基础英语写作(三)ppt课件

PartThreeTheParagraph精选Aparagraphisaunitofthought;itisatonceaunityinitselfandpartofalargerwhole,thatis,theessay.Aparagraphislikeamini-essay;itshouldbeunified,coherentandwelldeveloped.精选Aparagraphisunifiedwhenallthesentencesintheparagrapharefocusedononecentralthoughtoronasingletopic;whenthewriterwishestointroduceanewthoughtortopic,heshouldbeginanewparagraph.Aparagraphiscoherentwhenitdevelopsnaturallyandsmoothly,andonesentenceleadslogicallytoanother.Therearemanywaystodevelopaparagraph,forexample,byprocess,bycauseandeffect,bycomparisonandcontrast,etc.精选Ⅰ.EffectiveParagraphs1.UnityUnityofaparagraphisconcernedwithitscontent.Ifallthesentencesintheparagraphleadtoonecentraltheme,theparagraphisunified.Thecentralthemeisusuallysummarizedinwhatiscalledthetopicsentence.Itoftenappearsatthebeginningoftheparagraph;however,itmayalsobefoundinthemiddleorattheendofaparagraph.精选Forinstance:I’vedonemyshareofleaningontheirshouldersovertheyears.IneverfelttherewasanythingIcouldn’ttellmyMomandDad,andIamthekindwhohastogetitalloutwhenIhaveaproblem.Overtheyearsthey’vehearditall:thetimeinjuniorhighwhenoneboywasconstantlybuggingme,thetimeinhighschoolwhenIgotcaughtdrinking,thetimeIwreckedtheirVolkswagenRabbit,roughtimeswithmyformerboyfriend,andonandon….精选Exercisesⅰ:Findoutthetopicsentenceofthefollowingparagraph:Therearetwofactorswhichdetermineanindividual’sintelligence.Thefirstisthesortofbrainheisbornwith.Humanbrainsdifferconsiderably,somebeingmorecapablethanothers.Butnomatterhowgoodabrainhehastobeginwith,anindividualwillhavealoworderofintelligenceunlesshehasopportunitiestolearn.精选Sothesecondfactoriswhathappenstotheindividual—thesortofenvironmentinwhichheisbroughtup.Ifanindividualisinpoorenvironment,itislikelythathisbrainwillfailtodevelopandhewillneverattainthelevelofintelligenceofwhichheiscapable.精选Exercisesⅱ.Crossoutthesentencethatisnotconnectedtothetopicofthisparagraph:Booksareplacedonthelibraryshelvesinnumericalorder.Inotherwords,allthebooksononesubjectareputtogetherunderthesamenumber;forexample,allbooksonUnitedStateshistoryarenumbered973,andareplacedtogetheronthe973shelforshelves.Ofcourse,suchbooksareborrowedmostlybystudentswholearnhistory.精选2.CoherenceCoherenceofaparagraphisconcernedwithitsform,oritsorganization.Thesentencesinaparagraphshouldbearrangedinaclear,logicalorder,andthetransitionsshouldbesmoothandnatural.Asaresult,thereaderfindsiteasytofollowthewriter’strainofthoughtandunderstandwhatheistalkingabout.精选Forinstance:Thereissomefeelingnowadaysthatreadingisnotasnecessaryasitoncewas.Radioandespeciallytelevisionhavetakenoverfunctionsonceservedbypaintingandothergraphicarts.Admittedly,televisionservessomeofthesefunctionsextremelywell;thevisualcommunicationofnewsevents,forexample,hasenormousimpact.精选Theabilityofradiotogiveusinformationwhileweareengagedindoingotherthings—forinstance,drivingacar—isremarkable,andagreatsavingoftime.Butitmaybeseriouslyquestionedwhethertheadventofmoderncommunicationsmediahasmuchenhancedourunderstandingoftheworldinwhichwelive.