传感器英文文献翻译-光电传感器

传感器英文文献翻译-光电传感器 ———光电传感器 报告人: 学 号: 专 业: 老 师: 2011年 6月 2日 Photoelectric sensor Key word: photoelectric effect photoelectric element photoelectric sensor classification sensor application characteristics . Abstract: in the rapid development of science and technology in the modern society, mankind has into the rapidly changing information era, people in daily life, the production process, rely mainly on the detection of information technology by acquiring, screening and transmission, to achieve the brake control, automatic adjustment, at present our country has put detection techniques listed in one of the priority to the development of science and technology. Because of microelectronics technology, photoelectric semiconductor technology, optical fiber technology and grating technical development makes the application of the photoelectric sensor is growing. The sensor has simple structure, non-contact, high reliability, high precision, measurable parameters and quick response and more simple structure, form etc, and flexible in automatic detection technology, it has been widely applied in photoelectric effect as the theoretical basis, the device by photoelectric material composition. Text: First, theoretical foundation - photoelectric effect Photoelectric effect generally have the photoelectric effect, optical effect, light born volts effect. The light shines in photoelectric material, according to the electronic absorption material surface energy, if absorbed energy large enough electronic electronic will overcome bound from material surface and enter the outside space, which changes photoelectron materials, this kind of phenomenon become the conductivity of the photoelectric effect According to Einstein's photoelectron effect, photon is moving particles, each photon energy for hv (v for light frequency, h for Planck's constant, h = 6.63 * 10-34 J/HZ), thus different frequency of photons have different energy, light, the higher the frequency, the photon energy is bigger. Assuming all the energy photons to photons, electronic energy will increase, increased energy part of the fetter, positive ions used to overcome another part of converted into electronic energy. According to the law of conservation of energy: 12 m,,h,-A 2 Type, m for electronic quality, v for electronic escaping the velocity, A microelectronics the work done. From the type that will make the optoelectronic cathode surface escape the necessary conditions are h > A. Due to the different materials have different escaping, so reactive to each kind of cathode materials, incident light has a certain frequency is restricted, when the frequency of incident light under this frequency limit, no matter how the light intensity, won't produce photoelectron launch, this frequency limit called "red limit". The corresponding wavelength for type, c for the speed of light, A reactive for escaping. When is the sun, its electronic energy, absorb the resistivity reduce conductive phenomenon called optical effects. It belongs to the photoelectric effect within. When light is, if in semiconductor electronic energy big with semiconductor of forbidden band width, the electronic energy from the valence band jump into the conduction band, form, and at the same time, the valence band electronic left the corresponding cavities. Electronics, cavitation remained in semiconductor, and participate in electric conductive outside formed under the current role. In addition to metal outer, most insulators and semiconductor have photoelectric effect, particularly remarkable, semiconductor optical effect according to the optoelectronics manufacturing incident light inherent frequency, when light resistance in light, its conductivity increases, resistance drops. The light intensity is strong, its value, if the smaller, its resistance to stop light back to the original value. Semiconductor produced by light illuminate the phenomenon is called light emf, born volts effect on the effect of photoelectric devices have made si-based ones, photoelectric diode, control thyristor and optical couplers, etc. Second, optoelectronic components and characteristics According to the outside optoelectronics manufacturing optoelectronic devices have photoelectron, inflatable phototubes and photoelectric times once tube. 1. Phototubes phototubes are various and typical products are vacuum phototubes and inflatable phototubes, light its appearance and structure as shown in