部分用be +主语。 What colours, aren't they? What a smell, isn't it? 12) 陈述部分由neither… nor, either… or 连接的并列主语时，疑问部分根据其实际逻辑意义而定。 Neither you nor I am engineer, are we? 13) 陈述部分主语是指示代词或不定代词everything, that, nothing, this, 疑问部分主语用it。 Everything is ready, isn't it? 14) 陈述部分为主语从句或并列复合句，疑问部分有三种情况: a. 并列复合句疑问部分，谓语动词根据邻近从句的谓语而定。 Mr. Smith had been to Beijing for several times, he should have been in China now, shouldn't he? b. 带有定语从句，宾语从句的主从复合句，疑问部分谓语根据主句的谓语而定: He is not the man who gave us a talk, is he? He said he wanted to visit Japan, didn't he? c. 上述部分主句谓语是think, believe, expect, suppose, imagine等引导的定语从句，疑问部分与宾语从句相对应构成反意疑问句。 第 42 页 共 81 页 I don't think he is bright, is he? We believe she can do it better, can't she? 15) 陈述部分主语是不定代词everybody, anyone, somebody, nobody, no one等，疑问部分常用复数they，有时也用单数he。 Everyone knows the answer, don't they? (does he?) Nobody knows about it, do they? (does he?) 16) 带情态动词dare或need的反意疑问句，疑问部分常用 need (dare ) +主语。 We need not do it again, need we ? He dare not say so, dare you? 当dare, need 为实义动词时，疑问部分用助动词do + 主语。 She doesn't dare to go home alone, does she? 17) 省去主语的祈使句的反意疑问句，疑问部分用will you。 Don't do that again, will you? Go with me, will you / won't you ? 注意: Let's 开头的祈使句，后用shall we? Let us 开头的祈使句，后用will you? Let's go and listen to the music, shall we? Let us wait for you in the reading-room, will you ? 18) 陈述部分是"there be"结构的，疑问部分用there省略主语代词。 There is something wrong with your watch, isn't there? There will not be any trouble, will there? 19) 否定前缀不能视为否定词，其反意疑问句仍用否定形式。 It is impossible, isn't it? He is not unkind to his classmates, is he? 20) must在表"推测"时，根据其推测的情况来确定反意疑问句。 He must be there now, isn't he? It must be going to rain tomorrow, won't it? 英语中有哪些基本句式 英语句子看上去纷繁庞杂，但仔细观察不外乎五个基本句式。这五个基本句式可以演变出多种复杂的英语句子。换言之，绝大多数英语句子都是由这五个基本句式生成的。这五个基本句式如下: S十V主谓结构 S十V十F主系表结构 S十V十O主谓宾结构 S十V十O1十O2 主谓双宾结构 S十V十O十C 主谓宾补结构 说明:S,主语;V,谓语;P,表语;O,宾语;O1,间接宾语;O2,直接宾语;C,宾语补足语 五个基本句式详细解释如下: ,.S十V句式 在此句式中，V是不及物动词，又叫自动词(vi()。 第 43 页 共 81 页 例如:He runs quickly( 他跑得快。 They listened carefully( 他们听得很仔细。 The gas has given out( 煤气用完了。 My ink has run out( 我的钢笔水用完了。 2(S十V十P句式 在此句式中，V是系动词(link v()，常见的系动词有:look，seem，appear，sound，feel，taste，smell， grow，get，fall ill/asleep，stand/sit still，become，turn等。例如: He is older than he looks( 他比看上去要老。 He seen interested in the book( 他似乎对这本书感兴趣。 The story sounds interesting( 这个故事听起来有趣。 The desk feels hard( 书桌摸起来很硬。 The cake tastes nice( 饼尝起来很香。 The flowers smell sweet and nice( 花闻起来香甜。 You have grown taller than before( 你长得比以前高了。 He has suddenly fallen ill( 他突然病倒了。 He stood quite still( 他静静地站看。 注意:有些动词同时也是及物动词，可构成SVO句式，例如: He looked me up and down( 他上下打量我。 He reached his hand to feel the elephant( 他伸出手来摸象。 They are tasting the fish( 他们在品尝鱼。 They grow rice in their home town( 他们在家乡种水稻。 He's got a chair to sit on( 他有椅子坐。 Please turn the sentence into English( 请把这个句于泽成英语。 3(S十V十O句式 第 44 页 共 81 页 在此句式中，V是及物动词(vt()，因此有宾语。例如: I saw a film yesterday( 我昨天看了一部电影。 Have you read the story? 你读过这个故事吗? They found their home easily( 他们很容易找到他们的家。 They built a house last year( 他们去年建了一所房子。 They've put up a factory in the village( 他们在村里建了一座工厂。 They have taken good care of the children( 这些孩子他们照看得很好。 4(S十V十O1十O2句式 在此句式中，V是带有双宾语的及物动词。常见的须带双宾语的动词有give，ask，bring，offer，send， pay，lend，show，tell，buy，get;rob，warn等。例如: He gave me a book/a book to me( 他给我一本书。 He brought me a pen/a pen to me( 他带给我一枝钢笔。 He offered me his seat/his seat to me( 他把座位让给我。 注意下边动词改写后介词的变化: Mother bought me a book/a book for me. 妈妈给我买了一本书。 He got me a chair/a chair for me( 他给我弄了一把椅子。 Please do me a favor/a favor for me( 请帮我一下。 He asked me a question/a question of me( 他问我个问题。 注意，下边动词只有一种说法: They robbed the old man of his money( 他们抢了老人的钱。 He's warned me of the danger. 他警告我注意危险。 The doctor has cured him of his disease( 医生治好了他的病。 We must rid the house of the rats( 我们必须赶走屋里的老鼠。 They deprived him of his right to speak( 他们剥夺了他说话的权利。 第 45 页 共 81 页 5(S十V十O十C句式 在此句式中，V是有宾语补足语的及物动词。常带宾语补足语的词有形容词、副词、介词短语、名词、不定式、现在分词、过去分词。 常见的可接宾语补足语的动词很多，哪些动词可接哪几种形式作宾补，须根据动词的惯用法而定，不能统而概论。请看下面的例子。 They made the girl angry( 他们使这个女孩生气了。 They found her happy that day( 他们发现那天她很高兴。 I found him out( 我发现他出去了。 I saw him in( 我见他在家。 They named the boy Charlie( 他们给这个男孩起名为查理。 I saw him come in and go out( 我见他进来又出去。 They felt the car moving fast( 他们感到汽车行驶得很快。 I heard the glass broken just now( 我刚才听到玻璃碎了。 He found the doctor of study closed to him( 他发现研究所的大门对他关闭了。 Grammar 语法 一.形容词和副词的比较级和最高级 (The Comparative and Superlative Degrees of Adjective and Adverbs) 大多数形容词和副词有三个等级: 1)原级，即原形。 2)比较级，表示“较……”或“更……一些”的意思。 3)最高级，表示“最……”的意思。 1.形容词和副词比较级和最高级的构成 (1)规则变化 单音节词和少数双音节词一般在词尾加-er或-est cold colder coldest strong stronger strongest fast faster fastest slow slow slowest 以字母e结尾的形容词，加-r或-st nice nicer nicest large larger largest 重读闭音节词只有一个辅音字母时，应先双写辅音字母，再加-er或-est big bigger biggest thin thinner thinnest hot hotter hottest 以“辅音字母+y”结尾的双音节词，先改“y”为“i”，再加-er或-est easy esaier easiest happy happier happiest early earlier earliest 少数以-er，-ow 结尾的双音节词clever(聪明的)未尾加-er，-est 第 46 页 共 81 页 clever cleverer cleverest narrow narrower narrowest 多音节词和部分双音节词在词前加more或most delicious more delicious most delicious interesting more interesting most interesting easily more easily most easily carefully more carefully most carefully (2)不规则变化 good/well better best bad/badly worse worst much/many more most little less least far farther/further farthest/furthest 2.形容词和副词的比较级和最高级的用法 比较级:表示两者(人或事物)的比较 Mr King is taller than Mr Read. This moon cakes is nicer than that one. The tractor is going faster than the bike. 最高级:表示三者或三者以上(人或事物)的比较，其中有一个在某一方面超过 其他几个时，用最高级。最高级的前面一般要加定冠词the。后面可带of(in)短语来说明比较的范围。例如: Whose drawing is the best of all? She is the youngest in the class. The taxi is going the fastest. Mr Qin is walking the slowest of all. 注:在形容词和副词的比较级前，有时可以用much，a little等来修饰， 如:much better a little taller 二.数词(Numerals)(2) 序数词(Ordinal Numbers) 序数词表示事物的顺序，往往与定冠词the连用。 fist 1st twentieth 20th second 2nd twenty-first 21th third 3nd thirtieth 30th fourth 4nd thirty-ninth 39th fifth 5nd fortieth 40th sixth 6th fiftieth 50th seventh 7th sixtieth 60th eighth 8th seventieth 70th nineth 9th ninetieth 80th tenth 10th hundredth 100th eleventh 11th one hundred and first 101st twelfth 12th 三、冠词(Articles) 第 47 页 共 81 页 冠词是一种虚词，放在名词的前面，帮助说明名词的含义， 冠词分不定冠词(The Indefinite Article)和定冠词(The Define Article)两种，a(an)是不定冠词。 a用在辅音之前，如:a road ，a boy;an用在元音之前，如:an hour ;an old man等;the是定冠 词。 1.不定冠词的用法 (1)用于可数名词的单数形式前，指人或事物的某一种类。 