精选Exerciseⅲ:Listedbelowareacontrollingideaandninesentencesthatdevelopthecontrollingidea.Renumberthesentencestoarrangetheminwhatyouthinkisthebestorder;thencomposeaparagraph,usingthecontrollingideaasyourfirstsentence.精选Thecontrollingidea:SinceIbeganlivinginanapartmentandgoingtoschool,mybiggestproblemhasbeenthehousework.精选a）Cookingmyfoodisabiggerproblem.b）Theworstproblemisdoingmylaundry.c）Cleaningtheapartmentisnottoobad;althoughittakestimeawayfrommystudies;atleastwhenIfinishtheapartmentlooksnice.精选d）Sometimesthefoodisburned,sometimesitisnotcookedenough,andsometimesIhavenotmeasuredcorrectly,sothefoodtastesterrible.e）ShoppingformyfoodismoredifficultbecauseIdon’tknowtheEnglishnamesofmanyfoods,andoftenIhavetospendextratimeaskingforhelp.f）TheLaundromatisfarfrommyapartment,andIwastemuchvaluabletime.精选g）Ihaveneverhadtocookbefore,andusuallytheresultsarediscouraging.h）MostlyIamembarrassedasIsitintheLaundromatwithallthewomen,andsoIwaituntilallmyclothesaredirtybeforeIdothisterribletask.i）Ialsohavetroublewiththecomplicatedinstructions,sooccasionallyIendupwithpinksocksorashirtthatistoosmall.精选3.TransitionCoherencemaynotbeperfectevenifthewriterarrangeshissentencesinaclear,logicalorder.Hehastousegoodtransitionssothatonesentencerunssmoothlytoanother.精选Thefollowingwaysmayhelpthewritertoproduceafluentparagraph:A)Usingparallelstructures;B)Repeatingwordsorwordsgroups;C)Usingpronounstorefertonounsinprecedingsentences;精选D)Beingconsistentinthepersonandnumberofnounsandpronouns,andthetenseofverbs;E)Usingtransitionalexpressions．精选a)Connectivesandtransitionalphrasesforspatialdevelopment:abovebeforemehereontheleftbelowthereinthedistanceontherightnearbynexttoontopofdowncloseto精选b)Connectivesandtransitionalphrasesforchronologicaldevelopment:first,second,etcsooneventuallyinthemeantimethenfinallyafteranintervalnowafterpresentlylateratlast精选c)Connectivesandtransitionalphrasesforanalyticaldevelopment:first,second,etcforthispurposeasaresultfurthermoremoreoverbutconsequentlyotherwiselikewiseforinstanceinadditiononthecontraryinthiscaseontheotherhandthusinconclusiontherefore精选d)Connectivesandtransitionalphrasesforcomparison:anotherfurthermoreequallyimportantbesidesaccordinglyinfactinthesamewayinadditiontosimilarly精选e)Connectivesandtransitionalphrasesforcontrasts:onthecontrarydifferentfromincontrastinspiteofwhereasyet,butnotonly…butalsothis…thattheformer…thelattersome…others…stillothersontheonehand…ontheotherhandthefirst…whereasthesecond精选Exerciseⅳ:Readthefollowingpassagesandidentifythegrammaticalandlexicalcohesivedevicesinthem.Understandingandacceptingthattruehappinesshasnothingtodowithfunisoneofthemostliberatingrealizationswecanevercometo.Itliberatestime:nowwecandevotemorehourstoactivitiesthatcangenuinelyincreaseourhappiness.精选Itliberatesmoney:buyingthatnewcarorthosefancyclothesthatwilldonothingtoincreaseourhappinessnowseemspointless.Itliberatesusfromenvy:wenowunderstandthatallthoserichandglamorouspeopleweweresosurearehappybecausetheyarealwayshavingsomuchfunactuallymaynotbehappyatall.精选Key: Atleastsixcohesivedevicesareemployedinthispassage.1).  