研究生英语精读教程课文原文+翻译+短文unit3

RatsandMen"Insoluble"ProblemsProfessorN.R.F.MaieroftheUniversityofMichiganperformedaseriesofexperimentsseveralyearsagoinwhich"neurosis"isinducedinrats.Theratsarefirsttrainedtojumpofftheedgeofaplatformatoneoftwodoors.Iftheratjumpstotheright,thedoorholdsfast,anditbumpsitsnoseandfallsintoanet;ifitjumpstotheleft,thedooropens,andtheratfindsadishoffood.Whentheratsarewelltrainedtothisreaction,thesituationischanged.Thefoodisputbehindtheotherdoor,sothatinordertogettheirrewardtheynowhavetojumptotherightinsteadoftotheleft.(Otherchanges,suchasmarkingthetwodoorsindifferentways,mayalsobeintroducedbytheexperimenter.)Iftheratfailstofigureoutthenewsystem,sothateachtimeitjumpsitneverknowswhetheritisgoingtogetfoodorbumpitsnose,itfinallygivesupandrefusestojumpatall.Atthisstage,Dr.Maiersays,"Manyratsprefertostarveratherthanmakeachoice."密执安大学的N.R.F.麦耶教授几年前做过一系列可以诱导鼠产生“神经官能症”的实验。首先训练鼠由平台边缘跳向两个门中的一个。如果鼠向右跳，右门是碰不开的，那么鼠就撞了鼻子并掉进网里；如果鼠向左跳，左门就打开，鼠就会找到一碟食物。在鼠已很熟悉这一反应时，就改变情况：把食物放在另外一扇门后，这样鼠要想得到犒赏就不能向左跳，而要向右跳了。(实验者也可采用其他变化形式，比如用不同的方式标记两个门。)如果鼠弄不懂新规则，它每次跳时决不知是会得到食物还是会撞鼻子。最终它就会放弃，拒绝再跳。到这一步，麦耶博士说：“许多鼠宁愿挨饿也不再做选择。”Next,theratsareforcedtomakeachoice,beingdriventoitbyblastsofairoranelectricshock."Animalswhichareinducedtorespondintheinsolubleproblemsituation,"saysDr.Maier,"settledowntoaspecificreaction(suchasjumpingsolelyatthelefthanddoor)whichtheycontinuetoexecuteregardlessofconsequences....Theresponsechosenundertheseconditionsbecomesfixated....Oncethefixationappears,theanimalisincapableoflearninganadaptiveresponseinthissituation."Whenareactiontotheleft-handdooristhusfixated,theright-handdoormaybeleftopensothatthefoodisplainlyvisible.Yettherat,whenpushed,continuestojumptotheleft,becomingmorepanickyeachtime.Whentheexperimenterpersistsinforcingtherattomakechoices,itmaygointoconvulsions,racingaroundwildly,injuringitsclaws,bumpingintochairsandtables,thengoingintoastateofviolenttrembling,untilitfallsintoacoma.Inthispassivestate,itrefusestoeat,refusestotakeanyinterestinanything:itcanberolledupintoaballorsuspendedintheairbyitslegs—therathasceasedtocarewhathappenstoit.Ithashada"nervousbreakdown."第二步，对鼠施加强大气流或电击，赶它，强迫它做出选择。“处于不能解决的难题之中而被迫做出反应的动物，”麦耶博士说，“最后总是落到一个特定的反应上(比如只4向左跳)，不顾结果如何都总是做出这一反应……这种条件下所做出的反应便固定不变了……一旦出现了这种固态，动物就没有能力学会适应性的反应了。”一旦向左跳的反应被固定下来时，可以让右门开着，使食物呈现在眼前。可是鼠被驱赶时却仍旧向左跳，并且每次都愈来愈惶恐不安。实验者继续迫使鼠做出选择时，鼠开始惊厥不安，四下狂奔，弄伤爪子，撞上桌椅，然后浑身剧烈颤抖，直到昏迷不醒。处于这样的被动情况，鼠拒绝进食，对一切不感兴趣：可以把它卷成一团或擒住双腿倒挂空中——无论怎样摆布它，它都无动于衷。这时的鼠已是“神经崩溃”了。