figure 1 shows, made of cylindrical metal half cathodic K and is located in the wires cathodic axis of anode in A package of smoke into the vacuum, when incident light within glass shell in the cathode, illuminate A single photon took all of its energy transfer to the cathode materials A free electrons, so as to make the freedom electronic energy increase h. When electrons gain energy more than escape of cathode materials, it reactive A metal surface constraints can overcome escape, form electron emission. This kind of electronic called optoelectronics, optoelectronic escaping the metal surface for after initial kinetic energy Phototubes normal work, anode potential than the cathode, shown in figure 2. In one shot more than "red light frequency is premise, escape from the optoelectronic cathode surface by positive potential attracted the anode in photoelectric tube forming space, called the current stream. Then if light intensity increases, the number of photons bombarded the cathode multiplied, unit of time to launch photoelectron number are also increasing, photo-current greatens. In figure 2 shows circuit, current and resistance is the voltage drop across the only a function of light intensity relations, so as to achieve a photoelectric conversion. When the LTT optoelectronic cathode K, electronic escape from the cathode surface, and was the photoelectric anode is an electric current, power plants absorb deoxidization device in the load resistance - I, the voltage Phototubes photoelectric characteristics fig.03 shows, from the graph in flux knowable, not too big, photoelectric basic characteristics is a straight line. 2. Photoelectric times had the sensitivity of vacuum tube due to low, so with people developed has magnified the photomultiplier tubes photo-current ability. Figure 4 is photomultiplier tube structure schematic drawing. 图4光电倍增结构示意图 From the graph can see photomultiplier tubes also have A cathode K and an anode A, and phototubes different is in its between anode and cathode set up several secondary emission electrodes, D1, D2 and D3... They called the first multiply electrode, the second multiply electrode,... Usually, double electrode for 10 ~ 15 levels. Photomultiplier tubes work between adjacent electrode, keeping a certain minimum, including the cathode potential potentials, each multiply electrode potential filtering increases, the anode potential supreme. When the incident light irradiation, cathodic K escape from the optoelectronic cathode multiplied by first accelerated, by high speed electrode D1 bombarded caused secondary electron emission, D1, an incident can generate multiple secondary electron photonics, D1 emit of secondary electron was D1, D2 asked electric field acceleration, converged on D2 and again produce secondary electron emission... So gradually produce secondary electron emission, make electronic increased rapidly, these electronic finally arrived at the anode, form a larger anode current. If a n level, multiply electrodes at all levels for sigma, the multiplication of rate is the multiplication of photomultiplier tubes can be considered sigma n rate, therefore, photomultiplier tube has high sensitivity. In the output current is less than 1mA circumstances, it in a very wide photoelectric properties within the scope of the linear relationship with good. Photomultiplier tubes this characteristic, make it more for light measurement. 3 and photoconductive resistance photoconductive resistance within the working principle is based on the photoelectric effect. In semiconductor photosensitive material ends of mount electrode lead, it contains transparent window sealed in the tube and shell element photoconductive resistance. Photoconductive resistance properties and parameters are: 1) dark resistance photoconductive resistance at room temperature, total dark conditions stable resistance called dark resistance, at the current flow resistance is called dark current. 2) light resistance photoconductive resistance at room temperature and certain lighting conditions stable resistance measured, right now is called light resistance of current flow resistance is called light current. 