论美国西进运动的影响

An Analysis of the Two-Edged Factors in American Westward Movement Abstract American Westward Movement in 19th century, in fact, is a large-scale advancement of American economy exploitation and a territorial expansion. It plays a vital role i n the formation, the development and the present situation of the United States of America. Particularly, Westward Movement has seeped into this young nationality on its cultural influence. However, at the same time Westward Movement is also the I ndians? tragic history. Is Westward Movement civilized or barbaric, successful or not? To answer these questions this thesis mainly analyzes American Westward Moveme nt from a historical angle to help us to recognize American culture and history. For this purpose, this thesis di scusses Westward Movement?s influences on American ec onomy, its national characteristic and the formation of its values. Also, the writer re flects its dark side in the thesis. Key Words Westward Movement; national character; pioneer; Indian culture . 摘要 19世纪的美国“西进运动”实际上是美国经济与领土扩张的一次大规模进程。它对于美利坚民族的形成、发展与现状都起了重要的作用。尤其是它对美国的文化影响,更是渗透进了这个年轻的民族。然而,“西进运动”同时也是印地安人民的血泪史!美国“西进运动”是文明还是野蛮、是成功还是失败?带着这些问题本文主要通过对美国“西进运动”的历史辩证地分析,以达到深刻了解、分析美国文化历史,并正确认识和看待美国文化历史。基于这一目的,本文主要探讨“西进运动”对于美国经济推动、民族性格、价值观的形成等积极影响,并真实地反映其阴暗面,正确看待历史,做到一分为二地分析问题。 关键词 西进运动;民族性格;拓荒者;印第安文化 Introduction American Westward Movement in the 19th century was the process of economy exp loitation and territory expansion waged by the Americans from Appalachian Mountain s to the west from the end of 18th century to the end of 19th century. It lasted a bout one hundred years, and American territory was expanded from the 13 colonies at the coast of the Atlantic Ocean in the Independence War to the vast area-the s hore of the Pacific Ocean. This movement was a space and time-spanning, large-sca le, and far-reaching social migrant. “Till now, to a certain extent, the history of Am erica can be said that it is a history of colonizing.” [1] (P136) The first period of W estward Movement was from the American War of Independence to the period of t he Civil War. During this period, it mainly developed agriculture. The west land was very important for USA after its independence. But for Westward Movement, there would be no today?s America. By expanding the nation?s borders t o include more than three million square miles, the United States became one of the most powerful nations of the 20th century. Fir stly, capitalistic agriculture grew up, and then animal husbandry, commerce, mining, and industry were following up. At last, it existed a situation in which agriculture a nd animal husbandry developed at the same time, industry and agriculture promote d each other, transportation and commerce trade progressed overall. However, this expansion also resulted in great suffering, destruction, and cultural lo ss for the Native Americans of North America. Is Westward Movement barbaric or ci vilized? The answer is not absolute. Karl Max materialism holds that every thing has two sides. We should make a concrete and historical analysis. In Westward Movem ent, we speak of not only its civilization but its barbarity. Under the whites? bullet a nd natural acute disease, those survival Indian tribes have suffered so-called genoci de and culture extinction. The two opposite and related sides of Westward Moveme nt are composed of the main melody of the development of America in 19th centur y. I. The Positive Contributions of American Westward Movement As the first independent capitalism country of the mainland of America, the birth of the new USA symbolized the tremendous leap in American history. Newly independ ent America drew on the policy of western aggrandizement. On one hand, thousand s upon thousand immigrants moved from east to west. On the other hand, the who le country changed from an agriculture country to an industrial country. Finally it he lped to bring about a birth of modern USA. During Westward Movement, the government laid out a series of policies, such as i mmigrant policy and capital investment. Between 1820~1860,about five million imm igrants came into USA, it provided adequate labors. Furthermore, the Homestead Ac t of 1862 was the important legislative act of 19th century. The land policy of Ame rican government at that moment provided institution and policy guarantee for peas ants to get the soils and develop agriculture. Therefore, it promoted the westward exploitation, and also spurred USA to a great agriculture country rapidly. During 181 5-1840, government invested 125 million dollars to every state for building 3000 mil es? canal. This period American transportation got a big boost. For another, there w ere policies of fostering development of education, attracting more foreign investme nt, perfect manpower, environmental protection and so the like. [2] (P365-412) Und er these effective strategies, American people constantly opened