台湾的都市农业

AN ELEMENTARY PĀḶI COURSE Nārada Thera ☸ Third edition, third and final revision (or "Version 3.3"), October 2007 "With innumerable corrections and improvements" by Eisel Mazard, Xishuangbanna, People's Republic of China. [PUBLICATION DATA: This book was first published in 1941; the second edition, revised and enlarged, was published by The Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Limited, Lake House, Colombo, 1953. An electronic text of the 2nd edition was first released into the public domain in 1996. The second edition has also been reprinted by The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, 11F., 55 Hang Chow South Road Sec. 1, Taipei, circa 2000, with additional print runs available in response to demand or donations. This version of the electronic text has been extensively re-formatted to display the Pali text with Unicode compliant characters, and should not require any special fonts to display properly on a contemporary computer. I have made corrections to errors, improved the tables, layout, and glossary, but have refrained from substantially revising the text itself --Eisel Mazard] PUBLISHER'S NOTE: The author is not charging any royalty or accepting any remuneration for this book, the benefit of which, at his request, is being passed on to students in the form of a lower price than would otherwise have been possible. TO MY VENERABLE TEACHER PELENE SIRI VAJIRAÑĀNA MĀHA NĀYAKA THERA PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION The word Pāḷi means "the Text", though it has now come to be the name of a language. Māgadhi was the original name for Pāḷi. It was the language current in the land of Magadha during the time of the Buddha (6th century B.C.). Suddha Māgadhī, the pure form of the provincial dialect, was what the Buddha used as His medium of instruction. The elements of Pāḷi can be mastered in a few months, Pāḷi opens one's ears to the Dhamma and the music of the Buddha's speech. It is also a lingua franca in Buddhist countries, and therefore worth acquiring. This slender volume is intended to serve as an elementary guide for beginners. With its aid one may be able to get an introduction to the Pāḷi language within a short period. I have to express my deep indebtedness to my Venerable Teacher, Pelene Siri Vajirañāna Mahā Nāyaka Therapāda, who introduced me to this sacred language. Words cannot indicate how much I owe to his unfailing care and sympathy. My thanks are due to the Venerable Nyānatiloka Thera, for his valued assistance. NĀRADA October, 1952. This work is provided as public domain under the terms of the GNU, Dec. 1996 CONTENTS i. Preface ii. Introduction iii. Abbreviations iv. Alphabet v. Pronunciation Lesson I A. Decl. of Nouns ending in a: Nom. & Acc. Cases B. Conj. of Verbs - Pres. Tense. Act. Voice, 3rd person Lesson II A. Decl. of Nouns ending in a: Instr. & Dat. Cases B. Conj. of Verbs- Pres. Tense. Act. Voice, 2nd person Lesson III A. Decl. of Nouns ending in a: Abl. &. Gen. Cases B. Conj. of Verbs- Pres. Tense. Act. Voice, 1st person Lesson IV A. Decl. of Nouns ending in a: Loc. & Voc. Cases B. Full Conj. of Verbs- Pres. Tense Act. Voice Lesson V Full Decl. of Nouns ending in a Lesson VI A. Nouns ending in ā