语言学基本概念

ModifiedbyJACKontheafternoonofDecember26,2020语言学基本概念语言学基本概念汇编Chapter1InvitationstoLinguisticsWhystudylanguage?1.Languageisveryessentialtohumanbeings.2.Inlanguagetherearemanythingsweshouldknow.3.Forfurtherunderstanding,weneedtostudylanguagescientifically.Whatislanguage?Languageisameansofverbalcommunication.Itisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.DesignfeaturesoflanguageThefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalleddesignfeatureswhichcandistinguishhumanlanguagefromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.ArbitrarinessArbitrarinessreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeanings.DualityDualityreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.CreativityCreativitymeansthatlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Recursivenessreferstotherulewhichcanbeappliedrepeatedlywithoutanydefinitelimit.Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesatheoreticalbasisforthepossibilityofcreatingendlesssentences.DisplacementDisplacementmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofconversation.FunctionsoflanguageAsisproposedbyJacobson,languagehassixfunctions:1.Referential:toconveymessageandinformation;2.Poetic:toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake;3.Emotive:toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions;4.Conative:topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandentreaties;5.Phatic:toestablishcommunionwithothers;6.Metalingual:toclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings.Halliday(1994)proposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage.Itmeansthatlanguagehasthreemetafunctions:1.Ideationalfunction:toconveynewinformation,tocommunicateacontentthatisunknowntothehearer;2.Interpersonalfunction:embodyingalluseoflanguagetoexpresssocialandpersonalrelationships;3.Textualfunction:referringtothefactthatlanguagehasmechanismstomakeanystretchofspokenandwrittendiscourseintoacoherentandunifiedtextandmakealivingpassagedifferentfromarandomlistofsentences.AccordingtoHuZhuanglin,languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:InformativeTheinformativefunctionmeanslanguageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenuseittocommunicatenewinformation.InterpersonalfunctionTheinterpersonalfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetoestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.PerformativeTheperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.EmotivefunctionTheemotivefunctionisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitissocrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.PhaticcommunionThephaticcommunionmeanspeoplealwaysusesomesmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionssuchasGoodmorning,Godblessyou,Niceday,etc.,tomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.RecreationalfunctionTherecreationalfunctionmeanspeopleuselanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy’sbabblingorachanter’schanting.MetalingualfunctionThemetalingualfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetotalkaboutitself..Icanusetheword“book”totalkaboutabook,andIcanalsousetheexpression“thewordbook”totalkaboutthesign“b-o-o-k”itself.Whatislinguistics?Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonecommunity,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.MainbranchesoflinguisticsPhoneticsPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds,itincludesthreemainareas:articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,andauditoryphonetics.PhonologyPhonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.MorphologyMorphologystudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning–morphemesandword-formationprocesses.SyntaxSyntaxreferstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.SemanticsSemanticsexamineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.PragmaticsPragmaticsisthestudyofmeaningincontext.MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinallaspects,distinctfrommicrolinguistics,whichdealtsolelywiththeformalaspectoflanguagesystem.PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguisticsinvestigatestheinterrelationoflanguageandmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesandinlanguageacquisitionforexample.SociolinguisticsSociolinguisticsisatermwhichcoversavarietyofdifferentinterestsinlanguageandsociety,includingthelanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsofitsusers.AnthropologicallinguisticsAnthropologicallinguisticsstudiestherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureinacommunity.ComputationallinguisticsComputationallinguisticsisaninterdisciplinaryfieldwhichcentersaroundtheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehumanlanguage.ImportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsDescriptivevs.prescriptiveTosaythatlinguisticsisadescriptivescienceistosaythatthelinguisttriestodiscoverandrecordtherulestowhichthemembersofalanguage-communityactuallyconformanddoesnotseektoimposeuponthemotherrules,ornorms,ofcorrectness.Prescriptivelinguisticsaimstolaydownrulesforthecorrectuseoflanguageandsettlethedisputesoverusageonceandforall.Forexample,“Don’tsayX.”isaprescriptivecommand;“Peopledon’tsayX.”isadescriptivestatement.Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.Inthe18thcentury,allthemainEuropeanlanguageswerestudiedprescriptively.However,modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptivebecausethenatureoflinguisticsasasciencedeterminesitspreoccupationwithdescriptioninsteadofprescription.Synchronicvs.diachronicAsynchronicstudytakesafixedinstant(usuallyatpresent)asitspointofobservation.Saussure’sdiachronicdescriptionisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory..astudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakespeare’stimewouldbesynchronic,andastudyofthechangesEnglishhasundergonesincethenwouldbeadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachronicstudy.Thereasonisthatunlessthevariousstateofalanguagearesuccessfullystudieditwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.Langue&paroleSaussuredistinguishedthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandtheactualphenomenaordataoflinguisticsaslangueandparole.Langueisrelativestableandsystematic,paroleissubjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints;langueisnotspokenbyanindividual,paroleisalwaysanaturallyoccurringevent.Whatalinguistshoulddo,accordingtoSaussure,istodrawrulesfromamassofconfusedfacts,.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethemthesubjectoflinguistics.CompetenceandperformanceAccordingtoChomsky,alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalledthelinguisticcompetence,andtheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituationsiscalledperformance.Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandandindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchhissupposedcompetence.Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Chomsky’scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,Saussure’slangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproductandasetofconventionsofacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofmindofeachindividual.SaussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofviewthanChomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.Chapter2SpeechSoundsSpeechproductionandperceptionPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.Itincludesthreemainareas:1.Articulatoryphonetics–thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds2.Acousticphonetics–thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech3.Auditoryphonetics–thestudyofperceptionofspeechsoundsMostphoneticiansareinterestedinarticulatoryphonetics.SpeechorgansSpeechorgansarethosepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.Thespeechorganscanbeconsideredasconsistingofthreeparts:theinitiatoroftheairstream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities.ConsonantsConsonantsandvowelsAconsonantisproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacestodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.Avowelisproducedwithoutobstructionsonoturbulenceoratotalstoppingoftheaircanbeperceived.ConsonantsThecategoriesofconsonantareestablishedonthebasisofseveralfactors.Themostimportantofthesefactorsare:1.theactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthusthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevocaltract(mannerofarticulation);2.whereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionoftheair(placeofarticulation).Mannersofarticulation1.Stop/plosive:Aspeechsoundwhichisproducedbystoppingtheairstreamfromthelungsandthensuddenlyreleasingit.InEnglish,[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g]arestops2.nasals:[m],[n],[]Thesoftpalateislowered,allowingtheairstreamtopassthroughthenasalpassage.3.Fricative:Theobstructionispartialandtheairstreamissqueezedoutofanarrowpassage,resultinginfriction.InEnglish,[f],[v],[s],[z],[],[],[θ],[e],[h]arefricatives.4.(Median)approximant:Anarticulationinwhichonearticulatorisclosetoanother,butwithoutthevocaltractbeingnarrowedtosuchanextentthataturbulentairstreamisproduced.InEnglishthisclassofsoundsincludes[].5.Lateral(approximant):Aspeechsoundwhichisproducedbypartiallyblockingtheairstreamfromthelungs,usuallybythetongue,butlettingitescapeatoneorbothsidesoftheblockage.