Itisthe"insolubility"oftherat'sproblemthatleadstoitsnervousbreakdown,and,asDr.Maiershowsinhisstudiesofdisturbedchildrenandadults,ratsandhumanbeingsseemtogothroughprettymuchthesamestages.First,theyaretrainedtomakehabituallyagivenchoicewhenconfrontedbyagivenproblem;secondly,theygetaterribleshockwhentheyfindthattheconditionshavechangedandthatthechoicedoesn'tproducetheexpectedresults;third,whetherthroughshock,anxiety,orfrustration,theymayfixateontheoriginalchoiceandcontinuetomakethatchoiceregardlessofconsequences;fourth,theysullenlyrefusetoactatall;fifth,whenbyexternalcompulsiontheyareforcedtomakeachoice,theyagainmaketheonetheywereoriginallytrainedtomake-andagaingetabumponthenose;finally,evenwiththegoalvisibleinfrontofthem,tobeattainedsimplybymakingadifferentchoice,theygocrazyoutoffrustration.Theyteararoundwildly;theysulkincornersandrefusetoeat;bitter,cynical,disillusioned,theyceasetocarewhathappenstothem.鼠所面临问题的“不可解决性”导致了它的神经崩溃，而麦耶博士在他对心理失常的小孩和成人的研究中明，鼠和人经历的各个阶段大同小异。首先是两者受训练，在面对某一问题时都习惯地做出某一选择；然后，发现条件已改变而原来的选择并不能产生预期的效果时，两者都大吃一惊；再次，不论是出于震惊、焦虑还是受挫，两者都会执著于最初的选择，不管结果，一意孤行；接着，悻悻然拒绝采取行动；而后，在被迫做出选择时，两者又总做出最初训练时所做出的选择——且再次碰壁；最后，即使目标就在眼前，只要做出不同的选择就唾手可得时，两者又都由于以前受到的挫折而发狂。他们疯狂地四处撕抓；或是躲在角落里赌气拒食；他们变得辛酸怀恨、不信任一切、心灰意冷，无论人们怎样对待他们，他们都无动于衷。Isthisanexaggeratedpicture?Ithardlyseemsso.Thepatternrecursthroughouthumanlife,fromthesmalltragediesofthehometotheworld-shakingtragediesamongnations.Inordertocureherhusband'sfaults,awifemaynaghim.Hisfaultsgetworse,soshenagshimsomemore.Naturallyhisfaultsgetworsestill-andshenagshimevenmore.Governed,liketherat,byafixatedreactiontotheproblemofherhusband'sfaults,shecanmeetitonlyinoneway.Thelongershecontinues,theworseitgets,untiltheyarebothnervouswrecks.这是否是一幅夸张的画面呢?似乎并非如此。这个模式反复再现于人生，小到家庭的悲剧，大到震撼世界的国家间的悲剧。为了纠正丈夫的毛病，妻子数落他。毛病越坏，就越多地挨数落。当然他的毛病变得更坏，她就更加数落。像鼠一样，妻子对丈夫的毛病受一种固定反应的摆布，她只能总以一种方式应付它。她这么做的日子越久，丈夫的毛病就越厉害，直至夫妇二人在神经上都备受折磨，疲惫不堪。Again,whitepeopleinanortherncity,deploringtheilliteracyandhighcrimerateamongNegroes,segregatethem,persecutethem(itiswellknownthatthepolicearealmostalwaystougheronNegrosuspectsthanonwhites),anddenythemopportunitiesforemploymentandadvancement.Thedenialofopportunityperpetuatestheilliteracyandthehighcrimerate,whichinturnperpetuatethesegregation,persecution,anddenialofopportunity.Thesearchforawaytobreakupthisviciouscircletaxesthebestmindsamongthoseinterestedinorderlysocialchange:citycouncilmen,educators,urbanplanners,Negroorganizations,aswellasstategovernmentsandfederalauthorities.再看一个例子。北方某城市的白人因厌恶黑人高文盲率和高犯罪率的状况而隔离他们、迫害他们(众所周知，警察通常对黑人嫌疑犯比对白人嫌疑犯要粗暴得多)，并且拒绝给他们受雇与提升的机会。这种机会的被剥夺使文盲率与犯罪率高的情况得以延续下去，转而又使隔离、迫害和不给黑人机会的做法得以继续存在。要找到解决这一恶性循环的方法需要致力于有序社会改革的智者殚精竭虑，包括市议员、教育家、城市规划人员、黑人组织以及州政府和联邦政府。Tociteanotherexample,studentstryingtoexpressthemselvesinwritingmaywritepoorly.Inordertoimprovetheirwriting,saystheEnglishteacher,Imustteachthemthefundamentalsofgrammar,spelling,andpunctuation.Bythusplacingexcessiveemphasisongrammarandmechanicswhileignoringthestudents'ideas,theteacherquicklydestroysstudentinterestinwriting.Thatinterestdestroyed,thestudentswriteevenmorepoorly.Thereupontheteacherredoubleshisdoseofgrammarandmechanics.Thestudentsbecomeincreasinglyboredandrebellious.Suchstudentsfilltheranksof“remedialEnglish"classesinhighschoolandcollege.