B. Infinitive Lesson VII Aorist (Ajjatanī) Act. Voice Possessive Pronouns Lesson VIII A. Nouns ending in i B. Indeclinable Past Participles Lesson IX A. Feminine Nouns ending in i B. Future Tense (Bhavissanti) Lesson X A. Nouns ending in ī B. The Formation of Feminines Lesson XI A. Decl. of Nouns ending in u & ū B. Verbs- Imperative & Benedictive Mood (Pañcamī) Lesson XII A. Personal Pronouns B. Conditional Mood (Sattamī) Lesson XIII Relative Pronouns The Interrogative Pronoun Lesson XIV Participles Lesson XV A. Demonstrative Pronouns B. Adjectives Lesson XVI Numerals; Ordinals. Lesson XVII A. Some Irregular Nouns ending in a B. Conjugations Lesson XVIII A. Declension of Satthu B. Causal Forms (Kārita) Lesson XIX A. Declension of go B. Perfect Tense (Hīyattanī) Lesson XX Compounds (Samāsa) Lesson XXI Indeclinables (Avyaya) Lesson XXII Nominal Derivatives (Taddhita) Lesson XXIII Verbal Derivatives (Kitaka) Lesson XXIV Rules of Sandhi (Combinations) Lesson XXV Uses of the Cases Lesson XXVI Passive Voice Appendix i Selections for Translation Appendix ii Notes on the meaning & usage of words Glossary [The glossary is provided as a separate PDF file, at:] [www.Pali.Pratyeka.org] pg. 1 Abbreviations Adj. Adjective Ind., Indec. Indeclinables Ind. p.p. indeclinable Past Participles f. Feminine m. Masculine n. Neuter p.p. Past Participles Pre. Prefix Pres. p. Present Participles Pres. Present Pro. Pronoun INTRODUCTION Namo Tassa Bhagavato Arahato Sammā-Sam-Buddhassa ! Pāḷi was the language spoken by the Buddha and employed by Him to expound His Doctrine of Deliverance. Māgadhī is its real name, it being the dialect of the people of Magadha -a district in Central India. Pāḷi, lit. "line" or "text", is, strictly speaking, the name for the Buddhist Canon. Nowadays the term Pāḷi is often applied to the language in which the Buddhist texts or scriptures were written. The Pāḷi language must have had characters of its own, but at present they are extinct. ALPHABET The Pāḷi Alphabet consists of forty-one letters, -eight vowels and thirty-three consonants. 8 Vowels (sara): a, ā, i, ī, u, ū, e, o. 33 Consonants (vyañjana) Gutturals: k, kh, g, gh, ɲ. (ka-group) Palatals: c, ch, j, jh, ñ. (ca-group) Cerebrals: ṭ, ṭh, ḍ, ḍh, ṇ. (ṭa-group) Dentals: t, th, d, dh, n. (ta-group) Labials: p, ph, b, bh, m. (pa-group) Palatal: y. Cerebral: r. Dental: l. Dental and Labial v. Dental (sibilant): s. Aspirate h. Cerebral: ḷ. Niggahīta: ŋ. Sinhalese Script Romanized Transliteration ක ඛ ග ඝ ඞ k kh g gh ɲ ච ඡ ජ ඣ ඤ c ch j jh ñ ට ඨ ඩ ඪ ණ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ ත ට ද ධ න t th d dh n ප ඵ බ භ ම p ph b bh m ය ර ල ව ස හ ළ ං y r l v s h ḷ ŋ PRONUNCIATION OF LETTERS Pāḷi is a phonetic language. As such each letter has its own characteristic sound. a is pronounced like u in but ā is pronounced like a in art i is pronounced like i in pin ī is pronounced like i in machine u is pronounced like u in put ū is pronounced like u in rule e is pronounced like e in ten ē is pronounced like a in fate o is pronounced like o in hot ō is pronounced like o in note k is pronounced like k in key g is pronounced like g in get ɲ is pronounced like ng in ring c is pronounced like ch in rich j is pronounced like j in jug ñ is pronounced like gn in signor ṭ is pronounced like t in not ḍ is pronounced like d in hid ṇ is pronounced like n in hint p is pronounced like p in lip b is pronounced like b in rib m is pronounced like m in him y is pronounced like y in yard r is pronounced like r in rat l is pronounced like l in sell v is pronounced like v in vile s is pronounced like s in sit h is pronounced like h in hut ḷ is pronounced like l in felt ŋ is pronounced like ng in sing The vowels "e" and "o" are always long, except when followed by a double consonant; e.g., ettha, oṭṭha. The fifth consonant of each group is called a "nasal". There is no difference* between the pronunciation of "ɲ" and "ŋ". The former never stands at the end, but is always followed by a consonant of its group. The dentals "t" and "d" are pronounced with the tip of the tongue placed against the front upper teeth. The aspirates "kh", "gh", "ṭh", "ḍh", "th", "dh", "ph", "bh", are pronounced with an "h" sound immediately following; e.g., in blockhead, pighead, cat-head, log-head, etc., where the "h" in each is combined with the preceding consonant in pronunciation. *[Althgouh this is true in modern Sri Lanka, the ɲ did differ in sound from the ŋ in classical times; as with k & g on the same row, the ɲ sound originates far back in the throat, whereas the ŋ sound is formed with the back of the tongue raised to the soft palate, further forward by comparison. I should also note that the chart with Sinhalese script on this page is one of my additions (2007) to Nārada's text --E.M.] pg. 2 Lesson I A. Declension of Nouns ending in "a" Nara*, m.⁑ man SINGULAR PLURAL Nominative naro⁂ narā a man, or the man men, or the men Accusative naraŋ nare a man, or the man men, or the men Terminations SINGULAR PLURAL Nominative o ā Accusative ŋ e * In Pāḷi, nouns are declined according to [their] termina[tions or] endings: a, ā, i, ī, u, ū, and o. There are no nouns ending in "e". All nouns ending in "a" are either in the masculine or in the neuter gender. ⁑ There are three genders in Pāḷi. As a rule males and those things possessing male characteristics are in the masculine gender, e.g., nara, man; suriya, sun; gāma, village. Females and those things possessing female characteristics are in the feminine gender, e.g., itthi, woman; gangā, river. Neutral nouns and most inanimate things are in the neuter gender, e.g., phala, fruit; citta, mind. It is not so easy to distinguish the gender in Pāḷi as in English. ⁂ Nara + o = naro. Nara + ā = narā. When two vowels come together either the preceding or the following vowel is dropped. In this case the preceding vowel is dropped. Masculine Substantives: Buddha The Enlightened One Dāraka child Dhamma Doctrine, Truth, Law Gāma village Ghaṭa pot, jar Janaka father Odana rice, cooked rice Putta son Sūda cook Yācaka beggar B. Conjugation of Verbs PRESENT TENSE - ACTIVE VOICE 3rd person terminations SINGINULAR: ti PLURAL: anti paca = to cook SINGULAR So pacati* he cooks, he is cooking Sā pacati she cooks, she is cooking PLURAL Te pacanti, they cook, they are cooking * The verbs are often used alone without the corresponding pronouns since the pronoun is implied by the termination. Verbs: Dhāvati* (dhāva) runs Dhovati (dhova) washes Vadati (vada) speaks, declares Vandati (vanda) salutes Rakkhati (rakkha) protects * As there are seven conjugations in Pāḷi which differ according to the conjugational signs, the present tense third person singulars of verbs are given. The roots are given in brackets. Illustrations:* 1. Sūdo pacati …  The cook is cooking 2. Sūdā pacanti …  The cooks are cooking 3. Sūdo odanaŋ pacati …  The cook rice is cooking 4. Sūdā ghaṭe dhovanti …  The cooks pots are washing * In Pāḷi sentences, in plain language, the subject is placed first, the verb last, and the object before the verb. Exercise i A TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH 1. Buddho vadati. 2. Dhammo rakkhati. 3. Sā dhovati. 4. Yācako dhāvati. 5. Sūdā pacanti. 6. Janakā vadanti. 7. Te vandanti. 8. Narā rakkhanti. 9. Puttā dhāvanti. 10. Dārako vandati. 11. Buddho dhammaŋ rakkhati. 12. Dārakā Buddhaŋ vandanti. 13. Sūdo ghaṭe dhovati. 14. Narā gāmaŋ rakkhanti. 15. Sā odanaŋ pacati. 16. Buddhā dhammaŋ vadanti. 17. Puttā janake vandanti. 18. Yācakā ghaṭe dhovanti. 19. Te gāme rakkhanti. 20. Janako Buddhaŋ vandati. pg. 3 B TRANSLATE INTO PALI 1. He protects. 2. The man salutes. 3. The child is washing. 4. The son speaks. 5. The beggar is cooking. 6. They are running. 7. The children are speaking. 8. The fathers are protecting. 9. The sons are saluting. 10. The cooks are washing. 11. The men are saluting the Buddha. 12. Fathers protect men. 13. The cook is washing rice. 14. The truth protects men. 15. She is saluting the father. 16. The Enlightened One is declaring the Doctrine. 17. The boys are washing the pots. 18. The men are protecting the villages. 19. The beggars are cooking rice. 20. The cook is washing the pot. Lesson II A. Declension of Nouns ending in "a" (cont’d.) Nara SINGULAR PLURAL Instrumental narena narebhi, narehi by or with a man by or with men Dative narāya,* narassa narānaŋ to or for a man to or for men Terminations SINGULAR PLURAL Instrumental ena⁑ ebhi,⁑ ehi⁑ Dative āya, ssa naŋ⁂ * This form is not frequently used. ⁑ The Instrumental case is also used to express the Auxiliary case (Tatiyā). ⁂ The vowel preceding "naŋ" is always long. Masculine Substantives: Ādara esteem, care, affection Āhāra food Daṇḍa stick Dāsa slave, servant Gilāna sick person Hattha hand Osadha medicine Ratha cart, chariot Samaṇa holy man, ascetic Sunakha dog Vejja Doctor, physician B. Conjugation of Verbs PRESENT TENSE - ACTIVE VOICE (cont’d.) 2nd person terminations SINGULAR PLURAL si tha 2nd person SING. Tvaŋ pacasi, you cook, you are cooking* 2nd person PLU. Tumhe pacatha, you cook, you are cooking * "Thou cookest, or thou art cooking." In translation, unless specially used for archaic or poetic reasons, it is more usual to use the plural forms of modern English. Verbs: Deseti (disa) preaches Deti (dā) gives Harati (hara) carries …  Āharati (hara with ā*) brings …  Nīharati (hara with nī*) removes …  Paharati (hara with pa*) strikes Gacchati (gamu) goes Āgacchati (gamu with ā) comes Labhati (labha) gets, receives Peseti (pesa) sends * ā, nī, pa, etc. are Prefixes (upasagga) which when attached to nouns and verbs, modify their original sense. Illustrations: 1. Dāsena (instr. s.) gacchati …  with the slave he goes 2. Vejjebhi (instr pl.) labhasi …  by means of doctors you obtain 3. Sunakhassa (dat. s.) desi …  to the dog you give 4. Samaṇānaŋ (dat. pl.) pesetha …  to the ascetics you send pg. 4 Exercise ii A 1. Tvaŋ rathena gacchasi. 2. Tvaŋ ādarena Dhammaŋ desesi. 3. Tvaŋ gilānassa osadhaŋ desi. 4. Tvaŋ daṇḍena sunakhaŋ paharasi. 5. Tvaŋ vejjānaŋ rathe pesesi. 6. Tumhe ādarena gilānānaŋ āhāraŋ detha. 7. Tumhe dāsehi gāmaŋ* gacchatha. 8. Tumhe samaṇānaŋ dhammaŋ desetha. 9. Tumhe hatthehi osadhaŋ labhatha. 10. Tumhe sunakhassa āhāraŋ haratha. 11. Dārakā sunakhehi gāmaŋ gacchanti. 12. Sūdā hatthehi ghaṭe dhovanti. 13. Tumhe gilāne vejjassa pesetha. 14. Dāso janakassa āhāraŋ āharati. 15. Samaṇā ādarena dhammaŋ desenti. 16. Tumhe daṇḍehi sunakhe paharatha. 17. Vejjo rathena gāmaŋ āgacchati. 18. Dārakā ādarena yācakānaŋ āhāraŋ denti. 19. Tvaŋ samaṇehi Buddhaŋ vandasi. 20. Tumhe hatthehi osadhaŋ nīharatha. * Verbs implying motion take the Accusative. B 1. You are coming with the dog. 2. You are giving medicine to the ascetic. 3. You are sending a chariot to the sick person. 4. You are striking the dogs with sticks. 5. You are preaching the Doctrine to the ascetics. 6. You give food to the servants with care. 7. You are going to the village with the ascetics. 8. You are bringing a chariot for the doctor. 9. The sick are going with the servants. 10. The dogs are running with the children. 11. The Enlightened One is preaching the Doctrine to the sick. 12. The servants are giving food to the beggars. 13. The father is going with the children to the village. 14. You are going in a chariot with the servants. 15. You are carrying medicine for the father. 16. You get medicine through* the doctor. * Use the Instrumental case. Lesson III A. Declension of Nouns ending in "a" (cont’d) nara SINGULAR PLURAL Ablative narā, naramhā, narasmā narebhi, narehi from a man from men Genitive narassa narānaŋ of a man of men Terminations SINGULAR PLURAL Ablative ā, mhā, smā ebhi, ehi Genitive ssa naŋ Masculine Substantives: Ācariya teacher Amba mango Āpaṇa shop, market Ārāma temple, garden, park Assa horse Mātula uncle Ovāda advice, exhortation Pabbata rock, mountain Paṇṇākāra reward, gift Rukkha tree Sissa pupil Taḷāka pond, pool, lake B. Conjugation of Verbs PRESENT TENSE - ACTIVE VOICE (cont’d.) 1st person terminations SINGULAR PLURAL mi* ma* SING. Ahaŋ pacāmi I cook, I am cooking. PLU. Mayaŋ pacāma We cook, we are cooking. * The vowel preceding "mi" and "ma" is always lengthened. pg. 5 Verbs: Gaṇhāti* (gaha) takes, receives, seizes … Saɲgaṇhāti (gaha with saŋ) Treats, compiles … Uggaṇhāti (gaha with u) learns Kiṇāti (ki) buys … Vikkiṇāti (ki with vi) sells Nikkhamati (kamu with ni) departs, goes away Patati (pata) falls Ruhati (ruha) grows … Āruhati (ruha with ā) ascends, climbs … Oruhati (ruha with ava⁑) descends Sunāti (su) hears * Plural: gaṇhanti. So are saɲgaṇhanti, uggaṇhanti, kiṇanti and suṇanti. ⁑ "Ava" is often changed into "o" Illustrations: 1. ambā rukkhasmā (abl. s.) patanti …  mangoes from the tree fall 2. rukkhehi (abl. pl.) patāma …  from trees we fall 3. āpaṇehi (abl. pl.) kiṇāmi …  from the markets I buy 4. āpaṇā (abl. s.) āpaṇaŋ (acc. s.) …  from market to market 5. mātulassa (gen. s.) ārāmo …  Uncle's garden 6. Ācariyānaŋ (gen. pl.) sissā …  of the teachers pupils Exercise iii A 1. Ahaŋ ācariyasmā Dhammaŋ suṇāmi. 