4, volt-ampere characteristics of both ends photoconductive resistance added voltage and current flows through photoconductive resistance of the relationship between called volt-ampere characteristics shown, as shown in figure 5. From the graph, the approximate linear volt-ampere characteristics that use should be limited, but when the voltage ends photoconductive resistance, lest than shown dotted lines of power consumption area 5, photoelectric characteristics photoconductive resistance between the poles, light when voltage fixed the relationship between with bright current photoelectric characteristics. Called Photoconductive resistance photoelectric characteristics is nonlinear, this is one of the major drawback of photoconductive resistance. 6, spectral characteristics is not the same incident wavelength, the sensitivity of photoconductive resistance is different also. Incidence wavelength and photodetector the relationship between relative sensitivity called spectral characteristics. When used according to the wavelength range by metering, choose different material photoconductive resistance. 7, response time by photoconductive resistance after photo-current need light, over a period of time (time) rise to reach its steady value. Similarly, in stop light photo-current also need, over a period of time (down time) to restore the its dark current, this is photoconductive resistance delay characteristics. Photoconductive resistance rise response time and falling response time about 10-1 ~ 10-3s, namely the frequency response is 10Hz ~ 1000Hz, visible photoconductive resistance cannot be used in demand quick response occasion, this is one of the main photoconductive resistance shortcomings. 8 and temperature characteristic photoconductive resistance by temperature affects greatly, temperature rise, dark current increase, reduced sensitivity, which is another photoconductive resistance shortcomings. 9, frequency characteristic frequency characteristics refers to an external voltage and incident light, strong must be photo-current I and incident light modulation frequency, the relationship between the f, photoelectric diode is the frequency characteristic of the photoelectric triode frequency characteristics, this is because of the photoelectric triode shot "yankees there capacitance and carrier base-combed need time's sake. By using the principle of the photoelectric efficiency of optoelectronics manufacturing frequency characteristics of the worst, this is due to capture charge carriers and release charge need a certain time's sake. Three, photoelectric sensors Photoelectric sensor is through the light intensity changes into electrical signal changes to achieve control, its basic structure, it first figure 6 by measuring the change of change of converting the light signal, and then using photoelectric element further will light signals into electrical signal by photoelectric sensor general. Illuminant, optical path and optoelectronics. Three components of photoelectric detection method has high precision, fast response, non-contact wait for an advantage, but measurable parameters of simple structure, sensors, form flexible, therefore, photoelectric sensor in the test and control is widely used. By photoelectric sensor generally is composed of three parts, they are divided into: transmitter and receiver and detection circuit shown, as shown in figure 7, transmitter aimed at the target launch beam, the launch of the beam from semiconductor illuminant, general light emitting diode (LED), laser diode and infrared emission diode. Beam uninterrupted launch, or change the pulse width. Receivers have photoelectric diode, photoelectric triode, composed si-based ones. In front of the receiver, equipped with optical components such as lens and aperture, etc. In its back is detection circuit, it can filter out effective signal and the application of the signal. In addition, the structural components in photoelectric switch and launch plate and optical fiber, triangle reflex plate is solid structure launch device. It consists of small triangle cone of reflective materials, can make a beam accurately reflected back from plate, with practical significance. It can be in with the scope of optical axis 0 to 25, make beams change launch Angle from a root almost after launch line, passes reflection or from the rotating polygon.some basic returns. 