另一个例子是，想用写作表达自己思想的学生可能写得很差。英文老师说，我一定要教会他们语法、拼写和标点符号这些方面的基础知识，来提高他们的写作。于是由于过分强调语法与写作方面的技术性细节而忽视了学生的思想，老师很快湮灭了学生对写作的兴趣。失去了兴趣，学生写得就更差了，老师于是再给学生以加倍的语法和写作方法的练习。学生也就越来越厌倦和反感了。中学和大学的“英文补习”班里全是这样的学生。Again,anation,believingthattheonlywaytosecurepeaceanddignityisthrougharmedstrength,mayembarkonahugearmamentsprogram.Theprogramarousesthefearsofneighboringnations,sothattheytooincreasetheirarmamentstomatchthoseofthefirstnation.Anxietyandtensionincrease.Itisclear,thefirstnationdeclares,thatweshallcontinuetofeelanxiousaboutournationalsecuritysolongaswearenotadequatelypreparedforallemergencies;wemustthereforedoubleourarmaments.Thisnaturallymakestheneighboringnationsevenmoreanxious,sothattheytoodoubletheirarmaments.Anxietyandtensionincreaseevenmore.Itisclear,thefirstnationdeclares,thatourmistakehasbeentounderestimateourdefenseneeds.Thistimewemustbesuretobesufficientlyarmedtopreservepeace.Wemusttripleourarmaments....同样，一个认为武装力量是维护和平与尊严的唯一有效途径的国家，会推行巨大的扩军。这种计划引起邻国的恐慌，于是后者也扩充军备，与前者抗衡。焦虑与紧张气氛升温。前者宣称，很明显，只要我们不能对所有突发事件都有充分准备，我们就会不断为国家的安危担忧；所以我们必须加倍扩军。这自然使邻国更为恐慌，于是也把军备翻了一番。焦虑与紧张气氛更强了。前者宣称，很明显，我们犯了低估国防需要的错误。这次我们一定要保证我们有充分武力来保持和平。我们必须把军备再加一倍……Ofcoursetheseinstancesareoversimplified,butitisoftenbecauseofviciouscirclesofthiskindthatweareunabletogetatordoanythingabouttheconditionsthatleadtodisaster.Thepatternisfrequentlyrecognizable;thegoalmaybeinsight,attainablebyamerechangeinmethods.Nevertheless,governedbyfixatedreactions,therat"cannot"getfood,thewife"cannot"cureherhusband'sfaults,Negroeswillhavetowaittwoorthreegenerations"untilthetimeisripe"forsocialchange,andwe"cannotafford"tostopdevisingandmanufacturingweaponssodeadlythattheycannotbeusedwithoutdestroyingcivilizationitself.当然，这些例子难免过于简单化，但是确实常常由于这种类似的恶性循环使我们无法认清或处理导致灾难的不测事件的条件。这样的模式常常很容易识别；目标就在眼前，只要在方法上做些改变就会达到。可是，由于受到固定反应的摆布，鼠“无法”吃到食物，妻子“无法”改掉丈夫的毛病，黑人还要等两三代人的时间，“直到社会改革的时机成熟”，我们“无法”停止发明并制造可摧毁人类文明的致命武器。Thereis,however,animportantdifferencebetweentheinsolubilityoftherat'sproblemsandtheinsolubilityofhumanproblems.Dr.Maier'sratsweredriventotheirnervousbreakdownsbyproblemsmorecomplicatedthanwouldnaturallyoccurinarat'senvironment.Buthumanbreakdownsareordinarilycausedbyproblemsthathumanbeingsthemselveshavecreated:problemsofreligiousandethicalbelief;problemsofmoneyandcreditandmortgagesandtrustfundsandstockmarketfluctuations;problemsofman-madecustomandetiquetteandsocialorganizationandlaw.不过，鼠与人的难题的不可解决性之间有一个重要的区别。麦耶博士的鼠遇到的难题比它在自然状态下能遇上的复杂得多，它是被逼迫至神经崩溃的。而人类的神经崩溃一般总是由于人类自己制造的难题所造成：如宗教与道德信仰的问题，金钱、贷款、抵押、托管基金、股市涨跌的问题，人为的习惯、礼节、社会团体和法律的问题，等等。