up. This westward movement, across what was often called the American frontier, was of enormous si gnificance. They not only contributed to the expansion of American territory, influen ce on American politics,but also formed American characters. At last, the frontier l ife in Westward Movement brought plentiful source material to American culture and art in the future. A. Promoting American Economic Development Western exploitation utterly changed American appearance: large quantities of barre n lands were reclaimed; a lot of capital farms were set up; the development of agri culture in west provided a large amount of food, material and domestic market on i ndustrial development; nature recourses were opened up to develop industries. Furt hermore, trade and transportation had got new leaps……A well-known British statisti cians Parker said in the book of the Secret of American Economic Success: “The United States is in an especially outstanding natural environment. She can enjoy the commercial marine. The Easters Ports are open to the busiest Europe. The United States is leading the development of the world. ” [3] (P23) The economists Falkland of the U.S. Economy School said: “No other county in the history like Americ a has such abundant resources. As one of the large industrial countries, America must ha ve a large number of important minerals. Westward Movement stimulates creativity and economic vitality of the United States. It is enhancing the Comprehensive natio nal strength and international status in the United States. It is paving the way of t he economy of the United States.” [1] (P142). However, recalling the history of the developing process of the United States, the fi rst 13 British colonies before independence had only a small place from Appalachian Mountains to the east of the Atlantic coastal strip. The outstanding nature conditio ns were mainly brought for the expansion nearly 100-year-westward movement. It i s easy for us to get achievements Westward Movement created and fostered the sit uation of America. B. Shaping American Characteristics Western unique survival requirement formed important attribute which molded the A merican nationality disposition and the values, and it also planted the spirit and the dream of the American. [4] (P136) The frontier experience encouraged the develo pment of certain "American" characteristics. Frontiers were isolated places, and so pi oneers had to make many items they might otherwise have traded for or bought. T hey built their own houses and barns and produced their own food. They made the ir own candles, clothing, furniture, pots, tools, and other necessities. As jacks of all trades, pioneers became inventive and self-reliant. In addition, frontiers offered opp ortunities for success to those who worked hard. As a result, pioneers tended to be optimistic about the future and concerned with material wealth. Boastfulness and s elf-confidence emerged as frontier traits as well. 1. The Continuous Migration and Exploitation Westward Movement ran through the time of free capitalism. It was a mass particip ation movement for exploiting the west, which carried out as individual, family or c ollective. In this campaign, millions of the labor masses endured hardship in pioneer work, they had created enormous material and spiritual wealth. The pioneers only took along the most important living necessaries, such as seeds, farm implements, guns, corns, domestic animals and the like. They struggled westward across hills, m ountains, and prairies on foot and on horseback. Some floated through the Erie Can al on barges or traveled down rivers on flatboats and steamboats. Others crossed t he rugged wilderness in covered wagons. Men brought their wives and children alon g, and undertake heavy tasks. Women gathered firewood and collected manure to c ook food. However the food they took along could not hold out till the destination. Consequently, edible wild herbs and wild fruits became their supplementary food. Th ey experienced the simple and crude board and lodging conditions, unpredicted wea ther, the dangerous shoal, cliff and precipice, bandits and cholera, dysentery disease. All of these made them tired out, be down with illness, and even lost their lives. Nevertheless, yearning for a better and brighter future, they put all eggs in one ba sket and conquer all obstacles for striding towards the west. For many pioneers, th e Cumberland Gap, the Oregon Trail, and other roads west became paths to opport unity, and it opened wide for the most courageous and the most decisive person. A ll of these affect and mold Americans? characters. Its tremendous influences even ra diate today?s Americans. Thus they are not satisfied with the existing state perpetua lly, and seek their beautiful dreams constantly. So someone calls America “a nation founding on the wheels”. 