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CuiJianbin:ACourseDesignofEnglishLinguisticsStudies（2004--2005），DepartmentofForeignStudies,WeinanTeachersUniversity《英语语言学》教案崔建斌北京外国语大学外国语言文学系《英语语言学》课程《英语语言学》课程设计目录 2《英语语言学》课程描述CourseDescription 5《英语语言学》学生需求Students`NeedsAnalysis 5《英语语言学》课程介绍CourseIntroduction 5《英语语言学》课程目标CourseObjectives 6《英语语言学》课程规划CoursePlan 6《英语语言学》课程大纲SyllabusDesign 8《英语语言学》教学模式TeachingModel 11《英语语言学》课程要求CourseRequirements 11《英语语言学》课程资源ReadingResources 11《英语语言学》课程评价CourseEvaluation 12《英语语言学》进度安排TimeTable(2004-2005-I) 13Chapter1ClearingtheGround 14Objectives(students) 14Focus:UnderstandingofEnglishLanguageandEnglishlinguistics. 14Aims:Iwillbeworkingonimprovingthelearnersunderstandlanguageandlinguistics. 14Aid:on-linecourseware 14Topic: 14SectionOneLanguage 15SectionTwoLinguistics(I) 28SectionThreeLinguistics(II) 33Chapter2SpeechSounds 36Objectives(students) 36Focus:Englishsoundperception 36Aims:Iwillbeworkingonimprovingthelearnerstoknowmoreaboutphoneticsandphonology. 36Aid:on-linecourseware 36Topic: 36SectionOnePhonetics 37SectionTwoPhonology(I) 41SectionThreePhonology(II) 43ChapterThreeLexicon 45Objectives(students) 45Focus:lexicalchange 45Aims:Iwillbeworkingonimprovingthelearnersunderstandwordformation. 45Aid:on-linecourseware 45Topic: 45SectionOneWord 46SectionTwoTheFormationofWord 48SectionThreeLexicalChange 50ChapterFourSyntax 53Objectives(students) 53Focus:EnglishLanguageandEnglishsyntax 53Aims:Iwillbeworkingonimprovinglearnersunderstandlanguage&syntax. 53Aid:on-linecourseware 53Topic: 53SectionOneTheStructuralApproach 54SectionTwoTheGenerativeApproach 57SectionThreeTheFunctionalApproach 66ChapterFiveMeaning 72Objectives(students) 72Focus:EnglishlanguageandEnglishsemantics 72Aims:Iwillbeworkingonimprovingthestudentsunderstandlanguageandsemantics. 72Aid:on-linecourseware 72Topic: 72SectionOnetheReferentialTheory 73SectionTwoComponentialAnalysis 75SectionThreeSentenceMeaning 77ChapterSixLanguageProcessinginMind 79Objectives(students) 79Focus:Englishlanguageandhumanmind 79Aims:Iwillbeworkingonimprovingthestudentsunderstandlanguageandmind. 79Aid:on-linecourseware 79Topic: 79SectionOneLanguageComprehension 80SectionTwoDiscourseInterpretation 83SectionThreeLanguageProduction 84AchievementTestofEnglishLinguisticsforEnglishMajors`02(A)(TermV),WTU 86KeystoTestA,2005 88AchievementTestofEnglishLinguisticsforEnglishMajors`02(B)(TermV),WTU 90KeystoTestB,2005 92《英语语言学》课程描述CourseDescription课程名称CourseEnglishLinguisticStudies系班Dept.Dept.