Usepronounstoreplacenounornounphrases.e.g.Understandandacceptingthattruehappinesshasnothingtodowithfun—it; thoserichandglamorouspeople—they.2).Usedeterminers(the,this,that,etc)torefertopreviousnounphrases.  e.g.Thatnewcar;thosefancyclothes;thoserichandglamorouspeople.3).Repeatthekeywords.  e.g.happiness;fun;liberate.精选4).Usesynonymsorwordsofsimilarmeaningtoexpressthesameidea.  e.g.understanding—accepting;  time—hours;realization—understand;  money—buy.5.)userelatedwordforms.  e.g.Liberating—liberated,  happiness—happy;  us—our—we6).useparallelstructures.  e.g.Itliberatedtime…..itliberatedmoney……itliberatedusfromenvy……精选 Exerciseⅵ:Readthefollowingparagraphcarefully.Inserttransitionalexpressionswherenecessary.YankelovichhelpsexplainthedilemmaofAmericanworkers.Mostwanttodotheirbest.Theydonotworkashardastheycould.Theyfeelthatothersreceivethebenefitoftheirhardwork.Yankelovichdoesn’tseethisattitudeasasignofaweakworkethic.精选Hefeelstheattitudetowardworkwouldchangeifworkersmademoreofthedecisionsthataffecttheirwork.ThereisamessageformanagersinYankelovich’sfindings.Managersneedtoallowworkerstoexpresstheirneeds.Theyneedtolistentowhatworkerssay.精选Ⅱ.WaysofDevelopingParagraph1.PlanningaParagraphParagraphsneedtobeplanned.First,thinkofthetopicorthemeofmainidea,andexpressitinacompletesentence(topicsentence).Thenthinkofthedetailsorexamplesorfactsthatmaybeusedtosupportorexplainthemainidea.Arrangetheminlogicalorder,andyouhavearoughplanoftheparagraph.精选2.DevelopmentbyTimeIntellingastoryorrecountinganevent,theeasiestandclearestwayistodescribethingsinorderoftime:earlierthingsarementionedbeforelaterthings,thefirstthingfirstandthelastthinglast.Thismethodisalsocalledchronologicalsequencing.精选Forinstance:MyheartgavealeapwhenIheardtheannouncementthatourtrainwouldsoonarriveatitsdestination—Bejing.Likeotherpassengers,Ibegantocollectmythingsandputmymug,towel,atlas,apples,andotherthingsintomybag.Tothetuneofabeautifulsongthetrainpulledintothestationandgentlystoppedbyaplatform.精选Iwalkedoutofthetrainandwascarriedforwardbythestreamofpeopleintoanundergroundpassageandthenintoabighall.AsIsteppedoutofthestation,IwasdazzledbythebrightautumnskiesofBeijing.ThoughIhadbeenonthetrainformorethanthirtyhoursandspentasleeplessnight,Ididn’tfeeltiredatall,andIbelievedmydaysinBeijingwouldbeassunnyastheskies.精选3.DevelopmentbyProcessWhenyouhavetoexplainhowsomethingisdone,youusuallyfollowachronologicalsequenceandgiveastep-by-stepdescription.Asthestepsmustoccuroneafteranother,theexactorderinwhichtheyarecarriedoutismostimportant.精选Forexample:Onceyouencounterapersonwhohasstoppedbreathing,youshouldbeginimmediatelytodomouth-to-mouthbreathing.First,placethevictimonhisbackandremoveanyforeignmatterfromhismouthwithyourfingers.Thentilthisheadbackwards,sothathischinispointingup.精选Next,pullhismouthopenandhisjawforward,pinchhisnostrilsshuttopreventtheairwhichyoublowintohismouthfromescapingthroughhisnose.Thenplaceyourmouthtightlyoverthevictim’s.Blowintohismouthuntilyouseehischestrise.Thenturnyourheadtothesideandlistenfortheoutrushofairwhichindicatesanairexchange.Repeattheprocess….