2. Affection for the Work After the early pioneers arrived in the west land, firstly, they looked for the most f avorite land. Having settled down, they set out to build their own homeland. They drew on the local resources, and built shabby houses for their earlier living places. Owning to the vastness of the west, they lived rather scattered one another. So th e creation of new life was very difficult. Most men had two jobs as peasants and h unters. They planted grain and vegetables, and fed cattle and pigs. They also went to the countryside for hunting. With the time passed, those diligent and engrave f armers sold their running smoothly land to the new pioneers at a higher price. The n, the whole family left and sought for another cheaper land towards the west, loo king for their new dream. For a strong and healthy man, the fertile land of the we st was like a battlefield fighting as his own will. Therefore, in their opinion it was n ot astonished to build up from nothing. At that moment, their success mostly depen ded on their own endeavor. Under this background, naturally, people didn?t consider that the properties inherited from the background of their families were important; they valued achievements gained by their own efforts highly. For this reason, all A merican people made their efforts in their work. A great number of Americans take delight in doing the job 3. Individualism The vast field of west and the cultural difference provided an opportunity for develo pment of individualism. It was not necessary for pioneers to need any concept, whi ch had nothing to do with the urgent mission. The psychosis problems originated fr om the struggle against every force of the material world. The wilderness really exi sts and it must be conquered. Therefore, the character formed under such condition was strong, rough and sometimes heroic. At that moment, personality was one kin d of reality because it had to correspond with circumstances. [5] (P92) The main in terpersonal relationships that people had to face was competition. Although there sti ll was mutual aid and cooperation, and charitable behaviors, fierce competition was still main aspect. Then, the individualism had grown, and gradually it developed into one political and social philosophy viewpoint of the west. It pays much attention to freedom, and comprehensively emphasizes self-budgeting and self-controlling, which is not subjected to outside restrain. This kind of viewpoint thinks all values should be centered by selfhood. Each person is equal on morality and justice. Meanwhile, we take this opportunity to understand some modern life characters of Americans: t he typical intransigency, impetuosity, irritability and haste. Those personalities are ju st one associated goods under the certain circumstances. [5] (P73). 4. Pragmatism Under the given condition of Westward Movement, and the competition of the so ciety has fostered American people?s pragmatism. They all believed the idea “surviva l of the fittest”. Owning to the nature a nd social distinguishing feature, the pioneers must do everything in accordance with the social condition. Therefore, in that age, Americans may shake off the traditional yoke of the feudal moral, ethical code. Th ey firstly made great efforts to live, and met the needs of the people by working h ard. Finally, they used this way to achieve the goal.[6] (P49) The pragmatism impro ved and prevailed in Westward Movement at the beginning of 19th century. The A mericans gradually formed the idea in accordance with the experience of adventure, and they also stressed the plasticity of living and greatly developed the function of experience. The pioneers i n Westward Movement continuously told their descendants about the fact and self-s triving history. C. Providing Plentiful Sources for American Culture and Art Westward Movement has played a premier role in popular culture. Westerns and th e stories about their life on the frontier have been popular in the United States and throughout the world. The exploits and adversities of those who moved west, from mountain men and cowboys to women homesteaders and cavalrymen, have been t he subject of countless novels, poems, paintings, films, and television programs. [6] (P50) Frontier figures such as Daniel Boone, Buffalo Bill Cody, and Kit Carson, as well as Native Americans such as Tecumseh, Sitting Bull, and Geronimo, have beco me heroes in literature and art. Modern political leaders, from Theodore Roosevelt t o John F. Kennedy, have evoked frontier images in reference to themselves and the ir ideas. Both as myth and reality, Westward Movement continues to be a part of n ational life. On literature, it mainly reflects capitalist flourishing in the first half of 19th century and capitalist outlook of ascending age. It stresses the romanticism. It usually depic ts immigrants? daily life and the state of mind in a humor and fantasy style, and th e authors often highlight life o f American