Susan is a scientist. Pass me an orange, please. (2)指某人或某事，但不具体说明何人或何物。 A boy is looking for you。 We work five days a week。 (3)表示“一”这个数量，但数的概念没有one强烈。 We are going to have an English lesson tomorrow。 I have a mouth，a nose，two eyes and two ears。 (4)用于某些固定的词组中。 a few ，a little ，a lot of ，a moment ago 2.定冠词的用法。 (1)特指某些人或某些事物 Show me the photo of the boy。 The book on the desk is mine。 (2)指双方都知道的人或事物。 Where are the new books，Jim, They are on the small table。 (3)指上文提过的人或事物。 Ji Mei lives on a farm.The farm is not big。 (4)用在世界上独一无二的事物前。 The sun is bigger than the moon。 (5)用在序数词和形容词最高级前。 The first month of the year is January。 Walk along this road，and take the fourth turning on the left。 (6)用在由普通名词构成的专有名词前。 the Great Wall the Women's Hospital (7)用在一些习惯用语中。 in the morning(afternoon，evening)， on the left(right)，at the back(front)of the day before yesterday，all the same 3.不用冠词的情况 在专有名词和不可数名词前， China，Grade Two，Bill, milk， 名词前已有作定语用的this，that，my，your，some，any等代词。 The letter is in her bag , Come this way, please . I have some question. 第 48 页 共 81 页 复数名词表示一类人或事物时， My father and mother are teachers. I like cakes. 在星期，月份，季节，节日前 It is Sunday(Monday，Tuesday，etc。)today。 June 1st is Children's Day in China。 It is cold in winter。 在称呼语或表示头衔的名词前。 Mr Mott is going on a trip。 What colour are Mrs Green's shoes, 在三餐饭和球类运动的名词前。 He went to shool before breakfast this morning。 Can you play basketball, 四、动词(Verbs)(2) 1.动词的种类(Kinds of Verbs) 行为动词Action Verbs:含有实在的意义，表示动作或状态，在句中能独立作谓语。 She has some bananas。 They often come back early。 I listen to the radio every day。 连系动词Link Verbs:本身有一定的词义，但不能独立作谓语，必须与表语一起构成谓语。 His father is a teacher。 Twins usually look the same。 Trees turn green。 助动词Auxiliary Verbs :本身没有词义，不能独立作谓语，只能和主要动词一起构成 谓语动词，表示否定，疑问，时态或其他语法形式。 He doesn't speak English。 We are playing basketball。 Do you have a brother, 情态动词Modal Verbs 本身有一定的意义，但不能独立作谓语，只能和主要动词一起构成谓语动词，表示说话人的语 气和情态，情态动词没有人称和数的变化。 She can speak a little English。 May I speak to Ann, please, We must go now。 2.一般过去时态(The Simple Past Tense) 一般过去时表示过去某个时间发生的动作或存在的状态，常和过去的时间状语连用， 如:yesterday，last night，in 1990，two days ago等，也表示过去经常或反复发生的动作，常和often， always等表示频度的时间状语连用。例如: I got up at 6:30 yesterday。 My father was at work yesterday afternoon。 第 49 页 共 81 页 He always went to work by bus last year。 一般过去时的构成 be 肯定句:I was…… He (she，it) was…… We(You，They)were…… 否定句 I was not(wasn't)…… He(She，It)was not(wasn't)…… We(You，They)were not(weren't)…… work 肯定句 I(You，He，She，It，We，You，They)worked。 否定句 I(You，He，She，It，We，You，They)did not(didn't)worked。 there be 肯定句 There was…… There were…… 否定句 There was not(wasn't)…… There were not (weren't)…… 疑问句和简略答语 be 第一人称 Was I……,Yes，you were。No，you were not。 Were we……,Yes，we(you)were。No，we(you)were not。 第二人称 Were you……,Yes,I was。No，I was not。 Were you……,Yes，we were。No，we were not。 第三人称 Was he (she，it)……,Yes，he(she，it)was。No，he(she，it) was not。 Were they ……,Yes，they were。No，they were not。 work 第一人称 Did I work,Yes，you did。No，you did not。 Did we work,Yes，we(you)did。No,we(you) did not。 第二人称 Did you work,Yes，I did。No,I did not。 Did you work,Yes，we did。No,we did not。 第三人称 Did he (she，it)work,Yes，he(she，it)did。No，he(she，it)did not。 Did they work,Yes，they did。No,they did not。 there be Was there a/any……,Yes，there was。No，there was not。 Was there any……,Yes，there were。No，there were not。 规则动词过去式构成 一般在动词原形末尾加-ed 例如:look looked, play played, 结尾是e的动词加-d 例如:live lived, hope hoped,use used 第 50 页 共 81 页 末尾只有一个辅音字母的重读闭音节词,先双写这个辅音字母,再加-ed 例如:stop stopped, plan planned, trip tripped 结尾是"辅音字母+y"的动词,先变y为i再加-ed. 例如:study studied carry carried, worry worried. 常见的不规则动词有: am/is-was are-were go-went have-had do-did get-got come-came say-said see-saw put-put eat-ate take-took 3.一般将来时态(The Simple Future Tense) 一般将来时表示将来某个时间要发生的动作或存在的状态,也表示将来将来经常或反复发生的动作,常与表示将来的时间状语连用.如:tomorrow, next, week, next year等 例如:I will go to my hometown next week. We will come to see you every Sunday. 1)一般将来时的构成 一般将来时由"助动词"will+动词原形"构成.在口语中,will在名词或代词后常简缩为'll,will not常简缩为won't.在疑问句中,主语为第一人称(I和well)时,常用助动词shall.第一人称肯定式I/We will go.否定式I/will not go.疑问式Shall/we go ?第二人称肯定式You not go.否定式You will not go.疑问句Will you go? 第三人称肯定式He/She/It/They will go.否定式He/She/It/They will not go. 疑问式Will he/she/it/they go? 注:(1)在书面语中,主语式第一人称(I和we)时,常用助动词shall+动词原形.例如: I shall write you a letter next month. We shall be very please to see you. (2)在表示"带意愿色彩的将来"时,常用will.例如: I will tell you all about it. (3)在问对方是否愿意,或表示客气的邀请或命令时,常用will.例如: Will you go to the zoo with me? Will you please open the window? (4)在表示建议或者征求对方意见时,可用shall.例如: Shall we go at the ten? Shall we get some food? 2)用"be going to+动词原形"表示将要发生的的事或打算,计划,决定要作的事情. 例如:What are you going to next Sunday?下星期你打算干什么, They're going to meet outside the school gate.他们打算在校门口见面. We're not going to have any classes next week.下一周我们不上课. 五.句子的成分(Members of the sentence) 组成句子的各个部分叫做句子的成分,即:主语.谓语.表语.宾语.宾语补足语.定语和状语. 主语和谓语是句子的主体部分.表语、宾语、宾语补足语都是谓语里的组成部分 主语(The Subject) 表示句子所说的是什么人或什么事物,一般由名词 代词或相当于名词的短语等充当.例句:Lucy is an American girl. We study in No.1 Middle School. 谓语(The Predicate)说明主语"做什么","是什么"或者是怎么样.谓语(谓语部分里主要是词)用动词.谓语和主语在人称和数两方面必须一致.例如:We love China. Mike hope to be a doctor. His parents are farmers. She is singing. 第 51 页 共 81 页 表语(The Predicative) 说明主语是什么或者怎么样,由名词、形容词或相当于名词或形容词的词或短语等充当，和连系动词一起构成谓语。例句:Her aunt is a driver. 宾语(The Object)表示动作或行为的对象,由名词,代词或相当于名词的词,短语等 充当,和及物动词一起说明主语做什么.例句: He often helps me. We study English at school. Did you see him yesterday? 定语(The Attribute)用来休息名词或代词.做定语的除形容词外,还有代词,数词,名词, 介词短语或相当于形容词的词或短语等.例句:The black bike is mine. We have four lessons in the morning. What's your name. please? 状语(The Adverbial)用来修饰动词,形容词或副词.一般表示行为发生的时间,地点,目的,方式,程度等意义,通常由副词,介词短语或相当于副词的词或短语等来表示 例句:People are all working hard. It is very nice. We had a meeting this afternoon. 六.句子的种类(Kings of Sentence) 1.四种疑问句(Four Kind of Question) 选择疑问句(The Alternative Question) 提出两种或两种以上的情况,要求对方选择一种,这种疑问句叫选择疑问句.它的结构是一般疑问句加or加一般疑问句,但常把后一部分里面和前一部分相同的成分省略.说是or前面部分用声调,后面用降调.如:Is her brother a doctor or a teacher? Would you like tea or coffee? Shall we go to the cinema on Saturday or on Sunday? 反意疑问句(The Tag Question) 反意疑问句表示提问者有一定的主见,但没有把握,希望对方来证实. 反意疑问句由两部分组成,前一部分是对事物的陈述,后一部分是简单的提问.如果前一部分用肯定的形式,后一部分一般用否定的形式;前一部分用否定的形式,后一部分久用肯定的形式两部分的人称和时态要一致. 反意疑问句陈述的部分用降调.后办部分可升可降.提问者对陈述部分把握较大时,后半部分用降调;把握不大时,用调.The weather here is very cold, isn't it? You're from Australia, aren't you? Yes, I am . 对反意疑问句的回答,不管问题的提法如何,若事实是肯定的,就要用Yes,事实是否定的,就要用no.这和汉语不一样,应该注意.如:He isn't going to the meeting, is he?它不去参加会是吗? Yes, he is.不,他要去的. No ,he isn't.对他不起. 2.