`ForeignStudies学生人数SsNum.98任课教师InstructorJianbinCui教材名称BookLINGUISTICS.ACOURSEBOOK(2ndedition)编辑者AuthorHuZhuanglin出版处所CopyrightPekingUniversityPublishingHouse《英语语言学》学生需求分析Students`NeedsAnalysisHavingfinishedtwoyearslearningofEnglishasmajorincollege,learnersachievedmoreinreading,listening,speakingandwritingandtheycoulduseEnglishtocommunicatetheirideasbetter.Asamajor,theyneedtoknowmoreaboutthesubjectaslinguisticstudies,literaturestudies,culturestudies,translationstudiesandacademicwriting.Learnersonanadvancedlevelneedtofocusononeaspectoranotherastheiracademicareaorinterest,andneedtofurthertheireducationaswell.Englishlinguisticstudiesisawell-plannedcourseforadvanced-levellearners.Itwillmeetlearner’sneedeitherinwideningtheirknowledgeorfurthertheireducation.《英语语言学》课程介绍CourseIntroductionEnglishLinguisticStudiesisarequiredsubjectcourseforuniversityundergraduateswhoaremajoringinEnglish,asasystematicwhole,EnglishLinguisticStudieshasasitsmaincomponentstheoryandprinciplesofthesubject.EnglishLinguisticStudiesisakindofdescriptivelinguistics.Itdealswithyaparticularlanguage—English,forthepurposeofconstructingamodeltorepresentunconsciousknowledgepossessedbyafluentEnglishspeaker.Thiscoursehasadoublepurpose.Thefirstistomakecleartolearnerssomefundamentallinguisticprinciples,conceptsandmethods,whichmightbeapreliminarystudyofgenerallinguistics.ThesecondpurposeistoenablelearnerstohaveabetterunderstandingofthestructureofEnglish,whichmightbeanadvancedstudyofEnglish.《英语语言学》课程目标CourseObjectives1. Tohelplearners`understandwhatEnglishlinguisticsisabout,tohelplearnerstoknowfundamentallinguisticprinciples,theories,conceptsandmethods.2. TodevelopstudentslinguisticcompetenceinapplyinglinguistictheoriesinEnglishlanguagelearningandteachingintheirfutureposition.3. Tohelplearners`understandGeneralLinguistics,whichdealswithLanguage,itaimsatdevelopingatheorythatdescribestherulesofhumanLanguageingeneral.AnddescriptivelinguisticsattemptstoestablishamodelthatdescribestherulesofthisparticularLanguage,suchasChinese,English.《英语语言学》课程规划CoursePlan一、《英语语言学》课程理念、定位与目标1、 坚持现代理念，坚持创新观念，树立精品意识，建设品牌课程，体现师范特点。2、 《英语语言学》是英语专业的核心课程，建设目标是省级精品课程。具体教学目标定位是提升学术水平，培养专业综合能力和素质。3、 《英语语言学》课程应体现创新精神、现代教育理念、成为具有一流教师队伍、优化的教学内容、先进的教学方法，现代的教学手段，科学的测试评价体系的示范性精品课程。二、《英语语言学》课程教学内容与方法改革与建设1、教学内容设计的原则：培养专业综合素质为主线，以提升学术水平为标志，理论与实践相结合，突出师范特色，注重素质和能力的同步提高。2、教学内容的特色：注重培养具有先进的教育理念，掌握系统的学科基本理论基本知识，高超的教学水平，现代化的教学手段，具有创新精神的合格教师。3、教学方法：改革教学方法的原则：调动学深的学习积极性，提高学生专业综合素质。以参与式、互动式、体验式教学模式为基本形式。建立多媒体、纸质等构成形式的立体教学载体。三、《英语语言学》课程基本建设1、 教材建设2、 评价体系建设3、 评教机制建设四、《英语语言学》课程建设阶段与预期成果第一阶段：论证设计1、 形成课程建设规划2、 制订课程教学大纲3、 设计教学第二阶段：组织实施1、 制作多媒体教学课件2、 建立课程试题库3、 课题研究的理论第三阶段完善总结课题总结、完善、交流。成果申报。《英语语言学》课程大纲SyllabusDesign课程名称：英语语言学/EnglishLinguisticsStudies学时：72学分：4开课年级：三年级课程类别：学科方向课适用专业：英语专业本科开课院系：外国语言文学系一、教学目的《英语语言学》是一门为英语专业高年级学生开设的专业课。旨在使学生了解人类语言研究的丰硕成果，提高其对语言的本质、功能的认识，并初步了解语言与人类之间的关系，培养学生的语言意识，发展理性思维。该课程要求学生掌握语言学学科的基本概念；了解语言与心理，社会，文化，文学等跨学科研究的关系及其发展现状和趋势。有助于拓宽学生的思路与视野，培养并激发其对语言研究的兴趣，为其在该领域的进一步学习及研究打好基础。二、教学方式课堂讲授与讨论结合。三、教学资源教材：胡壮麟，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社，2001年。主要参考书目1、 布龙菲尔德[美]，1985，语言论[M].北京:商务印书馆2、 费尔迪南·德·索绪尔[瑞士]，1985，普通语言学教程[M].商务印书馆3、 刘润清，1995，西方语言学流派[M].外语教学与研究出版社戴炜栋，1999，简明语言学教程[M].上海外语教育出版社15.Widdowson,H.G,2000.Linguistics[M].