2. Ahaŋ mātulasmā paṇṇākāraŋ gaṇhāmi. 3. Ahaŋ assasmā patāmi. 4. Ahaŋ mātulassa ārāmasmā nikkhamāmi. 5. Ahaŋ āpaṇasmā ambe kiṇāmi. 6. Mayaŋ pabbatasmā oruhāma. 7. Mayaŋ ācariyehi uggaṇhāma. 8. Mayam ācariyassa ovādaŋ labhāma. 9. Mayaŋ ācariyānaŋ putte saɲgaṇhāma. 10. Mayam assānaŋ āhāraŋ āpaṇehi kiṇāma. 11. Sissā samaṇānaŋ ārāmehi nikkhamanti. 12. Ācariyo mātulassa assaŋ āruhati. 13. Mayaŋ rathehi gāmā gāmaŋ gacchāma. 14. Tumhe ācariyehi paṇṇākāre gaṇhātha.Narā sissānaŋ dāsānaŋ ambe vikkiṇanti. 15. Mayaŋ samaṇānaŋ ovādaŋ suṇāma. 16. Rukkhā pabbatasmā patanti. 17. Ahaŋ suṇakhehi taḷākaŋ oruhāmi. 18. Mayaŋ ārāmasmā ārāmaŋ gacchāma. 19. Puttā ādarena janakānaŋ ovādaŋ gaṇhanti. B 1. I receive a gift from the teacher. 2. I depart from the shop. 3. I treat the uncle's teacher. 4. I take the advice of the teachers. 5. I am descending from the mountain. 6. We buy mangoes from the markets. 7. We hear the doctrine of the Buddha from the teacher. 8. We are coming out of the pond. 9. We are mounting the uncle's horse. 10. We fall from the mountain. 11. We treat the father's pupils with affection. 12. Pupils get gifts from the teachers. 13. You are selling a horse to the father's physician. 14. We go from mountain to mountain with the horses. 15. Teachers give advice to the fathers of the pupils. 16. We are learning from the ascetics. pg. 6 Lesson IV A. Declension of Nouns ending in "a" (cont’d.) nara SINGULAR PLURAL Locative nare, naramhi, narasmiŋ naresu in or upon a man in or upon men Vocative nara, narā narā O man ! O men ! Terminations SINGULAR PLURAL Locative e, mhi, smiŋ esu Vocative a, ā ā Masculine Substantives: Ākāsa sky Mañca bed Canda moon Sakuṇa bird Kassaka farmer Samudda sea, ocean Maccha fish Suriya sun Magga way, road Vāṇija merchant Maggika traveller Loka world, mankind B. Conjugation of Verbs PRESENT TENSE - ACTIVE VOICE Su, "to hear" Paca, "to cook" Singular Plural Singular Plural 3rd person suṇāti suṇanti pacati pacanti 2nd person suṇāsi suṇātha pacasi pacatha 1st person suṇāmi suṇāma pacāmi pacāma Disa, "to preach" Singular Plural 3rd person deseti desenti 2nd person desesi desetha 1st person desemi desema Verbs: Kīḷati (kīḷa) plays Uppajjati (pada with u) is born Passati* (disa) sees Vasati (vasa) dwells Supati (supa) sleeps Vicarati (cara with vi) wanders, goes about * "Passa" is a substitute for "disa" Some Indeclinables: Ajja! to-day Āma ! yes Api! also, too Ca! also, and Idāni! now Idha ! here Kadā! when Kasmā! why Kuhiŋ! where Kuto! whence Na! no, not Puna! again Sabbadā! every day Sadā! always Saddhiŋ*! with * "Saddhiŋ" is used with the "Instrumental" and is placed after the noun; as Narena saddhiŋ - with a man. Illustrations: 1. Mañce (loc. s.) supati …  on the bed he sleeps 2. Narā gāmesu (loc. pl) vasanti …  Men in the villages live 3. Dāraka (voc. s.) kuhiŋ tvaŋ gacchasi? …  child, where are you going? 4. Janaka, ahaŋ na gacchāmi. …  father, I am not going. pg. 7 Exercise iv A 1. Sakuṇā rukkesu vasanti. 2. Kassako mañce supati. 3. Mayaŋ magge na kīḷāma. 4. Narā loke uppajjanti. 5. Maggika, kuhiŋ tvaŋ gacchasi? 6. Āma sadā te na uggaṇhanti. 7. Macchā taḷāk