感叹句(The Exclamatory Sentence) 感叹句多用how和what引起.how 和what与所修饰的词放在句首,其他部分用陈诉语气.在口语中谓语常省略 (1)how作状语,修饰形容词,副词和动词.如: How cold it is today! How delicious they are! How beautiful the flowers are! How I miss you! 第 52 页 共 81 页 (2)what作定语,修饰名词(名词前可由其他定语),单数可数名词前要加不定冠词a(an).如: What a good idea! What a beautiful day! What a happy woman! 感叹句用来表示强烈的感情.句末要用感叹号!,读时要用降调.在口语中常用省略句.后面的 主语和谓语往往省略,由时候只用一个词或者是词组.如:How cold! Wonderful! (3)现在完成时和一般过去时的区别 现在完成时表示过去发生的某一动作对现在造成的影响或结果，强调的是现在的情况，所以它不能和表示 过去的时间状语连用。如:yesterday，last night，three weeks ago，in 1990等，而一般过去时只表示过去 动作或状态，和现在不发生关系，它可以和表示过去的时间状语连用。如: I have seen the film。我看过这部电影。 I saw the film last week。我上星期看了这个电影。 He has lived here since 1992。1992年以来他一直住在这里。 He lived here in 1992。 1992年他住在这里。 2.过去将来时(The Future-in-the-Past Tense) (1)过去将来时由“助动词would+动词圆形”构成。would常缩略为„d。 (2)过去将来时的用法 过去将来时表示过去的某一时间看来将要发生的动作或存在的状态。过去将来时常用在宾语从句中。如: I didn't know if she would come。 I wasn't sure whether he would do it。 Wang Lei said that she would visit her uncle next Saturday。 过去将来时也可以用“was(were) going to +动词原形”来表示。如: I didn't know if she was going to come。 Wang Lei said that she was going to visit her uncle next Saturday。 3.过去完成时(The Past Perfect Tense) (1).过去完成时的构成 过去完成时由“助动词had(用于各种人称和数)+过去分词”构成 (2).过去完成时的用法 过去完成时表示在过去某一时间或动作之前已经发生或完成了的动作，它表示动作发生的时间是“过去的过去” 表示过去某一时间可用by，before等构成的短语，也可用when，before等引导的从句或者通过上下文表示。 例句 By the end of the match ,they had scored two goals and we had scored four. We had reached the station before ten o'clock. When I got there ,you had already started playing . We did as he had told us. He said he had never seen such an exciting match before . 第 53 页 共 81 页 By the time we got there, the bus had already gone. 4.动词不定式(The Infinitive) (1)动词不定式的基本形式是“to+动词原形”，有时可以不带to，动词不定式(或不定式短语)没有人称和 数的变化。 在句子中不能作谓语。动词不定式仍保持动词的特点。即可以有自己的宾语和状语。动词不定式同它 的宾语或状语 构成不定式短语。如:to read the newspaper，to speak at the meeting等 (2)动词不定式具有名词，形容词和副词的特征，因此在句中可以作主语，表语，宾语，宾语补足语、 定语，状语 作宾语 She wanted to borrow my CD player. They began to read and write。 作状语 She went to see her grandma last Sunday。 He came to give us a talk yesterday。 作宾语补足语 Lucy asked him to turn down the radio。 She asked me to speak louder。 She found him to be a very good pupil。 作定语 Have you got anything to say, I had something to eat this morning。 作主语 To learn a foreign language is not easy。 To play in the street is dangerous. (3)动词不定式的否定形式 由“not+动词不定式”构成。如: Tell him not to be late。 The policeman told the boys not to play in the street。 (4)动词不定式和疑问句连用 动词不定式亏和疑问句what，which，how，where，when等连用，构成不定式短语。 如:The question is when to start。 I don't know where to go。 He showed me how to use a computer。 Nobody told us what to do。 (5)不带to的情况 有一些动词后用作宾语补足语的不定式通常不带to，这种动词有两类;一类是感觉动词，如see, hear， watch，feel，notice等，如: I saw him come。我看见他来了。 I heard him sing。我听见他唱歌了。 另一类是某些使役动词，如make，let，have等，如: Let him go。让他走吧 第 54 页 共 81 页 They made the children work 12 hours a day。 他们强迫孩子们一天干12小时。 动词help后的不定式可带to，也可不带to。 5.被动语态。(The Passive Voice) (1)主动语态和被动语态 英语动词有两种语态，即主动语态(The Active Voice)和被动语态(The Passive Voice) Many people speak English.(主动语态) English is spoken by many people。(被动语态) (2)被动语态的构成 被动语态由“助动词be+及物动词的过去分词”构成。助动词be有人称，数和时态的变化，其变化规则 与be作为连系动词时完全一样。现以动词ask为例子，将一般现在时和一般过去时被动语态的肯定式， 否定式及疑问式列表如下: 一般现在时 肯定式 I am asked…… You are asked…… He/She is asked…… We are asked…… You are asked…… They are asked…… 否定式 I am not asked…… You are not asked…… He/She is not asked…… We are not asked…… You are not asked…… They are not asked…… 疑问式 Am I asked……, Are you asked……, Is he/She asked……, Are we asked……, Are you asked……, Are they asked……, 一般过去时 肯定式 I was asked…… You were asked…… He/She was asked…… We were asked…… You were asked…… They were asked…… 否定式 I was not asked…… You were not asked…… He/She was not asked…… We were not asked…… You were not asked…… They were not asked…… 疑问式 was I asked……, were you asked……, was he/She asked……, were we asked……, were you asked……, were they asked……, (3)含有情态动词的被动语态 含有情态动词的被动语态由“情态动词+be+及物动词的过去分词”构成。如: This bicycle can be mended in two hour。 This trees may be planted in spring。 The room must be kept clean。 The flowers should be watered often。 (4) 被动语态的用法 当我们不知道谁是动作的执行者，或者没有必要指出谁是动作的执行者时，或者只需强调动作的承受 者时，需要被动语态。如: This jacket is made of cotton。 第 55 页 共 81 页 English is spoken in Canada。 宾语从句(The Object Clause) 宾语从句在复合句中作主语的宾语，宾语从句通常作主语的宾语，宾语从句通常由下面一些词引导 1.由that引导(that在口语或非正式文体中常省略)，如: He said that he would like to see the headmaster. She said that she would leave a message on his desk . He knew that he should work hard . He said that he might fall behind the other students. He was afraid that he would forget his Chinese. 2.由连接代词或连接副词引导，如: Do you know what he has said ? I don't remember when we arrived ? I asked him where I could get so much money? Can you tell me which class you are in ? The children did not know who Father Christmas was. 3.由连词whether或if引导( 口语中常用if) Lily wanted to knew if/wheher her grandma liked the handbag。 She asked me if she could borrow there books。 定语从句(The Attributive Clause) 在复合句中，修饰某一名词或代词的从句叫做定语从句，如: (1)The man who lives next to us is a policeman (2)You must do everything that I do . 上面两句中的man和everything 是定语从句所修饰的词，叫先行词，定语从句放在先行词的后面。 引导定语从句的词有关系代词what，which，who，(宾格whom，所有格whose)和关系副词where，when，关系代词或关系副词放在先行词和定语从句之间，起联系作用，同时又作定语从句的一个成分。 由关系代词引导的定语从句 that在从句中作主语或宾语 指物 A plane is a machine that can fly。(作主语) The noodles that I cooked were delicious。(作宾语) 指人 Who is the man that is reading the book over there,(作主语) The girl that we saw yesterday was Jim's sister。(作宾语) which在从句中作主语和宾语。 指物 The silk which is produced in Hangzhou sells well。(作主语) The song which the Beatles sang were very popular。(作宾语) who，whom在从句中分别作主语和宾语 指人 The foreigner who visit our class yesterday is form Canada。(作主语) 第 56 页 共 81 页 The boy who broke the window is called Roy。(作主语) The person to whom you just talked is Mr Li。(作宾语) Mrs Evans is the person to whom you should write。(作宾语) 状语从句(Adverbial clause) 在复合句中，修饰主句的动词，形容词或副词等的从句叫做状语从句，状语从句根据它表达的意思可分为时间，原因，条件，比较，目的，结果和让步等类。 时间 由as，after，as soon as，before，since，until，when，whenever，while等连词引导。 As he explored the sea, he took a lot of picture. As soon as he arrived in France ,he called me. He has been in Shanghai since he was born Don't come in until you are called. Whenever we're in trouble, he'll help us . While I was watching TV, the bell rang. 原因 由as，because，since，等连词引导 I didn't go surfing, because it was too cold. As the car is expensive ,we can't buy it . Since he was busy ,he didn't come. 条件 由if，unless等连词引导 If you travel in India, you can use English everywhere. I won't pass the exam unless I work hard. 比较 由as(so)……as，than等引导 Canoeing is not as(so) interesting as sailing (is). Li Lei swims better than Jim (does). 结果 由so……that，等引导 He was so weak that he couldn't walk on. 目的 由so ，so that等引导 We'll sit near the front so we can hear the speaker better. He sat in the dark so that he couldn't be seen. 让步 由although，even though等引导 Although the traffic was heavy ,we got to the railway station on time. Even though he is eighty, he looks strong and healthy. I、动词(Verb) 1.情态动词(Modal Verbs) 情态动词表示说话人对某一动作或状态的态度,认为"可能"、“应当”、“必要”等等，但本身意思词义不完全，不能单独作位于动词，必须和不带to的不定式即动词原形连用。情态动词没有人和数的变化。朗读时、情态动词的肯定式一般不重读。有些情态动词没有过去式，如must，ought to;有些则有过去式，如:can-could may-might shall-should will-would have to-should 第 57 页 共 81 页 情态动词的语法特征 1) 情态动词不能表示正在发生或已经发生的事情，只表示期待或估计某事的发生。 2) 情态动词 除ought 和have 外，后面只能接不带to 的不定式。 3) 情态动词没有人称，数的变化，即情态动词第三人称单数不加-s。 4) 情态动词没有非谓语形式，即没有不定式，分词，等形式。 ?can和could 用法: 表示“能力”、“许可”、“可能性”等。在口语中can可以代替may表示许可，而may比较正式;could可以代替can，表示语气较为婉转。 例句:1、Some of us can use the computer now，but we couldn't ten years ago。(能力) 2、Can/Could go now?(许可) 3、He said could use the computer.(许可) 4、I thought the story could not be true。(可能) 比较can 和be able to 1)can could 表示能力;可能 (过去时用could), 只用于现在式和过去式(could)。be able to可以用于各种时态。 They will be able to tell you the news soon. 他很快就能告诉你消息了。 2)只用be able to a. 位于助动词后。 b. 情态动词后。 c. 表示过去某时刻动作时。 d. 用于句首表示条件。 e. 表示成功地做了某事时，只能用was/were able to， 不能用could。 He was able to flee Europe before the war broke out. He managed to flee Europe before the war broke out. 注意:could不表示时态 1)提出委婉的请求，(注意在回答中不可用could)。 Could I have the television on? Yes, you can. / No, you can't. 2)在否定，疑问句中表示推测或怀疑。 He couldn't be a bad man. 他不大可能是坏人。 ?may和might 用法: 表示许可或征询对方的许可,有"可以"的意思,用作此意时候,它的否定形式可以用may not;但表示"不可以"、“禁止”、“阻止”等意思时常用must not (mustn't)代替may not. 例句:1、You may go now。 2、He said that I might use the telephone。 3、May I watch TV after supper? Yes,you may./No,you'd better not. No,you may not./No,you'd better not. 表示可能性,有"或许"、“可能”的意思，may或might+动词原形都可以表示可能性。用might则语气更加不肯定。 例句:1、He may/might be English。 第 58 页 共 81 页 2、They may/might have a alot of work to do。 比较may和might 1) 表示允许或请求;表示没有把握的推测;may 放在句首，表示祝愿。 May God bless you! He might be at home. 注意: might 表示推测时，不表示时态。只是可能性比may 小。 2) 成语: may/might as well，后面接不带to 的不定式，意为"不妨"。 If that is the case, we may as well try. 典型例题 Peter ___come with us tonight, but he isn't very sure yet. A. must B. may C. can D. will 答案B. 表可能性只能用may. 此句意可从后半句推出。 ?must和have to must表示"必须"、“应该”。否定形式must not (mustn't)表示“不应该”、“不许可”、“不准”、“禁止”等。在回答must的问句时，否定式常用neednot (needn't)或don't have to表示"不必",而不用must not,因为must not表示"不可以"。must还可以表示"一定"、“必须”等推测意义，一般只用在肯定句中。 例句:1、The work must be finished as noon as possible. 2、You mustn't speak like that. 3、Must I be home before eight o'clock? Yes，you must. No, you needn't./No, you don't have to. 4、There must be some mistakes . 5、I don't like the TV set. I must buy a new one.(主观看法) have to表示"必须"、“不得不”，在这个意义上与must很接近，但must表示的是说话人的主观看法，而have to表示的却是客观需要。have to比must有更多的的形式 6、The TV set is broken. I have to buy a new one.(客观需要) 7、You don't have to worry about that. 8、The students will have to know how to use the computer. 比较have to和must 1) 两词都是'必须'的意思，have to 表示客观的需要， must 表示说话人主观上的看法，既主观上的必要。 My brother was very ill, so I had to call the doctor in the middle of the night. 我弟弟病得很厉害，我只得半夜里把医生请来。(客观上需要做这件事) He said that they must work hard. 他说他们必须努力工作。(主观上要做这件事) 2) have to有人称、数、时态的变化，而must只有一种形式。但must 可用于间接引语中表示过去的必要或义务。 He had to look after his sister yesterday. 3) 在否定结构中: don„t have to 表示“不必 "mustn't 表示"禁止"， You don't have to tell him about it. 你不一定要把此事告诉他。 You mustn't tell him about it. 你一定不要把这件事告诉他。 第 59 页 共 81 页 ?shall和should 在疑问句中，shall用来征询对方意见或请求指示，用于“劝告”、“建议” 常译作“应该”。 例句:1、Where shall wait for you? 2、Shall we start the meeting now? 3、You should keep your promise. 4、Young people should learn new thing. ?will和would will表示“意志”、“意愿”，可用语多种人称。 1、I will (I'll) tell you all about it. 2、We will(W'll) help him if he asks us to. 3、He won't go with us. will在疑问句中用于第二人称时,表示询问对方的意愿或向对方提出请求.would是will的过去式,表示过去时间的"意志","意愿".可用语多种人称.若表示说话人意愿或对方提出的请求,语气比will婉转,指现在的时间. 例句:1、I?m going to the library。Will you go with me ? 2、Will you give him a message when you see him? 3、They said that they would help us. 4、I promised that I would do my best。 5、Would you like some coffee? 6、I?d like to see your new car. will和would 注意: 1)would like; Would like to do = want to 想要，为固定搭配。 Would you like to go with me? 2)Will you…? Would you like…? 表示肯定含义的请求劝说时，疑问句中一般用some, 而不是any。Would you like some cake? 3)否定结构中用will，一般不用would, won't you是一种委婉语气。 Won't you sit down? ?ought ought无人称和时态的变化,后接带to的动词不定式.ought to可表示义务、要求或劝告，常译作应该、应当等(和should差不多,只是语气稍重一些),有时表示非常可能的意思,否定式为ought not to (oughtn't to),疑问式为ought I/you to .....? 例句:1、You ought to star at once. 2、We ought to lean more about computer science. 3、Such things ought not to be done. 4、ought he to? Yes, he ought to . 5、If she is completely well，she ought to be back at school today. 第 60 页 共 81 页 should 和ought to should 和ought to 都为"应该"的意思，可用于各种人称。 Ought he to go? Yes. I think he ought to. 表示要求，命令时，语气由 should(应该)、had better最好)、must(必须)渐强。 ?had better 用法 had batter无人称和数的变化，后接不带to的动词不定式。had better可表示义务或是建议，语气比should或ought to更委婉。常译作:最好....;还是.....好等。否定式为had better not....疑问式为Had I/ you better...,肯定式为Had+sb+better,否定疑问句式 为Had+sb+better not...,或Hadn't+sb+better..., 例句:1、We/They/You/I/He had better go at once. 2、You'd better hurry up if you want to get home before dark. 3、I'd batter be going. 4、You'd batter not wake me up when you come in. 5、Had you better go at once, Yes,we had better. No，we?d better not. had better表示"最好" had better 相当于一个助动词，它只有一种形式，它后面要跟动词原形。 had better do sth had better not do sth It is pretty cold. You'd better put on my coat. She'd better not play with the dog. had better have done sth表示与事实相反的结果，意为"本来最好"。 You had better have come earlier. II 主语和谓语的一致(subject-verb Agreement) 1.谓语动词要与主语的人称和数一致.如: I am seventeen, and she is sixteen. There is a desk in the room. There are no chairs in it. John gets up at six o'clock every morning. They have not come yet. Nobody knows who is going to win in the competition. What is the latest news about the Olympic Games? 2.两个名词或代词由and连接作主语时,谓语动词一般用复数.如: Wang Gang and Zhang Hua were here a moment ago. My brother and I have both see the film. Both rice and wheat are grown in this part of China. 