精选4.DevelopmentbySpaceBeforewebegintodescribeaplace,whetheritisalargecountryorasmallroom,wehavetodecideontheorderinwhichtonamethedifferentpartsordetails.Forthisweshouldfindoutthespacerelationshipsbetweenthemandarrangeourdescriptionaccordingly.Itwouldonlyconfusethereadertomentiontheminahaphazardway.精选Forinstance:Mr.Cook,arenownedAmericanhistorian,arrangesthebooksonhisbookshelvesinauniqueway.Intheupperrighthandcorner,therearebooksaboutthedevelopmentoftheearlycoloniesinNewEnglandandtheWarofIndependence.Rightunderthemcanbefoundbooksontheslavetrade,theplantationsystemandthegrowthofthesouthernstates.精选TheleftsideoftheshelfcontainshundredsofbooksconcerningsubjectsoftheWestwardMovement,Indianculture,thecowboys’contributionstoAmericansocietyandtheGoldRushinCalifornia.Formthedescriptionabove,onecanseethatMr.CookeregardshisbookshelvesasmapoftheU.S.andarrangeshishistorybooksaccordingly.Itisodd,butitisconvenient.精选5.DevelopmentbyExampleorGeneralizationSupportingatopicsentencewithexamplesorillustrationsmakesageneralstatementspecificandeasytounderstand.Anillustrationisacase,aspecimen,aninstance.Vividillustrationlightupabstractideasandmakethemclear,interesting,memorable,orconvincing.精选Ifaparagraphstartswithatopicsentence,thendetailedexamplesorillustrationsaregiventobackuptheopeningstatement,thisisgeneral-to-specificpattern.精选Forinstance:Mylittleniece,aten-monthbaby,isthemostlovelychildIhaveeverseen.Herfaceislikearedappleandhereyesarelikebrightstars.Whenyoucarryherinyourarms,shelikestoputherarmsaroundyourneck.Allthegrownupsinthefamilyloveherverymuchandoftentrytomakehersmile.Butquiteoftenitisshewhomakesuslaugh.OnceIwinkedatherandshesmiled.精选WhenIdiditagain,shewatchedmeattentively.Thenshetriedtoimitate.Whileweclosedoneeyetowink,shehadtoclosebotheyesatthesametime,andthenquicklyopenedthemagain.Andthatwasherwaytowink.Weallburstintolaughter.Whenwelookedatheragain,shewasstaringatus,puzzled,asifshewasasking:“Whatareyoulaughingat?”精选Anotherpossiblearrangementofdetails(orexamples)inaparagraphisfromthespecifictothegeneral.Thedetailsarementionedfirst,andthegeneralstatement,whichmaybethetopicsentence,comesattheendoftheparagraph,summarizingthemainideaoftheparagraph.精选Forexample:Whetheryoudoordonotopenagiftinthepresenceofthegiver;whetheryoushouldorshouldnotturntheplateovertolookatthemaker’ssymbolontheback;whetheryoueatasquietlyorasnoisilyaspossible;whetheryoucarryonaconversationduringameal;whetheryouwalkinfrontoforbehindaseatedperson;精选whetheritisafriendlyoranoffensivegesturetoputyourhandonthearmsofthepersonwithwhomyouaretalking–theseandathousandotherquestionsaremattersofculturaldefinition.Noneoftheminherentlyrightorwrong,andnoneisgoodorbadmannersexceptassocietydefinesitso.精选6.DevelopmentbyComparisonandContrastThemethodofcomparisonandcontrastisoftenused.WecomparethepresentandthepastofChina,theculturesoftheeastandwest,ChineseandEnglish.Bycomparisonandcontrastingwemaygetaclearerpictureofthings.精选Strictlyspeaking,acomparisonpointsoutthesimilaritiesbetweentwoormorepersonsorthingsofthesameclass,whileacontrast,thedifferencesbetweenthem.Inpractice,however,comparisonandcontrastoftenappeartogether,becausepeoplegenerallycomparetwothingsthataresimilarincertainwaysanddifferentinothers.