图7 Photoelectric sensor is a kind of depend on is analyte and optoelectronics and light source, to achieve the relationship between the measured purpose, so the light source photoelectric sensor plays a very important role, photoelectric sensor power if a constant source, power is very important for design, the stability of the stability of power directly affect the accuracy of measurement, commonly used illuminant have the following kinds: 1, leds is a change electric energy into light energy semiconductor devices. It has small volume, low power consumption, long life, fast response, the advantages of high mechanical strength, and can match and integrated circuits. Therefore, widely used in computer, instruments and automatic control equipment. 2, silk light bulb that is one of the most commonly used illuminant, it has rich infrared light. If chosen optoelectronics, constitutes of infrared sensor sensitive colour filter can be added to the visible tungsten lamps, but only filter with its infrared does illuminant, such, which can effectively prevent other light interference. 3, compared with ordinary light laser laser with energy concentration, directional good, frequency pure, coherence as well as good, is very ideal light sources. The light source, optical path and photoelectric device composition photoelectric sensor used in photoelectric detection, still must be equipped with appropriate measurement circuit. The photoelectric effect to the measurement circuit of photoelectric element of widerange caused changes needed to convert the voltage or current. Different photoelectric element, the measurement circuit required is not identical also. Several semiconductor introduces below optoelectronic devices commonly used measurement circuit. Semiconductor photoconductive resistance can through large current, be in so usually, need not equipped with amplifier. In the output power of demand is bigger, can use figure 8 shows circuit. Figure 9 (a) with temperature compensation given the photosensitive diode bridge type measuring circuit. When the incident light intensity slow change, the reverse resistance photosensitive diode is the slow change, the change of the temperature will cause the bridge output voltage, must compensate. Drift Picture a photosensitive diode as the test components, another into Windows, in neighboring bridge, the change of the temperature in the arms of the influence of two photosensitive diode, therefore, can eliminate the same output with temperature bridge road drift. Light activated triode incident light in work under low illumination, or hope to get bigger output power, also can match with amplifying circuit, as shown in figure 9 shows. Because even in the glare photosensitive batteries, maximum output voltage also only 0.6 V, still cannot make the next level 1 transistor have larger current output, so must add positive bias, as shown in figure 9 (a) below. In order to reduce the transistor circuit impedance variations, base si-based ones to reduce as much as possible without light, when the reverse bias inherit in parallel a resistor si-based ones at both ends. Or like figure 9 (b) as shown by the positive ge diode produces pressure drop and test the voltage produced when exposed to light, make silicon tube e stack, b the voltage between actuators than 0.7 V, and conduction work. This kind of circumstance also can use silicon light batteries, as shown in figure 10 (c) below. Semiconductor photoelectric element of photoelectric circuit can also use integrated operational amplifier. Silicon photosensitive diode can be obtained by integrating op-amp larger output amplitude, as shown in figure 11 (a) below. When light is produced, the optical output voltage in order to guarantee photosensitive diode is reverse biased, in its positive to add a load voltage. Figure 11. (b) give the photocell transform circuit, because the photoelectric si-based ones short-circuit current and illumination of a linear relationship between, so will it up in the op-amp is, inverse-phase input, using these two potential difference between the characteristics of close to zero, can get better effect. In the picture shows conditions, the output voltage The photoelectric element by flux the role of different made from the principle of optical measurement and control system is varied, press the photoelectric element (optical measurement and control system) output nature, namely, can be divided into second analog photoelectric sensor and pulse (switch) photoelectric sensor. Analog photoelectric sensors will be converted into continuous variation of the measure, it is measured optical with a single value relations between analog photoelectric sensor. According to be measured (objects) method detection of target can be divided into transmission (absorption) type, diffuse