RatscanhardlybeblamedfornotbeingabletosolveproblemssetforthembyDr.Maier;therearelimitstoarat'spowersofabstraction.Buttherearenoknownlimitstothehumancapacitytoabstractandorganizeandmakeuseofabstractions.Hence,ifhumanbeingsfindproblemsinsolublebecauseoffixatedreactions-iftheyarefrustratedbecausetheycanrespondinonlyoneway,regardlessofcontextorcircumstances,tocertainsymbolicallydefinedsituations-theyarefunctioningatlessthanfullhumancapacity.Theycanbesaid,inKorzybski'ssuggestivephrase,tobe"copyinganimals"intheirreactions.WendellJohnsonsummarizedthisideaaptlywhenhesaid,"Toamouse,cheeseischeese;that'swhymousetrapswork."Howdothesefixationsoccurinhumanbeings?不能责怪鼠解决不了麦耶博士为它们设下的难题；因为鼠的抽象能力有限。但人类的抽象能力、组织和利用抽象的能力是无限的。因此，如果人由于固定反应而认为难题不可解决——如果人受挫折只是由于对某些以符号来界定的形势，不论其前因后果或出于环境只能采取一种反应的话——那么，人便没有充分发挥出其全部人的能力。如科尔奇布斯基所说的意味深长的话：此时，人在做出反应这一点上是在“模仿动物”。对此，温德尔·约翰逊有一贴切的归纳：“对鼠而言，奶酪就是奶酪；这就是捕鼠器能捕鼠的原因。”可这种固定反应是如何在人类中发生的呢?SupplementaryReadingInthe1940s,psychologistAbrahamMaslowrecognizedthatworkersperformastheydoinordertosatisfyawidevarietyofneeds.Herealizedthattheseneedswouldhavetobeclassifiedtoexplainmotion.ThemodelheworkedoutiscalledMaslow’sladder.Twoprinciplesunderliethismodel:Ahumanbeingisananimalwithmanyneeds,andonlythoseneedsnotyetfullysatisfiedcauseapersontoact.Whenneedsonalowerlevelaresatisfied,atleastinpart,therungabovebecomesagoalapersonwillstrivetoreach.Withtheseprinciplesinmind,letusnowtakealookateachsetofneedsdepictedinthemodel.Allthebasicdrivesthatsustainlife—food,clothingandshelter—arecalledphysiologicalneeds.Apersonmustsatisfytheseneedsbeforepursuinganyotherobjective.Mostpeople,ofcourse,stronglydesiremorethantheminimumlevelofsatisfactionrequiredforsurvival:Theywantthreemealsadayinsteadofoneandahouseinsteadofahut.Thephysiologicalneedsarereadilysatisfiedinmodernsocietiesbymoney.Eventhefewpenniesearnedbynineteenth-centurylaborerswerestrongmotivationtopeoplewhohadnoteatenforseveraldays.Theywouldsufferalmostanyabusetocollectthemandliveanotherday.Peoplehaveastrongdesiretofeelprotected.Usuallythismeansprotectionagainstlossofthephysicalnecessities,theideaofcushionagainstmisfortune.Oncemore,moneywilleffectivelysatisfythislevelofneed.Eventodayfewpeolesucceedinearningenoughmoneytofeelcompletelysecure.Thisiswhytheclassicaltheoryofmotivationheldonsolong.Businessnowdoesareasonablygoodjobofmeetingtheworker’sdemandsforsafety.Wagesarehighenoughtoallowmostworkerstosaveforarainyday.Guaranteedjobsecurity,pensionplans,healthinsurance,lifeinsurance,andemployercontributionstoSocialSecurityareallexamplesofdirectsatisfactionofsafetyneeds.Humansaresocialanimals.Theirdesirestoassociatewithothersandtobelovedbyothersarenearlyasstrongastheirwilltosurvive.Indeed,evenwhentheneedforsafetyisnottotallysatisfied,peoplebeginfeelingsocialneeds.Thisisthefirstlevelofneedsthatmoneycannotreadilysatisfy.AstheHawthorneStudiesclearlyshowed,workers’desiretobeacceptedbyco-workerscouldmotivatethemmorestronglythanthedesiretoearnmoremoney.Furthermore,workersneednoimpetusfrommanagementtoseeksatisfactionoftheirsocialneeds.Itisthisdrivethatgivesrisetotheinformalorganization.Peopleneedtofeelself-esteem,asenseofpersonalworthderivedfromtheircompetence,achievement,orindependence.Theyalsoneedtherespectofothers,arespectbasedonarecognitionoftheircompetenceratherthanonfriendship(asocialneed).Theneedforesteemiscloselytiedtotheideaofstatus.Statusisone’srankincomparisonwithothersinthesamesocialgroup.Apersonwithhighstatusisonewhoiswellregardedbyfriendsandassociates.Severalfactorscangiveapersonhighstatusinsociety.Theseincludewealth,socialstanding,advancededucation,andaprestigiousoccupation.WeareallfamiliarwithstatussymbolssuchasaCadillacoramansion.Sincethesefamiliarsymbolsofstatusallcostmoney,itiscommontomistakeastrivingforstatusasadrivetoaccumulatewealth.Whileearningamilliondollarsmayindeedbestowstatusonanindividual,apersonmotivatedbyesteemneedsseeksthestatus,notthemoney.Peopleinbusinessoftenseeksatisfactionoftheiresteemneedsbypursuingapromotion.Tosomeindividuals,thestatusconferredbythetitle“vice-president”ismoreimportantthanthesalarythatalsocomeswiththejob.Ofcourse,peoplealsomanifesttheneedforesteemwhentheyseekoneoftheoccupationsthatoursocietyholdsinhighesteem,suchasphysician,writer,artist,actor,universityprofessor,lawyer,ormusician.Maslowdefinedtheneedforself-realizationas"thedesiretobecomemorewhatoneis,tobecomeeverythingoneiscapableof".Apersonwhooperatesonthislevelusuallyviewsworkassomethingtobedoneinordertofeelcompleteasapersontofulfillapersonalphilosophy.Itisahigherlevelneedthantheoneforesteembecausethepersoninvolvedalreadyfeelsthatheorhisworkisworthwhileandrespected.Suchpeoplefindtheirworkintrinsicallyinterestingandsatisfying.Relativelyfewpeopleeverreachthestagewheretheyaredominatedbytheneedforself-realization.ThereisatendencytothinkthatonlyaSchweitzeroranEinsteinisinthisposition.Maslowfelt,however,thateveryoneiscapableoffeelingthisneedtosomedegree.Maslow'sladderisaconvenientwaytoclassifyhumanneeds.Butifyouseeitasasimplestepatatimeprocedure,youmakeaseriousmistake.Itisnotnecessaryforapersontosatisfyeachlevelofneedcompletelybeforebeingmotivatedbyahigherlevel.Inoursociety,themajorityofpeoplehavereachedatleastthefourthrungofneeds.Thus,inreallifenearlyallneedsareinteractingwithintheindividual.Inotherwords,allfiveneedlevelsoperateinanindividualatonce,andhewillactivelystrivetoimprovehispositiononallfiverungssimultaneously.Thereisanotherfactortobeconsideredasneedsworkoutinreallife.Aspeoplepartiallysatisfyeachneed,theytendtorequiremoreofitforfullsatisfaction.Thisisknownasthephenomenonofrisingexpectations.Itpartiallyexplainswhyworkerstodayareunhappywiththeirearningseventhoughearningshaveneverbeenhigher.Astarvingfactoryworkerofthe1800swasoverjoyedtoearnenoughtobuyanextrapotato.Afactoryworkertodaybecomesangryifhecannotaffordsteak.