精选Forinstance:Someolepeopleareoppressedbythefearofdeath…Thebestwaytoovercomeit—soatleastitseemstome—istomakeyourinterestsgraduallywiderandmoreimpersonal,untilbitbybitthewallsoftheegorecede,andyourlifebecomesincreasinglyemergedintheuniversallife.Anindividualhumanexistenceshouldbelikeariver—smallatfirst,narrowlycontainedwithinitsbanks,andrushingpassionatelypastrocksandoverwaterfalls.精选Graduallytherivergrowswider,thebanksrecede,thewatersflowmorequietlyandintheend,withoutanyvisiblebreak,theybecomemergedinthesea,andpainlesslylosetheirindividualbeing.Themanwho,inoldage,canseehislifeinthisway,willnotsufferfromthefearofdeath,sincethethingshecaresforwillcontinue….(BertrandRussell)精选7.DevelopmentbyCauseandEffectInourdailyconversation,questionswithwhyareoftenaskedandanswered.Thisshowsthatcausalanalysisisverycommon;itissomethingwearefamiliarwith.精选Therearetwobasicwaysoforganizingparagraphsdevelopedbycauseandeffect.Thefirstmethodistostateaneffectanddevotetherestoftheparagraphtoexaminingthecause.精选Forinstance:thetopicsentenceis:“Inthepastfewyears,highereducationhasbecomelessimportanttoyoungpeoplethanitwaspreviously.”Thisisaneffect.Itshouldbefollowedbyadiscussionofthecausesofthiseffect,suchas“thepressureoffiercecompetition,betteropportunitiesinthejobmarket,muchoftheknowledgetaughtinuniversitiesandcollegesbeingout-dated”,andsoforth.精选Thesecondmethodistostateacauseandthenmentionorpredicttheeffects.Supposethetopicsentenceis:“MoreandmorefertilelandinChinaistakenupbynewbuildings.”Intherestoftheparagraphtheeffectsofthisdevelopmentshouldbementioned,suchas“thereductionofthegrainoutput,increasingenvironmentalproblems,toomanypeasantsmovingintothecities”,etc.精选8.DevelopmentbyClassificationToclassifyistosortthingsintocategoriesaccordingtotheircharacteristics.Weclassifymanythings:trees,rivers,cities,companies,collegestudents.Wegroupthingsaccordingtotheirsimilaritiesanddifferences.精选Parallelismisessentialtoagoodclassification.Forexample,ifweclassifytypesofsports,wemayspeakoftrackadfieldevents,swimming,ballgames,gymnastics,etc.ifweclassifysportsintojumping,ballgames,running,floorexerciseandbackstroke,wewouldviolateparallelism,forballgamesshouldbeconsideredageneralcategory,精选whilejumpingandrunningaresubcategoriesofthetrackandfieldevents;gymnasticsisageneralcategory,andfloorexerciseaparticularformofit.Inshort,inagoodclassificationthepartsmustbeparallel,andtheyshouldadduptothewhole.精选Forinstance:Therearethreekindsofbookowners.Thefirsthasallthestandardsetsandbest-sellers—unread,untouched.Thisdeludedindividualownswoodpulpandink,notbooks.Thesecondhasagreatmanybooks—afewofthemreadthrough,mostofthemdippedinto,butallofthemascleanasshinyasthedaytheywerebought.精选Thispersonwouldprobablyliketomakebookshisown,butisrestrainedbyafalserespectfortheirphysicalappearance.Thethirdhasafewbooksormany—everyoneofthemdog-earedanddilapidated,shakenandloosenedbycontinualuse,markedandscribbledinfromfronttoback.(MortimerJ.Adler)精选9.DevelopmentbyDefinitionSometimes,toavoidconfusionormisunderstanding,wehavetodefineaword,term,orconceptwhichisunfamiliartomostreadersoropentovariousinterpretations.Therearethreebasicwaystodefineawordorterm:a)togiveasynonym;b)touseasentence(oftenwithanattributiveclause),andc)towriteaparagraphorevenanessay.