家庭功能等的涵化对北美中国青年的后果

The Influence of Family Functioning and Parent-Adolescent Acculturation on North American Chinese Adolescent Outcomes Author(s): D. Russell Crane, So Wa Ngai, Jeffry H. Larson and McArthur Hafen Jr. Reviewed work(s): Source: Family Relations, Vol. 54, No. 3 (Jul., 2005), pp. 400-410 Published by: National Council on Family Relations Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40005293 . Accessed: 19/02/2013 08:23 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. . National Council on Family Relations is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Family Relations. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded on Tue, 19 Feb 2013 08:23:00 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions The Influence of Family Functioning and Parent- Adolescent Acculturation on North American Chinese Adolescent Outcomes D. Russell Crane So Wa Ngai Jeffry H. Larson McArthur Hafen Jr.* Family Relations, 54 (July 2005), 400-410. Blackwell Publishing. Printed in the USA. Copyright 2005 by the National Council on Family Relations. Abstract: The present study investigated the associations between family functioning, acculturation between parents and their adolescents, and adolescent adjustment problems. Chinese adolescents and their parents (N =41) living in the United States and Canada participated in this study. Results showed that differences in acculturation between parents and adolescents were related to adolescent depression and that family functioning was related to both depression and delinquency. Both parental and adolescent acculturation levels and their differences were important in predicting adolescent outcomes. Implications for conducting family therapy and parent education with Chinese North American adolescents and their parents are discussed. Key Words: acculturation, adolescent depression, Chinese adolescents, delinquency, family functioning. Background and Significance Most studies investigating the association between family functioning and adolescent outcomes have been done in North America, mainly with Euro- pean American families. Recently, attention has focused on minority families (e.g., Greenberger & Chen, 1996; Mandara & Murray, 2000). Increas- ingly, Chinese North Americans are becoming a vis- ible minority presence in both the United States and Canada. For example, in 2003, the United States Census Bureau reported 4.1% of the pop- ulation to be identified as Asian. This is an in- crease from 3.6% in 2000. Additionally, Canadian statistics reveal that 6.6 % of the total Canadian population identified themselves to be Asian (Canadian Census, 2001). In an effort to contribute to scholarship on mi- nority families and adolescents, this study explored how family functioning and parent- adolescent accul- turation differences were associated with adolescent adjustment problems such as depression, delin- quency, and social initiative, in North American Chinese families. " Chinese North American" is a term used to describe North Americans who are ethnically Chinese. They may be from China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, or other Asian countries or they may be born and raised in North America. Based on previous family scholarship with Chinese Ameri- cans, the term "Chinese North American families" in this paper refers to families who are ethnic *D. Russell Crane is a Professor of Marriage and Family Therapy, Brigham Young University, 274 TLRB, Provo, UT 84602 (RussCrane@byu.edu). So Wa Ngai is in Hong Kong. Jeffry H. Larson is a Professor of Marriage and Family Therapy, Brigham Young University. McArthur Hafen Jr. is a Clinical Instructor, Kansas State University. This content downloaded on Tue, 19 Feb 2013 08:23:00 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Chinese Adolescents • Crane et al. 40 1 Chinese without distinguishing their country of origin (Skinner, 2000). Chinese North Americans, along with other Asian North Americans, have been considered a "model" minority group by some researchers because of their low crime rate and their overall academic achieve- ment (Sue & Okazaki, 1990). Others have found more severe emotional problems such as depres- sion among Asian American college students as com- pared to European Americans (Greenberger & Chen, 1996; Okazaki, 1997). Lorenzo, Pakiz, Reinherz, and Froist (1995) also found that Asian American adoles- cents are more depressed and socially isolated than their European American counterparts. Thus, a gen- eral description of Asian American adolescents is that they tend to exhibit more internalized emotional problems and display fewer externalized behavioral problems than European American youth. Many of the studies related to Chinese North American families have focused on comparing dif- ferent parenting practices in Asian and European American families (Rothbaum, Morelli, Pott, & Liu-Constant, 2000). Although these studies have focused on parenting styles, there is still a general lack of knowledge of overall family functioning in relation to Chinese North American families. Ho, Spank, & Young (1989, as cited by Shek, 1997) found no bibliographic citations of "family compe- tence," "family functioning," or "family assess- ment" among 3,548 citations related to patterns of behavior in Chinese individual and family studies. Simply comparing parenting practices between Asian and European American families is necessary and interesting but may fail to identify specific areas of intervention for Chinese North American fami- lies. In an effort to move beyond these comparisons, a primary goal of the present study was to examine the association between family functioning and ado- lescent psychological and behavioral outcomes in Chinese North American families. Conceptual Framework The McMaster Model of family functioning provides a foundation for the current study (Epstein, Ryan, Bishop, Miller, & Keitner, 1993). The McMaster model (Miller, Ryan, Keitner, Bishop, & Epstein, 2000, p. 169), based on family systems theory, assumes that: 1 . All parts of the family are interrelated. 2. One part of the family cannot be understood in isolation from the rest of the family system. 3. Family functioning cannot be fully understood by simply understanding each of the individual family members or subgroups. 