注意:1)当and不表示并列意义,而连接两个在意义上表示同一个人 物或概念或由两个部分配成的物品时,谓语动词用单数. : The professor and writer is speaking at the meeting 第 61 页 共 81 页 那位教授兼作家正在会上发言. One more knife and fork is needed. 还需要一副刀叉. War and peace is a constant theme in history. 战争与和平是历史上一个永恒的主题. 2)两个并列的名词由each, every,many,a,no等休息时,谓语动词一般用单数. 如: Each doctor and(each) nurse/Every doctor and (every) nurse was given a new shirt.每个大夫和护士都发了一件新衬衫. No sound and no voice is heard. 一点声音都没有. Many a boy and (many a) girl has made the same mistake. 许多男孩和女孩都犯了同样的错误. 3.集合名词group, class, family, army,enemy等作主语时,如果强调整体,谓语动词 用单数;如果强调个体,则用复数形式.如: My family is a large one. The family are sitting at the breakfast table.(指家庭成员) Our group are reading the newspapers.(指组内的成员) This group is having a meeting. The army is going to remain in this town. The army have rescued the travelers.(指部队中的官兵) 4.不定代词 anyone, anybody, anything, everyone, everybody, everything, someone，somebody, something, no one, nobody, nothing, each,the other等做主语时,谓语动词用单数.如: Is anybody going to tell him the news? Three is nobody in the house. Everything is ready. Someone wants to see you. 5.代词none和neither有时当作单数看待,有时作复数看待,主要根据说话人的意思决定，但是代表不可数名词时,只看作单数,neither作形容词时与单数名词连用,谓语动词用单数.如: (,)None of them has/have arrive yet.他们一个人也没到. (,)Neither of them knows/know the answer.他们俩都不知道答案. None of this money is mine.这钱一点也不是我的. Neither statement was true.两个陈述都不真实. 6.当用作主语的两个名词或代词由or, either....or, neither....nor或not only.. but also 连接时,谓语通常与邻近的名词和代词保持一致.如: Either you or Jane is to be sent to New Zealand. 要么你,要么简将被派往新西兰. Neither he nor I have finished the experiment. 他和我都没有完成实验. Neither his family but he (also) likes Chaplin's movies 他和他的家人都喜欢卓别林的电影. 由there或here引导的句子,主语不止一个词时,谓语通常与邻近的的名词或代词保持一致. 第 62 页 共 81 页 There is a lamp, two pens and there books on the desk. 桌子上面有一盏台灯,两支钢笔和三本书. Here are some envelopes and paper for you. 这些是给你的信封和纸. 7.主语后面接修饰主语的修饰语，如用with，along with，together with，as well as，like，rather then，but，except，besides，including，in addition to与修饰语连接，谓语动词不受修饰成分的影响，仍保持同主语一致的关系。如: The teacher with three students was doing an experiment。 那个老师和三个学生在做实验。 E-mail，as well as phones calls，is playing an important part in daily communication。 像电话一样，电子邮件在日常交流中起着非常重要的作用。 8.表示时间、金钱、距离、重量的复数名词表示单位数量用作主语时，通常看作是整体，谓语动词用单数。如: Sixty years is a long time. 60年是很长的一段时间。 Ten dollars is enough for him。 10元钱就够他用的了。 Three thousand miles is a long distance。 3000英里是很长的一段距离。 Fifty kilogrammes is not too heavy to be carried。50公斤不至于重到扛不起来。 注意:如果强调数量，谓语动词可用复数。如: One hundred cents make a dollar。 100美分就是一美元。 More than fifty years have passed since they got married。 他们夫妻已共同走过了50多年。 III it的用法(The Use of “it”) 在英语中,it有许多不同的用法,它既可以用作代词(如人称代词、非人称代词),也可以作引导词(作形式主语或形式宾语).还可以用来构成强调句型. 1.it用作人称代词 it可用人称代词,指前面已经提到的过的事物,动物或人,在句子中作主语或宾语. 如:He bought a dictionary and gave it to me .(指代物品the dictionary) He took off his coat and hung it on the wall.(指代物品his coat) Don't think any more about it.(指代事件) 1 学习由关系副词引导的定语从句基本句法: 地点名词(时间名词)，关系副词，定语从句，引导定语从句的关系副词主要有where, when 和why。why只能引导由名词reason作先行词的定语从句。 关系副词where和when 所引导的定语从句用来说明先行词所发生的地点和时间，因此关系副词首先是起连接主从句的作用，其次在定语从句中作地点或时间状语。 where的语法功能相当于in (on, at, from...)，地点名词或表地点的副词there, here等。 第 63 页 共 81 页 when的语法功能相当于in (on, at, from...)，时间名词或表时间的副词。 例:?As a child ,he used to work hard and help his father on the small farm where he lived. (where ,on the small farm) 当他还是一个小孩的时候，他就习惯了艰苦的劳动，并帮助他的父亲 在他们所生活的农场干活。 ?This is the village where I was born. (where,in the village) 这就是我出生的村庄。 由when引导的定语从句，其先行词必须是表时间的名词并且在定语从句中作时间状语。 例:?This was a time when there were still slaves in the U.S.A. . 这是一个在美国仍处在奴隶制度的时代。 when=at that time在从句中作时间状语。 ?I?ll never forget the day when I left for college with my father. 我永远不会忘记我和父亲动身去大学的那天。 when,on that day why引导的定语从句主要用来限定reason的内容， 其表语才是说明原因。 例:?This is the reason why I did so . 这就是我要这么做的理由。 why , for which... ?The reason why he succeeded in the exam is that he worked very hard. 他这次考试成功的原因是因为他学习非常努力。 说明:在time作先行词表示“次数”时，如被序数词修饰或the last修饰时，只能用that为引导词。 例:?This is the last time (that) I shall go there with you. 这将是我最后一次和你一块到那里去。 ?The first time (that) I saw you was last month. 我第一次与你见面是在上个月。 2 语法句型 1 make sb.，动词原形 make在该结构中是使役动词，后接不带to的复合宾语。能接复合宾语的动词常见的有make, have, let, call, get, force等。 复合宾语中的补语常由名词、副词、形容词、介词短语和非谓语动词等担任。 例:The owners of slaves often made them work very hard on their farm. 奴隶主们常迫使他们(奴隶)在农场里拼命地干活。 说明:get, force作使役动词， 后接不定式作补语不能省略 to。 例:We should get everyone to understand it. 我们应该让大家都明白这一点。 2 反意疑问句 反意疑问句是由“陈述句，简单问句”所构成的。 主要用途: A.表真实的疑问。 B.表说话人的倾向。 C.表强调或反问。 语法句型结构:肯定陈述，否定疑问。 第 64 页 共 81 页 否定陈述，肯定疑问。 回答结构:否定，否定回答。 肯定，肯定回答。 注意事项:A.陈述部分和疑问部分必须保持人称和时态的一致; B. 回答部分，要前后一致。 例:?That was a hundred years ago, wasn?t it ? 那是一百年以前的事了，对吗, ?She?ll not come to join us, will she ? 她不来参加我们的活动，对吗, No，she will not. 或 Yes, she will. 是，她不参加或不，她来参加 3 What?s on ，地点状语 on为副词，在句子中作表语，意思是“正在发生”或“正在进行”。 例:?What is on at the theatre in these days ? 剧院里近几天上演什么戏, ?What?s on in your office ? 你办公室里发生了什么事, 4 as，名词短语作时间状语。 “as+名词短语”相当于when引导的一个时间状语，从句中省略了主语和连系动词be， 这种结构要求A:主句和从句中的主语一致;B:从句中的谓语动词是连系动词be。 例:?As (he was) a child he used to work hard . 他还是一个小孩时就习惯于艰苦的生活。 ?As (she was) a little girl she could play the piano very well. 她还是一个小姑娘时，琴就弹得很好。 5 so，形容词,副词，that从句 so...that引导的结果状语从句，如果主句和从句的主语一致，从句中又有can (could) not，可以用too...to的结构替换。so是副词，用来说明形容词，副词或分词的程度，that引出结果，在口语中that可省略。 例:?The family was so poor that the boy couldn?t get many books. 家里太穷，孩子不能买很多书。 ?There were so many people in the room that I could not get in . 房里有太多人我进不去。 ?He is so old that he can?t work any more. 他年纪太老了，再也不能工作了。 6. consider sb./sth. to be consider作“认为”，“把……看作……”解，后往往接复合宾语， 动词不定式 作补足语时“to be”可省略。 例:?The people had considered him (to be)a great leader. 人们一直认为他是一位伟大的领袖。 ?I consider this sentence (to be) correct. 我认为这个句子是正确的。 3 学习中应注意的问题 1)在反意疑问句中，陈述句是I don?t think(believe)时，简单问句应和宾语从句一致，且用肯定式。 例:I don?t think he is a student , is he ? 我想他不是一个学生，对吗, 第 65 页 共 81 页 2)陈述句部分是I?m时，疑问部分用aren?t。 I am late, aren?t I ,我迟到了，是吗, 3)陈述句部分是不定代词作主语时，疑问部分用they或he代替，动词或助动词和人称保持一致。 例:Everyone is here , aren?t they , 大家都来齐了，是吗, 4)陈述部分有“have to”动词短语时疑问部分的助动词用“do”。 例:You have to get there on time , don?t you , 你得按时去那里，是吗, 5)陈述部分have 为行为动词时， 疑问部分只能用助动词do的适当形式。 You had a good time on holiday, didn?t you, 你节日玩得快乐，是吗, 由whose引导的定语从句 1 学习由whose引导的定语从句 whose 是定语从句中一个常用的关系代词，它是关系代词who的所有格，在从句中作定语，也就是说当先行词与从句中某个名词有所属关系，表达“……的”意思时，用关系代词whose 引导定语从句，它既可以指代人，也可以指代物，既可引导限制性定语从句，也可以引导非限制性定语从句。 例:?Mr King, whose legs were badly hurt, was taken to the hospital. 金先生腿受重伤，被送进了医院。 ?They lives in a room whose window opens to the south. 