type, shading type (beam resistance gears) three categories. So-called transmission style means the object to be tested in optical path in constant light source, the light energy through things, part of being measured by absorption, transmitted light onto photoelectric element, such as measured liquid, gas transparency and photoelectric BiSeJi etc; speed.gratifying The so-called diffuse style means the constant light by the light onto the analyte from the object to be tested, and projected onto surfaces reflect on after optoelectronic devices, such as photoelectric colorimetric thermometer and light gauge etc; The so-called shading style means the when illuminant issued by the flux of light analyte covered by a part Jing optoelectronics, make projection on the flux change, change the object to be tested and extent of the position with the light path, such as vibration measurement, the size measurement; And in pulse photoelectric sensor in the sensors, photoelectric element acceptable optical signal is intermittent change, therefore photoelectric element in switch work of the state, the current output it is usually only two steady state of the signal, the pulse form used for photoelectric counting and photoelectric speed measurement and so on. And infrared photoelectric sensor classification and working way generally have the following kinds: 1, groove photoelectric sensor put a light emitter and a receiver in a slot face-to-face outfit are on opposite sides of the photoelectric groove. Lighter emits infrared light or visible light, and in unimpeded cases light receptors can receive light. But when tested objects from slot zhongtong obsolete, light occluded, photoelectric switches and action. Output a switch control signal, cut off or connect load current, thus completing a control movement. Groove switch is the overall of detection distance because general structure limits only a few centimeters. 2, DuiShe type optoelectronic sensor if you put lighter and receive light is separated, can make the detection distance increase. By a lighter and an inbox light sensor into a photoelectric switch is called DuiShe separate photoelectric switches, referred to DuiShe photoelectric switch. Its detection distance can reach a few meters and even a dozen meters. When using light-emitting device and receive light device are installed in test object through the path of the sides, test object by blocking light path, accept light implement action output a switch control signals. 3, reflex plate.it photoelectric switch light-emitting device type and receive light device into the same device inside, in its front pack a reflex plate.the using the reflection principle of complete photoelectric control function is called reflex plate.it reflex (or reflector reflex) photoelectric switch. Under normal circumstances, lighter the light reflected by reflex plate.it is received by accept light; Once the light path be test object to block, accept light, the light is not receive photoelectric switch is action, output a switch control signals. 4, diffusion reflective photoelectric switches its detection head with a lighter and also an inbox light ware, but no reflex plate.it ahead. Normally lighter for the light collect light is not found. When test object by blocking the light, and the light reflected light, receive part implement received light signals, output a switch signals. Four, I'm the idea of photoelectric sensor With the development of science and technology people on measuring accuracy had the higher request, this has prompted the pace with The Times photoelectric sensor have updated, improve the main means photoelectric sensor performance is the application of new materials, new technology manufacturing performance is more superior photoelectric element. For example, today the prototype of the photoelectric sensor is a small metal cylindrical equipment, with a calibration lens, transmitter into receiver focused light, the receiver out of cable to the device got a vacuum tube amplifiers in metal cylinder on the incandescent light bulb inside a small as the light source a strong incandescent lamp sensor. Due to the sensor various defects existing in the fields, gradually faded. To appear, because of it of fiber of excellent performance, then appeared with sensors supporting the use of optical passive components, another fiber without any interference of electromagnetic signal, and can make the sensor of the electronic