[]istheonlylateralinEnglish.Otherconsonantalarticulationsincludetrill,taporflap,andaffricate.TheconsonantsofEnglish1.ReceivedPronunciation(RP):ThetypeofBritishStandardEnglishpronunciationwhichhasbeenregardedastheprestigevarietyandwhichshowsnoregionalvariation.Ithasoftenbeenpopularlyreferredtoas“BBCEnglish”or“OxfordEnglish”becauseitiswidelyusedintheprivatesectoroftheeducationsystemandspokenbymostnewsreadersoftheBBCnetwork.2.theconsonantsofEnglishcanbedescribedinthefollowingway:[p]voicelessbilabialstop[b]voicedbilabialstop[s]voicelessalveolarfricative[z]voicedalveolarfricative[m]bilabialnasal[n]alveolarnasal[l]alveolarlateral[j]palatalapproximant[h]glottalfricative[r]alveolarapproximantVowelsThecriteriaofvoweldescription1.Thepartofthetonguethatisraised–front,center,orback.2.Theextenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalate.Normally,threeorfourdegreesarerecognized:high,mid(oftendividedintomid-highandmid-low)andlow.3.Thekindofopeningmadeatthelips–variousdegreesofliproundingorspreading.4.Thepositionofthesoftpalate–raisedfororalvowels,andloweredforvowelswhichhavebeennasalized.CoarticulationandphonetictranscriptionCoarticulation协同发音Coarticulation:Thesimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationoftwosuccessivephonologicalunits.BroadandnarrowtranscriptionsTheuseofasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscriptioniscalledabroadtranscription.Theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasanarrowtranscription.Theformerwasmeanttoindicateonlythesesoundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguagewhilethelatterwasmeanttosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingeventheminutestshadesofpronunciation.PhonemesandallophonesMinimalpairsMinimalpairsaretwowordsinalanguagewhichdifferfromeachotherbyonlyonedistinctivesoundandwhichalsodifferinmeaning..theEnglishwordstieanddieareminimalpairsastheydifferinmeaningandintheirinitialphonemes/t/and/d/.Byidentifyingtheminimalpairsofalanguage,aphonologistcanfindoutwhichsoundsubstitutionscausedifferencesofmeaning.ThephonemetheoryPhone（音素):thesmallestperceptiblediscretesegmentofsoundinastreamofspeech.(inthemouth)i)phoneticunitii)notnecessarilydistinctiveofmeaningiii)physicalasheardorproducediv)markedwith[]Phoneme（音位）：Asoundwhichiscapableofdistinguishingonewordoroneshapeofawordfromanotherinagivenlanguageisaphoneme.(inthemind)Aphonemeisthesmallestlinguisticunitofsoundthatcansignaladifferenceinmeaning.i)phonologicalunitii)distinctiveofmeaningiii)abstract,notphysicaliv)markedwith//.Allophones(音位变体)Anyofthedifferentformsofaphonemeiscalleditsallophones.Phonicvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophoneofthesamephoneme..:pot,spot,cup:[ph]vs.[p]vs.[p](unreleased)i)complementarydistribution互补分布ii)freevariationiii)phonemiccontrast.PhonologicalprocessesAssimilationAssimilation:Aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.Regressiveassimilation:Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,wecallitregressiveassimilation.Progressiveassimilation:Ifaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,wecallitprogressiveassimilation.Devoicing:Aprocessbywhichvoicedsoundsbecomevoiceless.DevoicingofvoicedconsonantsoftenoccursinEnglishwhentheyareattheendofaword.PhonologicalprocessesandphonologicalrulesThechangesinassimilation,nasalization,dentalization,andvelarizationareallphonologicalprocessesinwhichatargetoraffectedsegmentundergoesastructuralchangeincertainenvironmentsorcontexts.DistinctivefeaturesDistinctivefeature:Aparticularcharacteristicwhichdistinguishesonedistinctivesoundunitofalanguagefromanotheroronegroupofsoundsfromanothergroup.Binaryfeature:Apropertyofaphonemeorawordwhichcanbeusedtodescribethephonemeorword.Abinaryfeatureiseitherpresentorabsent.Binaryfeaturesarealsousedtodescribethesemanticpropertiesofwords.SyllablesSuprasegmentalfeatures:Suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalfeaturesaresyllables,stress,tone,andintonation.Syllable:Aunitinspeechwhichisoftenlongerthanonesoundandsmallerthanawholeword.Opensyllable:Asyllablewhichendsinavowel.Closedsyllable:Asyllablewhichendsinaconsonant.StressStressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Intranscription,araisedverticalline[]isusedjustbeforethesyllableitrelatesto.IntonationandToneIntonationinvolvestheoccurrenceofrecurringfall-risepatterns,eachofwhichisusedwithasetofrelativelyconsistentmeanings,eitheronsinglewordsorongroupsofwordsofvaryinglength.Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferentratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Chapter3FromMorphemetoPhraseWhatismorpheme?morphemeAmorphemeisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical..theword“boxes”hastwomorphemes:“box”and“es,”neitherofwhichpermitsfurtherdivisionoranalysisshapesifwedon’twanttosacrificeitsmeaning.Morphology（形态学）Thestudyofinternalstructuresandrulesofmorphemesbywhichwordsareformed.3.Whatisanallomorph?Anallomorphisthealternateshapesofthesamemorpheme..thevariantsoftheplurality“-s”makestheallomorphsthereofinthefollowingexamples:map–maps,mouse–mice,ox–oxen,tooth–teeth,etc.TypesofMorphemesFreemorphemeandboundmorphemeFreemorphemereferstothosewhichmayoccuraloneorwhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselves.BoundmorphemereferstothosewhichcannotoccuraloneandmustappearwithatleastoneothermorphemeRoot,affixandstemRootistheformofawordonwhichitsotherformsaresaidtobebased`Walk'istherootof`walks',`walked',`walking'and`walker'affix词缀----letterorgroupoflettersaddedtothebeginningortheendofawordtochangeitsmeaningorthewayitisused;prefixorsuffixorinfix-lessin"hopeless"stem词干----thepartofawordthatstaysthesamewhendifferentendingsareaddedtoit,forexample'driv-'in'driving'InflectionalaffixandderivationalaffixInflectionalaffix----Amorphemethatservestoadjustwordsbygrammaticalmodificationtoindicatesuchgrammaticalrelationsasnumber,tense,degreeandcase..tables,talks,opened,strongest,John’sDerivationalaffix---Amorphemethatservestoderiveawordofoneclassormeaningfromawordofanotherclassormeaning..establishmentandrepaintWhatisaword?Awordisthesmallestofthelinguisticunitsthatcanconstitute,byitself,acompleteutteranceinspeechorwriting.Wordformation:Inflectionandwordformation1.InflectionInflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.2.WordformationWordformationreferstotheprocessofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationships.Itcanbefurthersubclassifiedintothecompositionaltype(compound)andderivationaltype(derivation).(1)CompoundCompoundsrefertothosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,orthewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform,suchasice-cream,sunrise,paperbag,railway,rest-room,simple-minded,wedding-ring,etc.Theheadofanominaloranadjectivalendocentriccompoundisdeverbal,thatis,itisderivedfromaverb.Consequently,itisalsocalledaverbalcompoundorasyntheticcompound.Usually,thefirstmemberisaparticipantoftheprocessverb..Nouns:self-control,pain-killer,etc.Adjectives:virus-sensitive,machinewashable,etc.TheexocentriccompoundsareformedbyV+N,V+A,andV+P,whereastheexocentriccomefromV+NandV+A..Nouns:playboy,cutthroat,etc.Adjectives:breakneck,walk-in,etc.(2)DerivationDerivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandsuffixes.Incontrastwithinflections,derivationscanmakethewordclassoftheoriginalwordeitherchangedorunchanged.LexicalchangeLexicalchangeproper1.InventionSinceeconomicactivitiesarethemostimportantanddynamicinhumanlife,manynewlexicalitemscomedirectlyfromtheconsumeritems,theirproducersortheirbrandnames.2.BlendingBlendingisarelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords.3.Abbreviation/clippingAnewwordiscreatedbycuttingthefinalpart,cuttingtheinitialpartorcuttingboththeinitialpartsoftheoriginalwords.4.AcronymAcronymismadeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodifiedheadword.5.Back-formationBack-formationreferstoanabnormaltypeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimagedaffixfromalongerformalreadyinthelanguage.6.AnalogicalcreationTheprincipleofanalogicalcreationcanaccountfortheco-existenceoftwoforms,regularandirregular,intheconjugationofsomeEnglishverbs.7.BorrowingEnglishinitsdevelopmenthasmanagedtowidenhervocabularybyborrowingwordsfromotherlanguages.Greek,Latin,French,Spanish,Arabicandotherlanguageshaveallplayedanactiveroleinthisprocess.Chapter4FromWordtoText1.Syntacticrelations（句法关系）Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.ofPositionPositionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguage,onetendstoproduceanutteranceeitherungrammaticalornonsensicalatall.PositionalrelationsareamanifestationofoneaspectofSyntagmaticRelations（横组合关系）observedbyF.deSaussure.TheyarealsocalledHorizontalRelationsorsimplyChainRelations..RelationofSubstitutability（替换关系）TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.Italsoreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset.ThisisalsocalledAssociativeRelationsbySaussure,andParadigmaticRelations（纵聚合关系）byHjemslev（叶尔姆斯列夫）Tomakeitmoreunderstandable,theyarecalledVerticalRelationsorChoiceRelations.RelationofCo-occurrence（同现关系/纵横关系）Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Relationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations,partlytoparadigmaticrelations.2.GrammaticalconstructionanditsconstituentsGrammaticalConstructionGRAMMATICALCONSTRUCTION（语法结构体）orCONSTRUCTcanbeusedtorefertoanysyntacticconstructwhichisassignedoneormoreconventionalfunctionsinalanguage,togetherwithwhateverislinguisticallyconventionalizedaboutitscontributiontothemeaningorusetheconstructcontains.Onthelevelofsyntax,wedistinguishforanyconstructioninalanguageitsexternalanditsinternalproperties.Theexternalsyntaxofaconstructionreferstothepropertiesoftheconstructionasawhole,thatistosay,anythingspeakersknowabouttheconstructionthatisrelevanttothelargersyntacticcontextsinwhichitiswelcome.Theinternalsyntaxofaconstructionisreallyadescriptionoftheconstruction’s“make-up”,withthetermssuchas“subject,predicate,object,determiner,noun”.ImmediateConstituents(直接成分)Constituent（成分）isapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Sever