他们住在一间窗户朝南开的房间里。 whose短语在定语从句中有时可作介词宾语， 即构成“介词，whose，名词”引导定语从句并在从句中作状语。 例:?The boss in whose department Mr King worked had heard about the accident. 金先生工作所在的部门领导已经听人说过这一意外事故。 ?He is the student of whose brother we are always proud. 他就是那个我们总是为他哥哥感到骄傲的学生。 whose引导定语从句时,通常可与of which/of whom引导的定语从句进行转换。 例:?I made a table, the surface of which (of which the surface) is quite smooth. 我制了张桌子，桌面很光滑。 I made a table, whose surface is quite smooth. ?I live in a room whose window (the window of which或of which the window) opens to the south. 我住在一间窗户朝南开的屋子里。 ?The professor of whom a daughter (a daughter of whom) has gone abroad is very famous in China. 那位他的女儿已经出国了的教授在国内很有名。 1 复合名词变复数的规则: (1)将复合名词里面所包含的主体名词变为复数。 例:son(s) in law 女婿 looker(s) on 旁观者 passer(s) by 过路人 Film goer(s)常看电影的人 Tooth brush(es)牙刷 第 66 页 共 81 页 35 year old worker(s)35岁的工人 Grand child(ren)孙儿 Armyman (armymen)军人，但grown up(s) 例外。 (2)复合名词里面找不到主体名词时，只在词末加复数词尾。 例:go between(s)中间人 drawback(s)缺陷 (3)由man和woman构成的合成词，里面所含的成份全部要变为复数。 Man doctor (men doctors) 男医生 Woman worker (women workers) 女工人 (4)由boy和girl构成的合成词，只在后面名词上加复数词尾 Boy student (boy students) 男生 Girl student (girl students) 女生 2. 在学习不定式作目的状语时，我们应注意，不定式短语通常可用so that引导的目的状语从句互换。 例:The doctor asked him to remove his trousers so that he could examine his legs. The doctor asked him to remove his trousers in order to (so as to) examine his legs. 医生请他把长裤脱了，以便检查他的双腿。 3. 在it seems that/as if...句型中， seems 常可以由looks, appears替换，looks后常接as if... 从句;appear之后常接that...从句。 例:?It looks as if it is going to rain. 天看上去似乎要下雨了。 ?It seemed (looked)as if the fisherman would have nothing to take home that morning. 那天上午，渔夫似乎没有什么东西能带回家。 非限定性定语从句 1非限定性定语从句(一) 非限定性定语从句和主句关系不十分密切，只是对先行词作些附加的说明，如果去掉，主句的意思仍然清楚。从句和主句之间往往用逗号分开，一般用which引导，不用that。 1 非限定性定语从句，修饰人用who, whom或whose,修饰物用which。 例:?Bob?s father, who worked on the project, spent four years in Egypt. 鲍勃的父亲，从事这项工程，在埃及工作了四年。 ?The dam, which is the biggest in the world, is 3800 meters long. 世界上最长的大坝有三千八百米长。 2 在非限定性定语从句中，关系代词作从句中的介词宾语，构成介词， which引导的从句。 例:?The Nile, from which electricity is produced, no longer destroys villages and crops. 用来发电的尼罗河不再毁坏村庄和庄稼了。 ?About 2000 people, many of whom were Europeans worked on the project. 大约有二千人，其中许多人是欧州人从事这项工程。 3在非限定性定语从句中，先行词在非限制性定语从句中作状语时用where或when引导， where或when也可转化成介词，which 结构。 例:?We will put off the outing until next week, when we won?t be so busy. 我们把郊游推迟到下礼拜，那时我们不会这么忙了。 ?They will fly to Beijing, where they plan to stay a week. 他们打算坐飞机到北京，在那儿他们打算呆一周。 第 67 页 共 81 页 非限定性定语从句(二) 1 非限定性定语从句的位置与作用 非限定性定语从句一般放在所修饰的词之后，并用逗号与句子的其他成分隔开，它只对所修饰的词作进一步的说明，拿掉之后该句意思仍然清楚。译为汉语时，从句常可译成一个并列句。 例:?She is going to spend the summer holidays in Qingdao, where she has some relatives. 她准备到青岛过暑假，那儿她有一些亲戚。 ?Charlie Chaplin, who died in 1977,was one of the world?s greatest actors. 查理?卓别林是世界上最伟大的演员之一，他于1977年逝世。 2 .引导非限定性定语从句的关系代词与关系副词 引导非限定性定语从句的关系代词有:which, who, whom, whose, as等;关系副词有:when和where。 例:?She had eight children, three of whom lived to grow up. 她有八个孩子，其中三个长大成人了。 ?He went to the States in 1912, when he was noticed by an important film director. 1912年他去美国，就在那年他被一位颇有影响的电影导演看上了。 3 .非限定性定语从句与限定性定语从句的区别 限定性定语从句对先行词起限定作用，它与先行词有着不可分割的联系，是句中不可缺少的成分。而非限定性定语从句对先行词仅起修饰作用或补充说明。限定性定语从句有涉他性，非限定性定语从句有惟一性;先行词如果是表示独一无二的人或事、专有名词或是整个主句时，通常只用非限定性定语从句。 例:?The old farmer has a son who is a soldier. 那位农民有一个当兵的儿子。(老农不止一个儿子。) ?The old farmer has a son, who is a soldier. 那位农民有一个儿子，他是一个战士。(老农只有一个 儿子。) ?Beijing, which is the capital of China, is a very beautiful city. 北京是中国的首都，它是座美丽的城市。(专有名词不 需限定，只需解释或说明。) ?The earth goes round the sun, which is known to everyone. 地球绕太阳转，这是大家都知道的。(which代表主句。) 英语主要句型结构 1 not only...but also, both...and, not...but, neither...nor与either...or的用法 (1)not only...but also与both...and的用法基本相同，连接两个并列的词或短语，意为“不仅……而且……” 例:?We learn not only Chinese but also English. 我们不仅学汉语而且学英语。 ?Both teachers and students are interested in the film. 老师和学生都对这部电影感兴趣。 (2)not...but...连接两个并列的词或短语，否定前者，肯定后者，意为“不是……而是……”。 例:He is not American but British. 他不是美国人而是英国人。 (3)neither...nor...连接两个并列的词或词组，既否定前者又否定后者，意为“既不……也不……”。 例:?We had neither food nor money. 我们既没食物也没钱。 ?Neither he nor you are wholly right. 他不全对，你也不全对。 (谓语动词和邻近的主语在人称和数上一致。) 第 68 页 共 81 页 (4)either...or...连接两个并列的词或句子，表示二者取一，意为“不是……就是……，或是……或是……”。 例:?One of them will have to go, either Tom or Marry. 他们之中只能去一个，或是汤姆或是玛丽。 ?Either you must improve your work or I shall dismiss you. 不是你改进工作就是我解雇你。 2 表示“打算”的几个结构 表示“打算”可以用动词:intend, plan, want, hope,would like和have decided加动词不定式,也可以用be going to, be about to, be to。 例:?I intend to visit a friend. 我打算去看望一个朋友。 ?What are you going to do today? 你今天打算干什么? ?I was about to leave when he came. 我正要离开时，他来了。 3 表示年龄的几种方法 (1)用when连接一个状语从句表示年龄。 例:When he was eighteen (years old), he joined the army. 他十八岁参军。 (2)用at the age of，数词，作状语表示年龄。 例:At the age of eight, he set off for the USA with a group of comedy actors. 八岁时，他跟一些喜剧演员去了美国。 (3)用at，数词，作状语表示年龄。 例:Children go to school at six in China. 在中国孩子六岁上学。 (4)用数词yearold作定语表示年龄。 例:A 12yearold player won a gold medal in the 13th Asian Games. 在第十三届亚运会上一位十二岁的运动员获得了一块金牌。 (5)用of，数词，years作后置定语表示年龄。 例:They are searching for a lost boy of three years. 他们正在寻找一个失踪的三岁男孩。 某些以-ly结尾的词是形容词而不是副词:friendly，lively， lovely，lonely，likely，deadly，silly，orderly, timely等。 1)Close 接近地 closely 仔细地，密切地 2)Free 免费地 freely 自由地,无拘束地 3)Hard 努力地 hardly 几乎不 4)late 晚，迟 lately 近来 5)most 极,非常 mostly 主要地 6)Wide 广阔地，充分地 widely 广泛地 7)high高 highly 高度地，非常地 8)Deep 深，迟 deeply 抽象意义的“深” 9)Loud 大声地 loudly 大声地(含有喧闹的意思) 10)Near 邻近 nearly 几乎 bad/ill,badly worse worst little less least 第 69 页 共 81 页 表示一方不及另一方时，用“less，原级，than”的结构表示: This room is less beautiful than that one( 表示一方超过另一方的程度或数量时，可在比较级前加表示程度的状语， 如:even，a lot，a bit，a little，still，much，far, yet, by far等修饰: He works even harder than before( 注意:by far 通常用于强调最高级。用于比较级时,一般放在比较级的后面, 如放在前面,应在二者中间加“the”。 He is taller by far than his brother. He is by far the taller of the two brothers. 某些以-or结尾的形容词进行比较时，用to代替than。superior，junior，senior等。 He is superior to Mr Wang in mathematics( 在比较从句中为了避免重复通常用that(those)，one(ones)代替前面出现的名词。 that指物，one既可指人，也可指物。that可代替可数名词单数和不可数名词，而one只能代替可数名词。例如: The book on the table is more interesting than that on the desk( A box made of iron is stronger than one made of wood( 表示倍数的比较级有如下几种句型: A is three (four,etc.) times the size (height, length, width,etc) of B. The new building is four times the size (the height) of the old one. 这座新楼是那座旧楼的四倍大(四倍高)。,高三倍, A is three (four, etc.) times as big (high, long, wide, etc.) as B. Asia is four times as large as Europe. 