components and other electrical disturbance in isolation. Have a piece of plastic optical fiber core or glass light core, light outside a metallic core skins and bread this layer metal cortical density lower than light core, so low, the beam refraction in the two materials according to the border (incident Angle within a certain range, reflected), is all. Based on optical principle, all beams can be made by optical fiber to transmission. Two incident beam Angle in an Angle (along the fiber length direction within) by multiple reflections from the other end after injection, another incident angles than accept the incident light in metal skin, loss. This accept Angle within the biggest incident Angle than two times, this is because fiber slightly larger from air into density larger fiber materials hitting may have a slight refraction. In light of the optical fiber transmission from inside the influence of fiber bending (whether more than bending radius minimal bending radius). Most optical fiber is flexible, easy to install in the narrow space. Photoelectric sensor is a kind of non-contact measurement small electronic measurement equipment, rely on detect its receives the light intensity change, to achieve measurement purposes, and it's also a vulnerable to external disturbance and lose the measurement accuracy of the device. When be being designed so besides the choice optoelectronic components, still must set GSCC signal and temperature compensating measures used to weaken or eliminate the impact of these factors. Photoelectric sensor must pass a light modulation, like radio waves of light modulation of sends and receives, the radio to a station, can ignore other radio signal sensors without modulation long-focal-length only through the use of mechanical shielded, scenes that receiver transmitter only can receive the emission of light, can make its energy becomes very high. In contrast, through modulation transceivers can ignore ambient light, only to own light or with the same modulation frequencies of light without modulation response. The sensor used to test the infrared rays or around the radiation, if just baked red bottle, in this application situation if use other sensor, may be incorrect actions. Photoelectric sensor due to non-contact, high reliability, etc, and to change in measurement, damage the object to be tested So since its invention in fields since play a significant role, at present it has been widely used in measuring mechanical quantity, thermal quantity, weight, intelligent vehicle system into etc. Now it in power system automatically grid device plays a very important role, because generator input power grid operation often USES accurate with law, must meet: three-phase line sequence is consistent, frequency, phase agree unanimously, voltage amplitude equal, one of the conditions in system design has been satisfied, after three conditions must also meet to grid, of course, artificially grid is more difficult, photoelectric grid is easier. The development of times, science and technology in the update, photoelectric sensor types are increasing and application domain more and more widely, such as a recent kind of infrared already in intelligent vehicle electrical sensors in to the application, one of which had based on infrared sensor is the core of intelligent vehicle, reflective type infrared sensor using reflex infrared sensor design path detection module and speed monitoring module; Another method based on infrared sensor using the car tracing is to collect infrared sensor data. Photoelectric sensor has cannot be replaced by other sensors superiority, so it development foreground is very good, the application will also become more widespread. 光电传感器 关键字:光电效应 光电元件 光电特性 传感器分类 传感器应用 摘要:在科学技术高速发展的现代社会中，人类已经入瞬息万变的信息时代，人们在日常生活，生产过程中，主要依靠检测技术对信息经获取、筛选和传输，来实现制动控制，自动调节，目前我国已将检测技术列入优先发展的科学技术之一。 由于微电子技术，光电半导体技术，光导纤维技术以及光栅技术的发展，使得光电传感器的应用与日俱增。这种传感器具有结构简单、非接触、高可靠性、高精度、可测参数多、反应快以及结构简单,形式灵活多样等优点，在自动检测技术中得到了广泛应用，它一种是以光电效应为理论基础，由光电材料构成的器件。 正文: 一、理论基础——光电效应 光电效应一般有外光电效应、光导效应、光生伏特效应。 光照在照在光电材料上，材料面的电子吸收的能量，若电子吸收的能量足够大是，电子会克服束缚脱离材料表面而进入外界空间，从而改变光电子材料的导电性，这种现象成为外光电效应 根据爱因斯坦的光电子效应，光子是运动着的粒子流，每种光子的能量为hv(v为光波频率，h为普朗克常数，h,6.63*10-34 J/HZ)，由此可见不同频率的光子具有不同的能量，光波频率越高，光子能量越大。假设光子的全部能量交给光子，电子能量将会增加，增加的能量一部分用于克服正离子的束缚，另一部分转换成电子能量。根据能量守恒定律: 1 2m,,h,-A 2 式中，m为电子质量,v为电子逸出的初速度,A微电子所做的功。 由上式可知，要使光电子逸出阴极表面的必要条件是h>A。由于不同材料具有不同的逸出功，因此对每一种阴极材料，入射光都有一个确定的频率限，当入 hc射光的频率低于此频率限时，不论光强多大，都不会产生光电子发射，此频率限 ,,K称为“红限”。