上海外语教育出版社16.Lyones,John,1981.LanguageandLinguistics:anIntroduction[M],CUP.17.Crystal,David,1986.WhatisLinguistics[M].London:EdwardArnoldLtd.四、评价方式：学期考试：70%；课程论文：15%;课堂表现：15%五、教学内容：第1学期教学内容课题名称内容摘要ChapterOne:LanguageandLinguisticsSection1LANGUAGELanguage;Designfeatures,Origin,FunctionsSection2LINGUISTICS(I)WhatisLinguistics?MainbranchesoflinguisticsSection3LINGUISTICS(I)Macrolinguistics;DistinctionsinlinguisticsChapterTwo:SpeechSoundsSection1PHONETICSSpeechproduction&phonetictranscriptionSection2PHONOLOGY(I)Phonologicalanalysis;phonemes&allophonesSection3PHONOLOGY(II)Distinctivefeatures;Syllables;StressChapterThree:LexiconSection1WORDWordsenses/identification/classificationSection2WORDFORMATIONTypesofmorphemes;Inflection&formationSection3LEXICALCHANGEPhonologicalchange;semanticchangeChapterFour:SyntaxSection1THESTRUCTURALAPPROACHThetraditional/structuralapproachSection2THEGENERATIVEAPPROACHDeep/surfacestructure;ThestandardtheorySection3THEFUNCTIONALAPPROACHFunctionalsentenceperspectiveChapterFive:MeaningSection1THEREFERENTIALTHEORYSenserelationsSection2COMPONETIALANALYSISSection3SENTENCEMEANINGAnintegratedtheory;logicalsemanticsChapterSix:LanguageprocessinginMindSection1LANGUAGECOMPREHENSIONWordrecognition;BasicprocessinreadingSection2DISCOURSEINTERPRETATIONSchemataandinferencedrawingSection3LAGUAGEPRODUCTIONSpeech/writtenproduction第2学期教学内容课题名称内容摘要ChapterSeven:Language,CultureandSocietySection1Languageandculture(I)Currentissues,Culture,InterculturecommunicationSection2Languageandculture(II)Sapir-Whorfhypotheses,cultureelementsinFLTSection3LanguageandSocietySociolinguistics,ImplicationsChapterEight:LanguageinUseSection1SpeechActTheoryPragmaticstheory,speechacttheorySection2TheoryofConversationalImplicatureCooperativeprinciple,violationofthemaximsSection3Post-GriceanDevelopmentRelevancetheory,theQ-andR-principleChapterNine:LanguageandLiteratureSection1FeaturesofLiteraryLanguageForegrounding,analysisofLiteral,figurativelanguageSection2ThelanguageinPoetrySoundpatterning,stress,conventionalformsofmetresound,Howtoanalysespoetry?Section3ThelanguageinFictionandDramaFictionalprose,speechandthoughtpresentation,Analyzingdramaticlanguage.ChapterTen:LinguisticsandForeignLanguageTeachingSection1LinguisticViewsinLanguageTraditionalgrammar,structuralistlinguistics,transformational-Generativelinguistics,functionallinguistics,thetheoryofcommunicativecompetenceSection2SyllabusDesignFactorsinsyllabusdesign,typesofsyllabusSection3LanguageLearningandErrorLearningInput/interlanguageandlanguagelearning,attitudestoerrors,non/contrastiveanalysisSection4Testing(I)Approachestotesting,TypesoftestSection5Testing(II)Testrequirements,testcontent/form,markingChapterElevenTheoriesandSchoolsofModernLinguisticsSection1ThePragueSchool/TheLondonSchoolFSP,Malinowski`stheory,Firth’stheoriesSection2AmericanStructuralismBoasandSapir,Bloomfield’stheory