精选Forinstance:tomendmeanstorepairafellowisamanoraboy.Inkiscoloredwaterwhichweuseforwriting.精选Butasynonymorasentencecannotgiveasatisfactorydefinitionofanabstracttermwhosemeaningiscomplex.精选Wehavetowriteaparagraphoranessaywithexamplesornegativeexamples(whatthetermdoesnotmean),comparisons,withclassificationorcause-and-effectanalysis.精选Forinstance:A“liberatedwoman”issimplyawomanwhocontrolsherownlife,ratherthanallowingittobecontrolledbyotherpeople,traditions,orexpectations.A“liberatedwoman”canbefoundpursuinganylineofwork,includinghousework,ornoworkatall.Shemayormaynotbemarried;shemayormaynothavebornechildren.精选Shemaybelongtoanyrace;shemayhaveattainedanyage.Shemaybepoororwealthy,educatedorilliterate.Sheneedhaveonlyonetraitincommonwithher“liberatedsisters”:shemakesherownchoices,whethertheybethecolorsonherwallsoradvanceddegreessheseeks.Sheactsofherownvolition,responsibletoherself,andnotoutoffearofwhathermother,lover,orneighbormightsay.(KlarnerW.Harp)精选10.DevelopmentbyaCombinationofMethodsWehavediscussedquiteafewmethodsfordevelopingparagraphs.Sometimesonlyoneofthemisusedinaparagraph,butoftentwoorthreeofthemareusedinthesameparagraph.Writersmayfinditnecessarytouseacombinationofmethodsinordertopresenttheirideasinanimpressiveandconvincingmanner.精选Forinstance:AsfarbackasIcanremember,Ihaveoftencomeclosetoseriousinjuryordeath.WhenIwassixyearsold,Inarrowlyescapeddeathforthefirsttime.Iwasthenillwithsomerespiratoryailmentforwhichthesimplestcurewassulfa.Thedoctor,havingnoknowledgethatIwasallergictothedrug,prescribedsulfatablets.Shortlyaftergivingmeapill,mymotherreturnedfromworktofindmegaspingforbreath.Shecalledthedoctorwhohurriedbacktomyhome.Hesavedmylifebyadministeringoxygen.精选Notlongafterthataccident,Iswallowedachickenbonewhichbecamelodgedinmythroat.Iwasrushedtothehospitalemergencywardintimetosavemylife.WhenIwaseleven,Iwasbittenbyadog.AsIlookback,Irecalledthatthewoundwasnotaspainfulastheseriesofshotswhichfollowed.Now,havingallthesenarrowescapesbehindme,Iconsidermyselffortunatetobealivetoday.精选Exerciseⅶ:Intheblankbeforeeachofthefollowingsentences,writeGifitisastatementofGeneralizationorCifitisastatementofClassification.A)Democracyisastateofmind.B)Somesportsrequireashighadegreeofeye-mind-handcoordinationasbrainsurgery.C)Gamblersfallintoseveralclasses,dependinguponwhattheirstakesare.精选D)ManyaspectsoftheAmericancharactercanbeattributedtotheAmericanfrontier.E)Awildstallionispowerfulandfierce.F)Everyonehasthreekindsof“friends”hewantstoforget.精选Exerciseⅷ:definethefollowingfromyourownexperienceorobservationintheformofsentences.A)　TheChinesesaying“showoffone’sskillwithanaxbeforeLuBan”.Ｂ）superstitionＣ）optimismＤ）feminism精选Writing:Writeparagraphsusingthefollowingasthetopicsentences.(1)IrememberthedaywhenIcametothisuniversity.(2)IfIcouldchoose,Iwouldmajorin…精选ThecontentswehavelearnedaremainlybasedonthebookAHandbookofWriting(P.9~~P.143).丁往道吴冰主编，外语教学与研究出版社Thankyouforyourtimeandcooperation!Goodbye!精选