相应的波长为 式中，c为光速，A为逸出功。 A 当受到光照射时，吸收电子能量，其电阻率降低的导电现象称为光导效应。它属于内光电效应。当光照在半导体上是，若电子的能量大与半导体禁带的能级宽度，则电子从价带跃迁到导带，形成电子，同时，价带留下相应的空穴。电子、空穴仍留在半导体内，并参与导电在外电场作用下形成的电流。 除金属外，多数绝缘体和半导体都有光电效应，半导体尤为显著，根据光导效应制造的光电元件有固有入射光频率，当光照在光电阻上，其导电性增强，电阻值下降。光强度愈强，其阻值愈小，若停止光照，其阻值恢复到原阻值。 半导体受光照射产生电动势的现象称为光生伏特效应，据此效应制造的光电器件有光电池，光电二极管，管控晶闸管和光耦合器等。 二、光电元件及特性 根据外光电元件制造的光电元件有光电子，充气光电管和光电倍曾管。 1.光电管 光电管的种类繁多，典型的产品有真空光电管和充气光电管，光它的外形和结构如图1所示，半圆筒形金属片制成的阴极K和位于阴极轴心的金属丝制成的阳极A封装在抽成真空的玻壳内，当入射光照射在阴极上时，单个光子就把它的全部能量传递给阴极材料中的一个自由电子，从而使自由电子的能量增加h。当电子获得的能量大于阴极材料的逸出功A时，它就可以克服金属表面束缚而逸出，形成电子发射。这种电子称为光电子，光电子逸出金属表面后的初 2(12)mv始动能为 光电管正常工作时，阳极电位高于阴极，如图2所示。在人射光频率大于“红限”的前提下，从阴极表面逸出的光电子被具有正电位的阳极所吸引，在光电管内形成空间电子流，称为光电流。此时若光强增大，轰击阴极的光子数增多，单位时间内发射的光电子数也就增多，光电流变大。在图2所示的电路中，电流和电阻只上的电压降就和光强成函数关系，从而实现光电转换。当光线照射到光电阴极K上时，电子从阴极表面逸出，并被光电阳极的正电厂吸收，外电路产生电 UR0L流I，在负载电阻 上的电压 光电管的光电特性如图3 所示，从图中可知，在光通量不太大时，光电特性基本是一条直线。 图3光电管的光电特性 图1光电光结构示意图 图2光电管测量电路 2.光电倍曾管 由于真空光电管的灵敏度低，因此人们研制了具有放大光电流能力的光电倍增管。图4是光电倍增管结构示意图。 图结4构示光意电图 倍增 从图中可以看到光电倍增管也有一个阴极K和一个阳极A，与光电管不同的是在它的阴极和阳极间设置了若干个二次发射电极，D1、D2、D3„它们称为第一倍增电极、第二倍增电极、„，倍增电极通常为10,15级。光电倍增管工作时，相邻电极之间保持一定电位差，其中阴极电位最低，各倍增电极电位逐级升高，阳极电位最高。当入射光照射阴极K时，从阴极逸出的光电子被第一倍增电极D1加速，以高速轰击D1 ，引起二次电子发射，一个入射的光电子可以产生多个 二次电子， D1发射出的二次电子又被D1、D2问的电场加速，射向D2并再次产生二次电子发射„„，这样逐级产生的二次电子发射，使电子数量迅速增加，这些电子最后到达阳极，形成较大的阳极电流。若倍增电极有n级，各级的倍增率为σ ，则光电倍增管的倍增率可以认为是σN ，因此，光电倍增管有极高的灵敏度。在输出电流小于1mA的情况下，它的光电特性在很宽的范围内具有良好的线性关系。光电倍增管的这个特点，使它多用于微光测量。 3、光敏电阻 光敏电阻的工作原理是基于内光电效应。在半导体光敏材料的两端装上电极引线，将其封在带有透明窗的管壳里就构成了光敏电阻。光敏电阻的特性和参数如下: 1)暗电阻 光敏电阻置于室温、全暗条件下的稳定电阻值称为暗电阻，此时 流过电阻的电流称为暗电流。 2)亮电阻 光敏电阻置于室温和一定光照条件下测得稳定电阻值称为亮电阻，此时流过电阻的电流称为亮电流。 4、伏安特性 光敏电阻两端所加的电压和流过光敏电阻的电流间的关系称为伏安特性，如图5所示。从图中可知，伏安特性近似直线，但使用时应限制光敏电阻两端的电压，以免超过虚线所示的功耗区。 图5光敏电阻的伏安特性 5、光电特性 光敏电阻两极间电压固定不变时，光照度与亮电流间的关系称为光电特性。光敏电阻的光电特性呈非线性，这是光敏电阻的主要缺点之一。 6、光谱特性 入射光波长不同时，光敏电阻的灵敏度也不同。入射光波长与光敏器件相对灵敏度间的关系称为光谱特性。使用时可根据被测光的波长范围，选择不同材料的光敏电阻。 7、响应时间 光敏电阻受光照后，光电流需要经过一段时间(上升时间)才能达到其稳定值。同样，在停止光照后，光电流也需要经过一段时间(下降时间)才能恢复到其暗电流值，这就是光敏电阻的时延特性。光敏电阻上升响应时间和-1-3下降响应时间约为10,10s，即频率响应为10Hz,1000Hz，可见光敏电阻不能用在要求快速响应的场合，这是光敏电阻的一个主要缺点。 8、温度特性 光敏电阻受温度影响甚大，温度上升，暗电流增大，灵敏度下降，这也是光敏电阻的另一缺点。 9、频率特性 频率特性是指外加电压和入射光强一定是，光电流I与入射光 I,,(f)的调制频率f之间的关系，，光电二极管的频率特性较光电三极管的频率特性好，这是由于光电三极管的基射结存在电容和载流子基区需要时间的缘 故。利用内光电效率原理制造的光电元件的频率特性最差，这是由于俘获载流子和释放电荷都需要一定时间的缘故。 三、光电传感器 光电传感器是通过把光强度的变化转换成电信号的变化来实现控制的，它的基本结构如图6，它首先把被测量的变化转换成光信号的变化,然后借助光电元件进一步将光信号转换成电信号.光电传感器一般由光源,光学通路和光电元件三部分组成.光电检测方法具有精度高,反应快,非接触等优点,而且可测参数多,传感器的结构简单,形式灵活多样,因此,光电式传感器在检测和控制中应用非常广泛. 光电传感器一般由三部分构成，它们分为:发送器、接收器和检测电路，如图7所示，发送器对准目标发射光束，发射的光束一般来源于半导体光源，发光二极管(LED)、激光二极管及红外发射二极管。光束不间断地发射，或者改变脉冲宽度。接收器有光电二极管、光电三极管、光电池组成。在接收器的前面，装有光学元件如透镜和光圈等。在其后面是检测电路，它能滤出有效信号和应用该信号。此外，光电开关的结构元件中还有发射板和光导纤维，三角反射板是结构牢固的发射装置。它由很小的三角锥体反射材料组成，能够使光束准确地从反射板中返回，具有实用意义。它可以在与光轴0到25的范围改变发射角，使光束几乎是从一根发射线，经过反射后，还是从这根反射线返回。 图7 光电传感器是一种依靠被测物与光电元件和光源之间的关系，来达到测量目的的，因此光电传感器的光源扮演着很重要的角色，光电传感器的电源要是一个恒光源，电源稳定性的设计至关重要，电源的稳定性直接影响到测量的准确性，常用光源有以下几种: 1、发光二极管 是一种把电能转变成光能的半导体器件。它具有体积小、功耗低、寿命长、响应快、机械强度高等优点，并能和集成电路相匹配。因此，广泛地用于计算机、仪器仪表和自动控制设备中。 2、丝灯泡 这是一种最常用的光源，它具有丰富的红外线。如果选用的光电元件对红外光敏感，构成传感器时可加滤色片将钨丝灯泡的可见光滤除，而仅用它的红外线做光源，这样，可有效防止其他光线的干扰。 3、激光 激光与普通光线相比具有能量高度集中，方向性好，频率单纯、相干性好等优点，是很理想的光源。 由光源、光学通路和光电器件组成的光电传感器在用于光电检测时，还必须配备适当的测量电路。测量电路能够把光电效应造成的光电元件电性能的变化转换成所需要的电压或电流。不同的光电元件，所要求的测量电路也不相同。下面介绍几种半导体光电元件常用的测量电路。 半导体光敏电阻可以通过较大的电流，所以在一般情况下，无需配备放大器。在要求较大的输出功率时，可用图8所示的电路。 图9(a)给出带有温度补偿的光敏二极管桥式测量电路。当入射光强度缓慢变化时，光敏二极管的反向电阻也是缓慢变化的，温度的变化将造成电桥输出电压的漂移，必须进行补偿。图中一个光敏二极管做为检测元件，另一个装在暗盒里，置于相邻桥臂中，温度的变化对两只光敏二极管的影响相同，因此，可消除桥路输出随温度的漂移。 光敏三极管在低照度入射光下工作时，或者希望得到较大的输出功率时，也可以配以放大电路，如图9所示。 由于光敏电池即使在强光照射下，最大输出电压也仅0.6V，还不能使下一级晶体管有较大的电流输出，故必须加正向偏压，如图9(a)所示。为了减小晶体管基极电路阻抗变化，尽量降低光电池在无光照时承受的反向偏压，可在光电池两端并联一个电阻。或者象图9(b)所示的那样利用锗二极管产生的正向压降和光电池受到光照时产生的电压叠加，使硅管e、b极间电压大于0.7V，而导通工作。这种情况下也可以使用硅光电池组，如图10(c)所示。 半导体光电元件的光电转换电路也可以使用集成运算放大器。硅光敏二极管通过集成运放可得到较大输出幅度，如图11(a)所示。当光照产生的光电流为时，输出电压为了保证光敏二极管处于反向偏置，在它的正极要加一个负电压。 b)给出硅光电池的光电转换电路，由于光电池的短路电流和光照成线性图11( 关系，因此将它接在运放的正、反相输入端之间，利用这两端电位差接近于零的 特点，可以得到较好的效果。在图中所示条件下，输出电压 由光通量对光电元件的作用原理不同所制成的光学测控系统是多种多样的,按光电元件(光学测控系统)输出量性质可分二类,即模拟式光电传感器和脉冲(开关)式光电传感器.模拟式光电传感器是将被测量转换成连续变化的光电流,它与被测量间呈单值关系.模拟式光电传感器按被测量(检测目标物体)方法可分为透射(吸收)式,漫反射式,遮光式(光束阻档)三大类.所谓透射式是指被测物体放在光路中,恒光源发出的光能量穿过被测物,部份被吸收后,透射光投射到光电元件上，如测液体、气体透明度和混浊度的光电比色计等;所谓漫反射式是指恒光源发出的光投射到被测物上,再从被测物体表面反射后投射到光电元件上，如光电比色温度计和光照度计等;所谓遮光式是指当光源发出的光通量经被测物光 遮其中一部份,使投射刭光电元件上的光通量改变,改变的程度与被测物体在光路位置有关，如振动测量、工件尺寸测量;而在脉冲式光电传感器中在这种传感器中，光电元件接受的光信号是断续变化的，因此光电元件处于开关工作状态，它输出的光电流通常是只有两种稳定状态的脉冲形式的信号，多用于光电计数和光电式转速测量等场合。 而红外线光电传感器分类和工作方式一般有以下几种: 1、槽型光电传感器 把一个光发射器和一个接收器面对面地装在一个槽的两侧的是槽形光电。发光器能发出红外光或可见光，在无阻情况下光接收器能收到光。但当被检测物体从槽中通过时，光被遮挡，光电开关便动作。输出一个开关控制信号，切断或接通负载电流，从而完成一次控制动作。