,Post-BloomfieldianlinguisticsSection3Transformational-GenerativeGrammarTheclassicalTheory,thestandardtheory,theExtendedStandardTheory,Latertheories,MainfeaturesofTGGrammar《英语语言学》教学模式TeachingModelThiscourseisatheory-basedcourseandthegoalofitistoberealizedbyteacher’sclasspresentationon-lineandstudents`groupdiscussionaswellastheassignmentsdesignedforeachunit.Activitiesbothinandoutsideclassroomwillbenefitlearnersalotintheirlearning.《英语语言学》课程要求CourseRequirementsEnglishLinguisticsisakindofdescriptivelinguistics.ItdealswithEnglish,forthepurposeofconstructingamodeltorepresentunconsciouslinguisticknowledgepossessedbyafluentspeaker.(CourseHours:72hs)Inordertolearnthiscoursewell,Thefollowingaresomerequirementsofandtipsforthosewhoacquirethecourse.Firstly,youneedtodopossibleamountofauthentictheoreticalreadings,andsecondly,youneedtokeepnecessarynotesinclass.《英语语言学》课程资源ReadingResources4、 布龙菲尔德[美]，1985，语言论[M].北京:商务印书馆5、 费尔迪南·德·索绪尔[瑞士]，1985，普通语言学教程[M].商务印书馆6、 刘润清，1995，西方语言学流派[M].外语教学与研究出版社7、 戴炜栋，1999，简明语言学教程[M].上海外语教育出版社8、 文秋芳，1998，英语语言学导论[M].南京:江苏教育出版社9、 胡壮麟，1996，系统功能语法概论[M].长沙：湖南教育出版社10、 秦秀白，1996，文体学概论[M].长沙：湖南教育出版社11、 桂诗春，1996，应用语言学[M].长沙：湖南教育出版社12、 祝畹馑，1996，社会语言学概论[M].长沙：湖南教育出版社10．黄国文，1996，语篇分析概要[M].长沙：湖南教育出版社11、何自然，1996，语用学概论[M].长沙：湖南教育出版社12、王初明，1996，应用心理语言学[M].长沙：湖南教育出版社13、王钢，1996，普通语言学基础[M].长沙：湖南教育出版社14、伍谦光，1996，语义学导论[M].长沙：湖南教育出版社15.Widdowson,H.G,2000.Linguistics[M].上海外语教育出版社16.Lyones,John,1981.LanguageandLinguistics:anIntroduction[M],CUP.17.Crystal,David,1986.WhatisLinguistics[M].London:EdwardArnoldLtd.《英语语言学》课程评价CourseEvaluationEvaluationoftheEnglishLinguisticStudiesconsistsofformativeassessmentandsummativeassessment.Formativeassessmentincludeslearners`self-assessment,peerassessment,andassessmentconductedbyteacheranddepartmentadministrators.Bykeepingarecordoflearnersinandoutsideofclassroomactivitiesandonlineselflearningdata,keepingfilesonlearnersstudyresults,conductinginterviewsandholdingmeetings,learnerslearningprocessisunderobservation,evaluationandsupervision,thuscontributingtotheenhancementoftheirlearningefficiency.Summativeassessmentreferstofinaltestsandthepapertheyareexpectedtofinishateachmidterm.Learnerswillhavetofinishtwonecessarycoursespapersbythemidandtheendofthefirstterm.Bythetimestudentswillhavefinishedthiscoursein2005,theywillhaveafinalexaminationtoevaluatehowmuchprogresshavebeenmadeduringthecourselearning.《英语语言学》进度安排TimeTable(2004-2005-I)Sept.9th,2004周次日期教学内容TeachingTopics教学模式备注1Aug.30th--Sept.5thChapterOne:LanguageandLinguisticsSection1LANGUAGELanguage;Designfeatures,Origin,FunctionsTeacherpresentationon-lineandclassdiscussioncourseware2Sept.6th--12thSection2LINGUISTICS(I)WhatisLinguistics?Mainbranchesoflinguistics3Sept.13th-19thSection3LINGUISTICS(I)Macrolinguistics;Distinctionsinlinguistics4Sept.20th--26thChapterTwo:SpeechSoundsSection1PHONETICSSpeechproduction&phonetictranscriptionTeacherpresentationon-lineandclassdiscussioncourseware5Sept.27th--Oct.3rdSection2PHONOLOGY(I)Phonologicalanalysis;phonemes&allophones6Oct.4th--10thSection3PHONOLOGY(II)Distinctivefeatures;Syllables;Stress7Oct.11th--17thChapterThree:LexiconSection1WORDWordsenses/identification/classificationTeacherpresentationon-lineandclassdiscussioncourseware8Oct.18th--24thSection2WORDFORMATIONTypesofmorphemes;Inflection&formation9Oct.25th--31stSection3LEXICALCHANGEPhonologicalchange;semanticchange10Nov.1st--7thChapterFour:SyntaxSection1THESTRUCTURALAPPROACHThetraditional/structuralapproachTeacherpresentationon-lineandclassdiscussioncourseware11Nov.8th--14thSection2THEGENERATIVEAPPROACHDeep/surfacestructure;Thestandardtheory12Nov.15th--21stSection3THEFUNCTIONALAPPROACHFunctionalsentenceperspective13Nov.22nd--28thChapterFive:MeaningSection1THEREFERENTIALTHEORYSenserelationsTeacherpresentationon-lineandclassdiscussioncourseware14Nov.29th--Dec.5thSection2COMPONETIALANALYSIS15Dec.6th--12thSection3SENTENCEMEANINGAnintegratedtheory;logicalsemantics16Dec.13th--19thChapterSix:languageprocessinginMindSection1LANGUAGECOMPREHENSIONWordrecognition;BasicprocessinreadingTeacherpresentationon-lineandclassdiscussioncourseware17Dec.20th--.26thSection2DISCOURSEINTERPRETATIONSchemataandinferencedrawing18Dec.27th--Jan.2ndSection3LAGUAGEPRODUCTIONSpeech/writtenproduction19Jan.3rd--.9th`05REVISIONANDEXAMInclassChapter1ClearingtheGroundInstructorDateDaySsNo.SsLevelClasslengthJianbinCuiAug.30--Sept.19thFriday98Advanced50minsObjectives(students)Bytheendofthechapter,learnerswillbebetterabletoknowwhatlanguageis,whatgenerallinguisticsis,andwhatEnglishLinguisticsisabout,howlanguageisrelevanttolinguistics.Whattherelationshipexistsbetweenlanguageandlinguistics.Focus:UnderstandingofEnglishLanguageandEnglishlinguistics.Aims:Iwillbeworkingonimprovingthelearnersunderstandlanguageandlinguistics.Aid:on-linecoursewareTopic:Chapterplan周次日期教学内容Teachingcontents教学模式1Aug.30th--Sept.5thChapterOne:LanguageandLinguisticsSection1LANGUAGELanguage;Designfeatures,Origin,FunctionsTeacherpresentationon-lineandclassdiscussion2Sept.6th--12thSection2LINGUISTICS(I)WhatisLinguistics?Mainbranchesoflinguistics3Sept.13th-19thSection3LINGUISTICS(II)Macrolinguistics;DistinctionsinlinguisticsSectionOneLanguageOutlineofProcedures:1. 5mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Classbrainstormstheconceptoflanguageandlinguisticsbythefollowingquestions.Q1.Whatislanguage?Q2.Whatislinguistics?Q3.WhatisEnglishlinguistics?Q4.Whatisgenerallinguistics?2.27mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Teacherpresentsonline.GenerallinguisticsEnglishlinguisticsLanguageDesignfeaturesoflanguageOriginoflanguageFunctionsofLanguage3.10mins.Studentsingroups.Aim:Discussthedesignfeaturesoflanguage.4. 6mins.PlenarySummary5. 