4. A family's structure and organization are important factors that strongly influence and determine the behavior of family members. 5. The transactional patterns of the family system strongly shape the behavior of family members. Based on these assumptions, it is reasonable to predict a relationship between general family func- tioning and each of the individual family members' functioning. Further, a systemic approach to under- standing families highlights the importance of con- flict relative to understanding family functioning as well as the impact of acculturation differences on family functioning. For example, previous research by Fang and Wark (1998) suggests that when parents and their children acculturate in different ways or at different levels, intergenerational conflicts are almost inevita- ble. Tseng and Fuligni (2000) also found that inter- generational conflicts stemming from acculturation differences have a significant negative influence on family cohesion. Both parent-child conflicts and low family cohesion may lead to adolescent internaliza- tion and externalization of emotional problems. Therefore, the present study investigates the relation- ships between parent-adolescent acculturation differ- ence and adolescent depression, delinquency, and social initiative among Chinese American families. Literature Review Elements of Family Functioning Researchers have tried to understand family func- tioning within several dimensions. Emphasis tends to be placed on dimensions like family structure, family communication, adaptability, cohesion, and problem solving (Combrinck-Graham, 1990). Fam- ily structure refers to family intactness, the number of members in the household, the number of sib- lings, and sibling rank (LeFlore, 1988). In their review of the impact of family structure on family functioning, Martin and Colbert (1997) noted that birth order and number of children cause changes in This content downloaded on Tue, 19 Feb 2013 08:23:00 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 402 Family Relations • Volume 54, Number 3 • July 2005 the parenting process because resources and parent- ing practices vary when group size and composition change. Family communication refers to a set of norms regulating the exchange of information among its members and can be conceptualized through two dimensions: conformity orientation and conversa- tional orientation. Conformity orientation implies that parents use their power to force their children to obey and agree with them. Conversational orientation means that parents allow and encourage the open exchange of ideas and feelings within the family unit (McLeod & Chaffee, 1972, as cited in Fitzpatrick & Marshall, 1996). As a result, the method of commu- nicating influences parent-child interactions and could affect child or adolescent outcomes. Perhaps the most widely emphasized dimensions of family functioning in the family therapy literature are adaptability and cohesion (Olson, Sprenkle, & Russell, 1979). Family adaptability refers to the fam- ily's ability to alter its functional structure when developmental changes occur within the family or when the outside world places demands on them. When a family is extremely adaptable, it imposes no rules, leadership, or consistent discipline on its members. To the contrary, when a family's adapt- ability is on the other end of the spectrum, it regu- lates its members with rigid rules and discipline. Family cohesion reflects the degree to which family members are connected and involved with one another. Highly cohesive family systems restrain the development of healthy individuality among their members, whereas low cohesive family interactions withhold constructive intimacy among family mem- bers (Beavers, 1977; Olson, 1986). In addition to dimensions such as adaptability and cohesion, family functioning researchers have investigated problem solving. Problem solving within families is assessed by a family's capacity to resolve problems while at the same time maintaining effi- cient family functioning. Emotional tone in a family is represented by the ability of the family to encour- age expression of and response to the emotions of its members (Epstein, Baldwin, & Bishop, 1983). Both problem solving and emotional tone are associated with improved family functioning. To summarize, family functioning has been stud- ied predominantly in association with family struc- ture, family communication, adaptability, cohesion, and problem solving. These elements of family func- tioning are also relevant for immigrant families; additionally, acculturation is an element of family functioning that should be considered for immi- grant families. Research on Adolescent Adjustment Outcomes In addition to general family functioning research, many researchers focus on family outcomes. In the study of adolescent adjustment outcomes, em- pirical research emphasizes three dependent varia- bles: depression, delinquency, and social initiative (Skinner, 2000). It is notable that the dependent variables include both negative (depression and de- linquency) and positive (social initiative) adolescent outcomes. Depression may be particularly salient with respect to the experience of Chinese North Ameri- can Adolescents. Although the research is not con- clusive, it appears that Asian American adolescents may exhibit more symptoms of depression than their European American counterparts (Greenberger & Chen, 1996). Researchers investigating the ori- gins of this prevalent mood disorder have found that parental warmth and involvement are negatively related to adolescent depression (Sweeting & West, 1995). This association has also been found in two studies of Chinese North American adolescents and their families (Greenberger & Chen, 1996; Skinner, 2000) and suggests that family functioning dimen- sions like cohesion, affective responsiveness and involvement, communication, and problem solving may be related to adolescent depression in Chinese North American youth. In terms of delinquency, research with Chinese North American adolescents shows that they tend to have a relatively lower level of delinquency than European American youth (e.g., Chang, Morrissey, & Koplewicz, 1995). They also report fewer sub- stance abuse problems than other racial groups in North America (Bachman, Johnston, & O'Mally, 1993). Studies consistently show that several dimen- sions