槽形开关的检测距离因为受整体结构的限制一般只有几厘米。 2、对射型光电传感器 若把发光器和收光器分离开，就可使检测距离加大。由一个发光器和一个收光器组成的光电开关就称为对射分离式光电开关，简称对射式光电开关。它的检测距离可达几米乃至几十米。使用时把发光器和收光器分别装在检测物通过路径的两侧，检测物通过时阻挡光路，收光器就动作输出一个开关控制信号。 3、反光板型光电开关 把发光器和收光器装入同一个装置内，在它的前方装 或反射镜反一块反光板，利用反射原理完成光电控制作用的称为反光板反射式(射式)光电开关。正常情况下，发光器发出的光被反光板反射回来被收光器收到;一旦光路被检测物挡住，收光器收不到光时，光电开关就动作，输出一个开关控制信号。 4、扩散反射型光电开关 它的检测头里也装有一个发光器和一个收光器，但前方没有反光板。正常情况下发光器发出的光收光器是找不到的。当检测物通过时挡住了光，并把光部分反射回来，收光器就收到光信号，输出一个开关信号。 四、我对光电传感器的想法 随着科学技术的发展人们对测量精度有了更高的要求，这就促使光电传感器不得不随着时代步伐而更新，改善光电传感器性能的主要手段就是应用新材料、新技术制造性能更优越的光电元件。例如今天光电传感器的雏形，是一种小的金属圆柱形设备,发射器带一个校准镜头,将光聚焦射向接收器,接收器出电缆将这套装置接到一个真空管放大器上在金属圆筒内有一个小的白炽灯作为光源的一种坚固的白炽灯传感器。由于这种传感器存在各种缺陷，逐渐在测量领域销声匿迹。到了光纤出现，因为它的各种优越的性能，于是出现了光纤与传感器配套使用的无源元件,另外光纤不受任何电磁信号的干扰,并且能使传感器的电子元件与其他电的干扰相隔离。光纤有一根塑料光芯或玻璃光芯,光芯外面包一层金属外皮，这层金属外皮的密度比光芯要低,因而折射率低，光束照在这两种材料的边界处(入射角在一定范围内,),被全部反射回来.根据光学原理,所有光束都可以由光纤来传输。两条入射光束(入射角在接受角以内)沿光纤长度方向经多次反射后,从另一端射出，另一条入射角超出接受角范围的入射光,损失在金属外皮内.这个接受角比两倍的最大入射角略大,这是因为光纤在从空气射入密度较大的光纤材料中时会有轻微的折射。光在光纤内部的传输不受光纤是否弯曲的影响(弯曲半径要大于最小弯曲半径)。大多数光纤是可弯曲的,很容易安装在狭小的空间。 光电传感器是一种非接触式测小型电子测量设备,依靠检测出其接收到的光 强的变化，来达到测量目的，同时它也是一种容易受到外界干扰而失去测量准确 度的器件。所以在设计时除了选择先进光电元件，还必须设置参比信号和温度补 偿措施，用来削弱或消除这些因素的影响。 光电传感器必须经过光波调制，光波的调制像无线电波的传送和接收，将收 音机调到某台,就可以忽略其他的无线电波信号未经调制的传感器只有通过使用 长焦距镜头的机械屏蔽手段,使接收器只能接收到发射器发出的光,才能使其能 量变得很高.相比之下,经过调制的接收器能忽略周围的光,只对自己的光或具有 相同调制频率的光做出响应.未经调制的传感器用来检测周围的光线或红外光的 辐射,如刚出炉的红热瓶子,在这种应用场合如果使用其它的传感器,可能会有误 动作。 光电传感器由于非接触、高可靠性等优点，在测量时对变被测物体损害小， 所以自其发明以来就在测量领域有着举足轻重的地位，目前它已广泛应用于测量 机械量、热工量、成分量、智能车系统等。现在它在电力系统自动并网装置中起 到了非常重要的作用，因为发电机投入电网运行常采用准同法，必须满足:三相 线序一致，频率一致，相位一致，电压幅值相等，其中的一个条件在系统设计时 已经满足，后三个条件必须同时满足才能并网，当然人工并网比较困难，光电并 网比较容易。 时代在发展，科学技术在更新，光电传感器种类也日益增多，应用领域也越 来越广泛，例如近来一种红外光电传感器已在智能车方面得了到应用，其中一种 基于红外传感器的智能车的核心就是反射式红外传感器，它运用反射式红外传感 器设计路径检测模块和速度监测模块;另外一种基于红外传感器的自寻迹小车则 利用红外传感器来采集数据( 光电传感器具有其他传感器所不能取代优越性，因此它发展前景非常好，应 用也会越来越广泛( 附录:外文翻译 In Wang Zuoliang?s translation practices, he translated many poems, especially the poems written by Robert Burns. His translation of Burn?s “A Red, Red Rose” brought him fame as a verse translator. At the same time, he published about ten papers on the translation of poems. Some argue that poems cannot be translated. Frost stresses that poetry might get lost in translation. According to Wang, verse translation is possible and necessary, for “The poet-translator brings over some exciting work from another culture and in doing so is also writing his own best work, thereby adding something to his culture. In this transmission and exchange, a richer, more colorful world emerges. ”(Wang, 1991:112). Then how can we translate poems? According to Wang?s understanding, the translation of poems is related to three aspects: A poem?s meaning, poetic art and language. (1)A poem?s meaning “Socio-cultural differences are formidable enough, but the matter is made much more complex when one realizes that meaning does not consist in the meaning of words only, but also in syntactical structures, speech rhythms, levels of style.” (Wang, 1991:93). (2)Poetic art According to Wang, “Bly?s point about the „marvelous translation? being made possible in the United States only after Whitman, Pound and Williams Carlos Williams composed poetry in speech rhythms shows what may be gained when there is a genuine revolution in poetic art.” (Wang, 1991:93). (3)Language “Sometimes language stays static and sometimes language stays active. When language is active, it is beneficial to translation” “This would require this kind of intimate understanding, on the part of the translator, of its genius, its idiosyncrasies, its past and present, what it can do and what it choose not to do.” (Wang, 1991:94). Wang expresses the difficulties of verse translation. Frost?s comment is sufficient to prove the difficulty a translator has to grapple with. Maybe among literary translations, the translation of poems is the most difficult thing. Poems are the crystallization of wisdom. The difficulties of poetic comprehension lie not only in lines, but also in structure, such as cadence, rhyme, metre, rhythm, all these conveying information. One point merits our attention. Wang not only talks about the times? poetic art, but also the impact language?s activity has produced on translation. In times when the language is active, translation is prospering. The reform of poetic art has improved the translation quality of poems. For example, around May Fourth Movement, Baihua replaced classical style of writing, so the translation achieved earth-shaking success. The relation between the state of language and translation is so