亚洲是欧洲的四倍大。 A is three (four,etc.) times bigger (higher, longer, wider) than B. 例如:Your school is three times bigger than ours. 你们的学校比我们的学校大三倍。 表示两倍可以用 twice 或 double。 表示“最高程度”的形容词，如excellent，extreme，perfect等，没有最高级，也不能用比较级。 如果复数名词前有many、few，不可数名词前有much、little等表示量的形容词时，该用so而不用such。如: I've had so many falls that I'm black and blue all over. Mr White got so little money a month that he could hardly keep body and soul together. 但little不表示数量而表示“小”的意思时,仍用such。如: They are such little children that the they cannot clean the house by themselves. 语法句型 1.so，助动词，主语so在句型中是副词，作“也是如此”解，so放在句首，用倒装结构。so后的动词形式(助动词、情态动词、连系动词)要同上句中的动词保持一致。 例:?She sent her best wishes to you. So did I. 她向你问候，我也如此。 ?I can sing American songs. So can Li Lei. 我会唱美国歌曲，李磊也会。 如果前面句子是否定句，则用 neither或 nor连接 例:He isn?t good at biology. Neither is she. 他不喜欢生物，她也如此。 以上句子可以这样表达:He isn?t good at biology; she isn?t good at biology, either. 第 70 页 共 81 页 2.have，sb.(sth.) doing sth. have 是使役动词，其后接复合宾语，宾语是人也可以是物，现在分词作宾语补足语表主动的含义， 宾语和宾补之间有逻辑上的主谓关系。该句型表示“让……一直干某事”。 例:It?s not right for a teacher to have bad students standing outside. 老师让不听话的学生一直站在外面是不对的。 试比较: (1)have sth. done 其后复合宾语中通常为物，宾补过去分词表被动，该句型表示“请人做某事”。have也是使役动词。 例:? I had my radio repaired.,I asked someone to repair my radio. 我请人修了收音机。 ?She has her hair cut every month.她每月请人理发。 (2) have sb. do sth.句型表示“使人做某事”。have 是使役动词，do 是省略了to的不定式作宾语补足语。在这个句型中， 宾语和补足语之间有逻辑上的主谓关系。 例:She often has him do it.她经常让他做事。 (3) have sth. to do 该结构表示“有事要做”，have作“有”讲，动词不定式 to do作定语。 例:I have a lot of work to do.我有许多工作要做。 3.prefer...to... prefer 是及物动词，to 是介词，一起构成固定结构。prefer...to ...表示“宁愿……而不……”，两者后接相同结构，可以是名词、代词或者动名词。 例:?He prefers English to Chinese. 他喜欢英语，不喜欢汉语 ?He prefers playing basketball to playing football.他宁愿打篮球也不愿踢足球。 ?I prefer doing something to wasting the time.我宁愿做点事也不愿白白浪费时间。 prefer后也可接动词不定式，但需与rather than搭配，than 后的不定式符号 to应 省略，构成prefer to do sth. rather than do sth.。 例:I prefer to telephone her rather than write to her. 我宁愿给她打电话，而不愿写信给她。 4.It?s time for sth. 介词 for 后接名词或相当于名词的短语作宾语，意为“是干某事的时间了。” 例:?It?s time for rest.是休息的时候了。 ?It?s the time for practice.是进行练习的时候了。 试比较:It?s time (for sb.)+to do sth. 例:?It?s time to do some cleaning.是做清洁的时间了。 ?It?s time for us to do some cleaning.是我们做清洁的时候了。 5.although 引导让步状语从句。 although 引导的从句放在主句前后都可以，主句前面不能用连词 but,但可以与 still, yet等词连用，如果主句前有连词 but，则不能用 although;although与though同义。 例:?Although I am tired, I feel very fine. 尽管我很累，但我感觉良好。 ?The farm is large, but my Dad has only two men working for him. 尽管农场很大，但我爸爸只雇佣了两人为他干活。 第 71 页 共 81 页 6.go on doing sth. 表示“不停地、继续做原来的事情”。 例:?He went on writing the letter for half an hour.他写这封信写了半小时。 ?After a short break, he went on writing the letter.休息片刻后，他继续写信。 而go on to do sth.表示完成某事后，“继续做另一不同的事情”。 例:After explaining the new words, the teacher went on to teach the text. 老师讲完生词后，继续上课。 go on with something 与 go on doing sth. 意思接近， 但 go on with something主要侧重于中断再继续同一件事， 而 go on doing something主要侧重于连续不断地做某事。 例:Please go on with the meeting.请继续开会 7.It?s + adj. + of sb. + to do sth. 此句型中介词 of 引出不定式逻辑上的主语，形容词说明该逻辑主语的特征、性格、品质，即形容词是评价人的，常用于此句型的形容词kind, nice, clever, wrong, stupid, cruel等。 例:?It?s kind of you.? You are kind.你真善良。 ?It?s clever of her to work it out.? She is clever to work it out. 她真聪明，算出了这道题。 试比较:It?s+adj.+for sb. + to do sth. Lesson 16 主谓一致 概述:英语句子中主语和谓语是句子的两个主要部分，谓语受主语支配，因此谓语必须和主语在人称和数上保持一致。例如: The questions raised by Xiao Liu are very important. 小刘提出的问题很重要。 Jack was the only boy awake at that time. 杰克是当时唯一醒着的孩子。 主谓一致的三个原则 语法一致 内容一致 就近一致 语法一致 (1)单数主语即使后面带有由 with, along with, together with, like, but, except, besides, as well as, more than, no less than ,rather than, including, in addition to 引导的短语，谓语动词仍用单数。如: Air as well as water is matter. 空气和水都是物质。 (2)用 and 连接的并列主语，如果主语是同一个人、同一事、同一概念，谓语动词用单数，否则用复数。如: A hammer and a saw are useful tools. 锤子和锯都是有用的工具。 The poet and writer has come. 那位诗人兼作家来了。(一个人) (3)不定式(短语)、动名词(短语)或从句作主语时，谓语动词用单数。如: Serving the people is my great happiness. 为人民服务就是我最大的幸福。 第 72 页 共 81 页 When we'll go out for an outing has been decided. 我们什么时候去郊游已决定了。 (4) 用 and连接的并列主语被 each, every,或 no修饰时，谓语动词用单数。 (5)each of+复数代词，谓语动词用单数。复数代词 +each ，谓语动词用单数。如: Each of us has something to say. 我们每个人都有些话要说。 (6)none 作主语时，谓语动词可用单数，也可用复数;但在代表不可数的东西时总是看作单数，因而谓语动词要用单数。如: None of us are (is) perfect. 人无完人。 None of this worries me. 这事一点也不使我着急。 (7) 名词如: trousers, scissors, clothes, goods, glasses等作主语时，谓语动词必须用复数。如: My trousers are new; The scissors are sharp; His clothes are good;等。 (8)形复意但名词如:news; 以ics结尾的学科名称如:physics, mathematics, economics; 国名如:the United States; 报纸名如:the New Times; 书名如:Arabian Nights (《天方夜谭》);以及 the United Nations (联合国)等作主语，谓语动词要用单数。(ADVICE PHYSICS NEWS FURNITURE 没有复数～) 如: "Arabian Nights" is full of interesting stories. 《天方夜谭》充满了许多有趣的故事。 (9)“a+ 名词+and a half ”，“one and a half +名词”，“the number of +名词”等作主语时，谓语动词要用单数。如:The number of the deer, mountain lions, and wild roses does not change much if people leave things as they are. 如果人们听其自然发展，鹿、美洲狮和野玫瑰的数量不会有很大变化。 (10)百分数(或分数)+ of +可数名词单数(或不可数名词)谓语动词用单数;百分数(或分数)+ of +复数名词，谓语动词用复数。如: Twenty percent of the workers in the factory are women. 这个工厂里百分之二十是女工。 Altogether more than 70 percent of the surface of our planet is covered by water. 总的来说，我们这个行星的表面有百分之七十是为水覆盖的。 内容一致 (1)不定代词all, most, some 等作主语时，谓语动词的单复数取决于它们所指代名词的数。如: Most of the apples were rotten. Most of the apple was eaten by a rat. 大部分苹果是烂的。 这个苹果的大半被老鼠吃掉了。 (2)“ the +形容词(或分词)”指一类人，如:the rich (富人)，the living(活着的人)作主语时，谓语动词用复数。如: The sick have been cured and the lost have been found. 病人以被治疗，失踪的以被找着。 (3)用and连接的成对名词习惯上被看成是一个整体，如:bread and butter(黄油抹面包)，knife and fork (刀叉)等作主语时，谓语动词用单数。如: Whisky and soda is always his favorite drink. 威士忌酒加苏打水是他最喜爱的饮料。 第 73 页 共 81 页 (4) 不定数量的词组，如:part of, a lot of, lots of, one of, a number of, plenty of 等作主语时，谓语动词的单数取决于量词后面名词的数。如: A part of the textbooks have arrived. 一小部分教科书以运到。 A part of the apple has been eaten up by the pig. 这个苹果的一部分被猪吃光了。 (5)表示时间金钱距离度量等的名词作主语，尽管是复数形式，它们作为一个单一的概念时，其谓语动词用单数形式。如: Ten miles is a good distance . 十英里是一个相当的距离。 就近一致 (1)由here, there, where 等引导的倒装句中，(有时主语不止一个时)谓语动词与它的主语在数上一致。如: Here comes the bus . 公共汽车来了。 Here is a pen and some pieces of paper for you. 给你一只钢笔和几张纸。 Where is your wife and children to stay while you are away? 你不在这儿的时候，你爱人和孩子在哪儿呆呢, (2)用连词 or, either…or, neither…or, not only…but also 等连接的并列主语，谓语动词与靠近它的主语在数上一致。如: Neither the students nor the teacher knows anything about it. 学生和那位老师都不知道这事。 He or you have taken my pen. 