2mins.Homework:Definethefollowingterms.designfeatures,function,emic,duality,arbitrariness,synchronic,metalanguage,performanceWhyStudyLanguage?Languageissuchanintegralpartofourlifeandhumanitythattoomuchaboutithasbeentakenforgranted.Forsomepeople,languagemaynotevenbeaworthysubjectforacademicstudy.Theytakeitasatoolforaccesstosomeotherfieldsratherthanstudyitasasubjectinandofitself.However,ifyoupauseandthinkofthefollowingmythsaboutlanguage,itisindeednecessarytoreconsiderhowmuchwereallyunderstandthenatureoflanguageanditsroleinourlife.Andyoumaybesurprisedtorealizethatsomeofourmostdamagingracial,ethnic,andsocioeconomicprejudicesarebasedonourlinguisticignoranceandwrongideasaboutlanguage.Myth1.Languageisameansofcommunication.Myth2.Languagehasaform-meaningcorrespondence.Myth3.Thefunctionoflanguageistoexchangeinformation.Myth4.EnglishismoredifficulttolearnthanChinese.Myth5.BlackEnglishisnotstandardandshouldbereformed.Thelistofmythsmaygoonandbytheendofthiscourseifyoulookbackonthem,wehopeyoumayfindthesewidelyestablishedviewsnotsotruthfulafterall.ThefollowingaresomefundamentalviewsaboutLANGUAGE,whichyoumayinstinctivelyagreewithouthavingthoughtaboutthereasons,oryoumaynotagreeatthemoment.Followthiscourseandyouwillfindtheyarediscussedinmoredetailintheensuingchapters.1．Childrenlearntheirnativelanguageswiftly,efficientlyandwithoutinstruction.2．Languageoperatesbyrules.3Alllanguageshavethreemajorcomponents;asoundsystem,asystemoflexicogrammarandasystemofsemantics.4．Everyonespeaksadialect.5．Languageslowlychanges.6．Speakersofalllanguagesemployarangeofstylesandasetofjargons.7．Languagesareintimatelyrelatedtothesocietiesandindividualsthatusethem.8．Writingisderivativeofspeech.Somepeoplefindthesubjectoflanguageintriguingandusefulformanydifferentreasons.Languagecanbeusedasawayoffindingoutmoreabouthowthebrainworks,orhowdamagetothebrainresultsincertainkindoflanguagedisorders,howchildrenlearnlanguage,howpeoplelearnandteachdifferentlanguages,whattherelationshipbetweenmeaningandperceptionis,whattheroleoflanguageisdifferentcultures,whypeopleusedifferentvarietiesoflanguage,whytherearelinguisticdifferencesbetweendifferentgroups,andhowscientistsmakethecomputerworkinamorehuman-likemanner.Thiscoursebookwillserveasastartingpointfromwhichyoumaygoonresearchinginoneoftheaboveandotherlanguage-relatedfields.Letusmentionherethemoregeneralandmorebroadlyeducationalconcerns.Wecanallnotethatlanguageplayscentralroleinourlivesasindividualsandsocialbeings.Ifwearenotfullyawareofthenatureandmechanismofourlanguage,wewillbeignorantofwhatconstitutesouressentialhumanity.Theunderstandingoflanguageshouldnotbeconfinedtolinguists,asitisavitalhumanresourcethatallofusshare.Whatislanguage?Webster’sNewWorldDictionaryoffersseveralmostfrequentlyusedsensesoftheword“language”,namely,[1] (a)Humanspeech;(b)Theabilitytocommunicatebythismeans;(c)asystemofvocalsoundsandcombinationsofsuchsoundstowhichmeaningisattributed,usedfortheexpressionorcommunicationofthoughtsandfeelings;(d)Thewrittenrepresentationofsuchasystem;[2] (a)Anymeansofexpressingorcommunicating,asgestures,signs,oranimalsounds;(b)aspecialsetofsymbols,letters,numerals,rulesetc.usedforthetransmissionofinformation,asinacomputer;…(p.759)Sufficeittosayherethatthoughweusethewordinitsvarioussenses,wefocushereonitsprimarysense:namely,[1](a)(b)(c)(d).Togivethebarestofdefinition,languageisameansofverbalcommunication.Itisinstrumentalinthatcommunicatingbyspeakingorwritingisapurposefulact.Itissocialandconventionalinthatlanguageisasocialsemioticandcommunicationcanonlytakeplaceeffectivelyifalltheusersshareabroadunderstandingofhumaninteractionincludingsuchassociatedfactorsasnonverbalcues,motivation,andsocio-culturalroles.Languagelearningandusearedeterminedbytheinterventionofbiological,cognitive,psychosocial,andenvironmentalfactors.Inshort,languagedistinguishesusfromanimalsbecauseitisfarmoresophisticatedthatanyanimalcommunicationsystem.DesignfeaturesoflanguageWewouldallagreethatlanguageisessentialtohumanbeingsbutwemayfindithardtospecifywhatmakesourlanguageadvantageousoveranimal“languages”.Inordertomate,propagateandcooperateintheircolonies,specieslikebirdsandbeesalsocommunicatebysingingordancing,followingaveryelaborateroutinetoo.Aretheyusinglanguagetoo?Notreally.AsBertrandRussellonceobserved:“Nomatterhoweloquentlyadogmaybark,hecannottellyouthathisparentswerepoorbuthonest.”Sowhatmakeshumanlanguagesocomplicatedandflexible,sounrestrainedbytheimmediatecontextandsocapableofcreatingnewmeanings,inaword,sodistinctivefromlanguagesusedbyotherspecies?ThefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbycalledDFESIGNFEATURES.Thefollowingarethefrequentlydiscussedones.3.1ArbitrarinessThewidelyacceptedmeaningofthisfeature,whichwasdiscussedbySaussure,firstreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.Forinstance,wecannotexplainwhyabookiscalleda/buk/andapena/pen/.HoweverthereseemstobedifferentlevelsofARBITRARINESS.ArbitraryrelationshipbetweenthesoundofamorphemeanditsmeaningYoumayobjecttothiswhenyouthinkofwordswithdifferentdegreesofonomatopoeia,namely,wordsthatsoundlikethesoundstheydescribe.e.g.InChinese,.Theselinguisticformsseemtohaveanaturalbasis.ButinEnglish,totallydifferentwordsareusedtodescribethesound.Forexample,thedogbarkswowwowinEnglishbutwangwangwanginChinese.Buttherearesomemisunderstandingsabouttheonomatopoeiceffect.Asamatteroffact,arbitraryandonomatopoeiceffectmayworkatthesametime.Forexample,WiddowsoncitesalinefromKeats’OdetoaNightingaletoillustrate:Ex.1-1Themurmurushauntoffliesonsummereves.Ifyoureaditaloud,youmayfeeltheconnectionbetweenthesoundsandthemeaning.Buttheeffectdoesnotreallyresultfromthewhisperingsoundsthemselves,foryouwillhavetoknowthemeaningsofthewordsmurmurus,summer,evesbeforesettingupsuchaconnection.Totestthis,justthinkofusingthesimilarsoundingwordmurderoustosubstitutemurmurs,andnoconn