of family functioning contribute to adoles- cents' delinquent problem behaviors. For example, family dysfunction appears to be related to ado- lescent alcohol and drug abuse (McKay, Murphy, Rivinus, & Maisto, 1991). Troubled adolescents who use drugs and or alcohol perceive their families as less cohesive and more inhibited than adolescents who do not have these problems (LeFlore, 1988). In addition to adjustment difficulties such as de- pression or delinquency, researchers often examine This content downloaded on Tue, 19 Feb 2013 08:23:00 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Chinese Adolescents • Crane et al. 403 processes associated with positive outcomes such as prosocial behavior or social initiative. Patterson and Stouthamer-Loeber (1984) suggested that effec- tive problem solving and positive reinforcement of prosocial behavior in the family are positively associated with prosocial peer relations among adolescents. In studies specific to Asian American adolescents and social behavior, researchers have consistently found that Asian American adoles- cents are less socialized in group settings than Euro- pean American adolescents. Additionally, Okazaki (1997) found that, in comparison with European American adolescents, Asian Americans experience more social anxiety and concern in interpersonal sit- uations. Also, Lorenzo et al. (1995) found that Asian American adolescents are significantly more isolated socially than their European American counterparts. Finally, Florsheim (1997) noted that Chinese North American adolescents who reported having control- ling parents tended to perceive themselves as less socially adept than those with less controlling par- ents. One wonders if differences in expectations regarding social activities might be problematic for families. Acculturation, Family Functioning, and Adolescent Outcomes Acculturation occurs when a person is introduced into a new cultural environment and that person begins to acquire traits from the new country's cul- ture (Chen, Unger, Cruz, & Johnson, 1999; Pham & Harris, 2001; Schnittker, 2002). So, accultura- tion for North American Chinese families begins as immigration happens. Acquiring traits may refer to the adoption of similar beliefs, values, and lifestyles (Chen et al., 1999). Common terms used to describe the process of acculturation are assimilation (Schnittker, 2002), adaptation (Pham & Harris, 2001), and adoption (Chen et al., 1999). Thus, when families relocate from one setting to another, the process of acculturation is one aspect of their experience. Whether acculturation is viewed as a positive or negative process for minority groups in North America continues to be a subject of debate. Histor- ically, there is evidence of a bias toward greater acculturation (Schnittker, 2002), for instance, refer- ring to the United States as a "melting pot." Whether or not such a bias is healthy for minority groups is still unclear. To date, reports concerning this issue are contradictory. For instance, Skinner (2000) found that highly acculturated Chinese North American adolescents did better academi- cally than those who are not as acculturated. In con- trast, several studies show negative results for adolescents reporting high acculturation. For exam- ple, Chen et al. (1999) reported that a greater degree of acculturation among Asian American adoles- cents was associated with a higher likelihood of ciga- rette smoking. Additionally, Wong (1997, 1999) found that a greater degree of adolescent accul- turation was associated with a greater degree of ado- lescent delinquent behaviors. Finally, Florsheim (1997) found that more acculturated Chinese American adolescents reported more difficulties in social adjustment. Thus, based on the existing literature, it is unclear how acculturation differences between par- ents and adolescents may result in family conflict and acting-out behaviors in Chinese North Ameri- can adolescents. An important limitation of the empirical research on acculturation and adolescent outcomes is that the parents' level of acculturation is not considered. For example, Schnittker's (2002) study of acculturation among Chinese immigrants does not even identify parental acculturation as a fac- tor affecting an individual's acculturation. However, a systemic emphasis suggests that parental accul- turation would certainly influence an individual's level of acculturation. Thus, from a systems perspec- tive of family functioning, it is likely that accultura- tion differences between parents and adolescents and their inability to resolve these differences through communication skills like empathy, accep- tance, and effective problem solving account for greater family disruption and poorer adolescent outcomes. Some investigators have hypothesized that when family members are at different levels of accultura- tion, family conflicts are more likely to evolve (Fang & Wark, 1998). In minority families, the accultura- tion difference is most likely to present itself between parents and their adolescent children (Szapocznik & Kurtines, 1993). It was assumed that the effect of acculturation on adolescents partially depends on the difference in degrees of acculturation between par- ents and adolescents and their ability to communi- cate effectively about it. However, the hypothesized negative impact of acculturation difference on ado- lescents and their families has never been empirically evaluated. This content downloaded on Tue, 19 Feb 2013 08:23:00 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 404 Family Relations • Volume 54, Number 3 • July 2005 Research Questions In sum, the literature highlights the importance of family functioning including family acculturation and adolescent outcomes such as depression, delin- quency, and social initiative. As previously discussed, limited research has shown that under certain condi- tions, Chinese North American adolescents may experience similar emotional and behavioral prob- lems as their European American counterparts. Thus, there is a great need to understand the family dynamics related to these problems, especially the role of family functioning and acculturation. With those issues in mind, we investigated both parent and adolescent reports of family functioning, accul- turation, and adjustment outcomes. We asked the following research que