他或你拿了我的钢笔。 Lesson 17 独立主格结构 一，独立主格 (一): 独立主格结构的构成: 名词(代词)+现在分词、过去分词; 名词(代词)+形容词; 名词(代词)+副词; 名词(代词)+不定式; 名词(代词) +介词短语构成。 (二) 独立主格结构的特点: 1)独立主格结构的逻辑主语与句子的主语不同，它独立存在。 2)名词或代词与后面的分词，形容词，副词，不定 式，介词等是主谓关系。 3)独立主格结构一般有逗号与主句分开。 举例: (,)The test finished, we began our holiday. = When the test was finished, we began our holiday. 考试结束了，我们开始放假。 (,)The president assassinated, the whole country was in deep sorrow.= After the president was assassinated, the whole country was in deep sorrow. 总统被谋杀了，举国上下沉浸在悲哀之中。 (3) Weather permitting, we are going to visit you tomorrow. 如果天气允许，我们明天去看你。 (4)This done, we went home. 工作完成后，我们才回家。 第 74 页 共 81 页 (5) The meeting gone over, everyone tired to go home earlier. 会议结束后，每个人都想早点回家。 (6) He came into the room, his ears red with cold. 他回到了房子里，耳朵冻坏了。 (7) He came out of the library, a large book under his arm. 他夹着本厚书，走出了图书馆 二，With的复合结构作独立主格 表伴随时，既可用分词的独立结构，也可用with的复合结构。 with +名词(代词)+现在分词/过去分词/形容词/副词/不定式/介词短语 举例: He stood there, his hand raised. = He stood there, with his hand raise. 典型例题 The murder was brought in, with his hands ___ behind his back。 A. being tied B. having tied C. to be tied D. tied 答案D. with +名词(代词)+分词+介词短语结构。当分词表示伴随状况时，其主语常常用with来引导。由于本句中名词"手"与分词"绑"是被动关系，因此用过去分词，选D. 注意: 1) 独立主格结构使用介词的问题: 当介词是in时，其前后的两个名词均不加任何成分(如物主代词或冠词)，也不用复数。但 with 的复合结构不受此限制 A robber burst into the room, knife in hand. ( hand前不能加his)。 2) 当表人体部位的词做逻辑主语时，及物动词用现在分 词，不及物动词用过去分词。 He lay there, his teeth set, his hand clenched, his eyes looking straight up. 典型例题:Weather___, we'll go out for a walk. A. permitted B. permitting C. permits D. for permitting 本题中没有连词，它不是复合句，也不是并列句。 句中使用了逗号，且we 小写，可知其不是两个简单句。能够这样使用的只有独立主格或with的复合结构。据此判断，本句中使用的是独立结构， 其结构为:名词+分词。 由于permit在这里翻译为„天气允许?，表主动，应用现在分词，故选B。 如果不会判断独立结构作状语的形式，不妨将句子改为条件句，例如本句改为If weather permits, we'll go out for a walk. 然后将if 去掉，再将谓语动词改为非谓语动词即可。 Lesson 18 连词 Conjunction 一 比较so和 such 其规律由so与such的不同词性决定。such 是形容词，修饰名词或名词词组，so是副词，只能修饰形容词或副词。so 还可与表示数量的形容词many，few，much， little连用，形成固定搭配。 so + adj. such + a(n) + n. so + adj. + a(n) + n. such + n. (pl.) so + adj. + n. (pl.) such +n. (pl.) so + adj. + n. [不可数] such +n. [不可数] so foolish such a fool so nice a flower such a nice flower so many/ few flowers such nice flowers 第 75 页 共 81 页 so much/little money. such rapid progress so many people such a lot of people so many 已成固定搭配，a lot of 虽相当于 many，但 a lot of 为名词性的，只能用such搭配。 so…that与such…that之间的转换既为 so与such之间的转换。 二 表示转折或对比 1) but表示转折，while表示对比。 例如:Some people love cats, while others hate them. 典型例题 --- Would you like to come to dinner tonight? --- I„d like to, ___ I?m too busy. A. and B. so C. as D. but but与前面形成转折，符合语意。而表并列的and， 结果的so，原因的as都不符合句意。 2) not…but… 意思为“不是……而是……” not 和but 后面的用词要遵循一致原则。 例如:They were not the bones of an animal, but (the bones) of a human being. 三 表原因关系 1) for 判断改错: (错) For he is ill, he is absent today. (对) He is absent today, for he is ill. for是并列连词，不能置于含两个并列分句的句子的句首，只能将其放在两个分句中间。 2) so, therefore He hurt his leg, so he couldn't play in the game. 注意: a. 两个并列连词不能连用，但therefore, then, yet.可以和并列连词连用。 (1) You can watch TV, and or you can go to bed. (2) He hurt his leg, and so / and therefore he couldn't play in the game. b. although… yet…，但although不与 but连用。 (错) Although he was weak, but he tried his best to do the work.. (对) Although he was weak, yet he tried his best to do the work. 四 比较and和or 1) 并列结构中，or通常用于否定句，and用于肯定句。 2) 但有时and 也可用于否定句。请注意其不同特点: There is no air or water in the moon. There is no air and no water on the moon. 在否定中并列结构用or 连接，但含有两个否定词的句子实际被看作是肯定结构，因此要用and。 典型例题 ---I don't like chicken ___ fish. ---I don't like chicken, ___ I like fish very much. 第 76 页 共 81 页 A. and; and B. and; but C. or; but D. or;and 答案C。否定句中表并列用or, but 表转折。 判断改错: (错) We will die without air and water. (错) We can„t live without air or water. (对) We will die without air or water. (对) We can't live without air and water. 五 并列连词与并列结构 1) and 与or 判断改错: (错) They sat down and talk about something. 分析:and 连接两个并列的谓语，所以 talk 应改为 talked。 (错) They started to dance and sang. 分析: and 连接两个并列的动词不定式，第二个不定式往往省略to，因此sang 应改为 sing。 (错) I saw two men sitting behind and whisper there.分析:and 连接感观动词saw 后面的用作的宾补的两个并列分词结构，因此whisper应改whispering。 注意:and 还可以和祈使句或名词词组连用表示条件。(or也有此用法) Make up your mind, and you'll get the chance. = If you make up your mind, you'll get the chance. One more effort, and you'll succeed. = If you make one more effort, you'll succeed. 2) both …and 两者都 She plays (both) the piano and the guitar. 3) not only…but (also), as well as不但…而且) She plays not only the piano, but (also) the guitar. 注意: not only… but also 关联两个分句时，一个分句因有否定词not 而必须倒装。 Not only does he like reading stories, but also he can even write some. 4) neither…nor 意思为"既不……也不……"谓语动词采用就近原则，与nor后的词保持一致。 Neither you nor he is to blame. Lesson 19 only的几种特殊用法 在学习英语的过程中，我们常遇到only与其它词或结构搭配来表达不同的意思，现将这些用法示例如下: 一、only引导的词组或句子放在句首作状语时，通常要用倒装结构。如 Only in this way can you solve the problem. 只有通过这种方式你才能解决问题。 Only if you study hard can you pass the exam. 只有努力学习才能通过考试。 Only then did I realize my mistake. 只有那时我才意识到错了。 第 77 页 共 81 页 二、not only...(but also)出现在句首时，如果架连接的是两个句子，常用倒装。如 Not only did we lose all our money, but we also came close to losing our lives. 我们不仅丢了钱，还差点把命丢了。 Not only did he speak correctly, but he also spoke easily. 他不仅说得准确，而且说得很轻松。 三、only放在不定式前面，常表示不愉快或出乎人们的意料的结果。如 I went all the way to his home only to find him out at a meeting. 我径直到他家里去，不料发现他出去开会了。 I hurried to the post office only to find it closed. 我匆忙赶到邮局，不料已经关门了。 She went home only to find her house burglarized. 她回到家里，发现房子被盗了。 四、“too...to...”结构中，表示否定意思，但在“only too...to...”结构中，only too = very，表示肯定意思。如 The patient is too weak to walk. 那个病人太虚弱了，走不动。 We are only too willing to do it for you. 我们非常愿意为你做那事。 I am only too delighted to accept your king invitation. 我非常高兴地接受你的邀请。 五、在“one of + 复数名词 + 定语从句”的结构中，定语从句一般被看作修饰复数名词，谓语要用复 数形式。但在“the only one of + 复数名词 + 定语从句”的结构中，定语从句却被看作修饰“the only one”，谓语动词要用单数形式。如 This is one of the best novels that have been published in the past two years. 这是近两年出版的最好的小说之一。 He was the only one of the boys who was given a prize. 他是这些孩子中唯一受到奖励的。 She is the only one of the girls who has been to the US. 她是那些女孩中唯一去过美国的。 六、If only 为虚拟语气的一种，表示愿望或一个未实现的条件，多用于感叹句，其主句常常省略。如 If only she would marry me! 她要是能和我结婚该多好～ If only he had known about it! 他那时要是知道这件事该多好～ If only you could have been here earlier that day! 要是你那天再早点到这就好了。 If only there were forty-eighty hours in a day. 要是一天有48个小时就好了。 第 78 页 共 81 页 第 79 页 共 81 页 第 80 页 共 81 页 第 81 页 共 81 页