and natural scenery in the age of capitalis t society in romanticism style. Thus it starts to really own the literary trends of Am erican native country. Walter Whitman was known as federal poet laureate. His poet was historic significance and culture sediment. In his book, You, One's Own Mothe r, he gave Americans warmest praises because he recognized the openin g spirit, vig or, enterprising spirit, and imagination existed in that age. Westward Movement exp anded its territory from the coast of the Atlantic Ocean to the coast Pacific Ocean, doubled American land. And the population increased sharply. Its capitalist economy developed swiftly; agriculture all matter was allocated by form of arrived democrac y, the development of transportation had reached a climax; many new cities sprang up. The development of urbanization sped up and city plan developed at a hig h sp eed. At last, this small confederation ever resided in a narrow land has become a g reat proud country. Westward Movement produced a kind of humanity influence. It affected and created this young nation. Ⅱ. The Negative Influence of American Westward Movement However, this expansion also resulted in great suffering, destruction, and cultural los s for the Native Americans of North America. Westward Movement was the foundati on of the modern civilization. It was also a civilization trampling on other civilization s. A. The Painful Experience of the Indians Dozens of Native American tribes lived in the west, supporting themselves with man y different economies. Tribes on the Great Plains, like the Arapaho and Sioux, were hunters and gatherers who depended on vast herds of bison. Most tribes in the So uthwest, like the Pueblos, Hopis, and Navajos, were hunters and farmers. In the Pa cific Northwest, tribes like the Nez Perce were traders and fishermen who relied on rivers rich with salmon. Westward expansion depleted resources and damaged the e nvironment, thus destroying the Native Americans? ability to support themselves. In addition, the pioneers carried diseases that killed thousands of Native Americans. 1. The Indians? Suffering in the Past The sad history of the Indians had just lasted for the short span of about 200 year s since they were expunged from their lands. Ravaged by the whites? diseases and driven by hunger, the Indians severely defended against the ever growing white set tlers. Thrown forcibly out of their lands, the Indians migrated the west further. Slav ery had been in Georgia since 1749. By 1835 all inhabitants looked like the Indians in Georgia were completely driven out. According to the census in 1860, the popul ation of Georgia was comprised of 45 percent slaves. Some Native Americans resisted the influx of white settlers militarily. The most famo us conflicts took place on the Great Plains, where the Sioux, Cheyennes, Comanches, Kiowas, and others fought the U.S. Army in several campaigns between 1855 and 1877. Native Americans won some dramatic victories, including the defeat of George Custer on Montana?s Little Bighorn River in 1876, but they were ultimately defeate d and confined to reservations. In 1877 the Nez Perce fought a running campaign i n an unsuccessful attempt to escape to Canada. Southwestern Apache peoples, with their most famous leader, Geronimo, resisted occupation of their country until 1886. On the whole, however, military conflict was not the force that destroyed the Nati ve American culture of independence; it was the volume of white settlers taking ov er Native American land and the ways in which these settlers transformed the west. Under scores of treaties Native Americans were assigned to reservations and given government support that was rarely adequate. Government policy tried to assimilate the tribes into white society by suppressing native culture and trying to convert Na tive Americans to white customs. So the relationship between American Indian and the Federal government is full of violence, hypocrite and failure of keeping promise. The Dawes Act of 1887 aimed to end reservations and diminish the importance of the tribe by allotting reservation lands to individual tribal members. Between 1887 a nd 1934, dozens of reservations were eliminated, and Native American lands were r educed from 150 million acres to 48 million acres. America exterminated Indians an d theft their lands. The Indian fighter firmly grasped the right to speak out their pa st destiny. "It was ultimately beneficial and it was inevitable". Roosevelt once said, "I don…t think that only dead Indians are good Indians,, but I believe nine out of te n good Indians are dead, and I shouldn?t like to inquire too closely into the case of the tenth". [7] (P46-47) 2. The Destiny of the Indians Having Never Been Changed The American Indians and their culture go to the distressing abyss of being extinct. However, they still live a poor life nowadays. In 1924, American government admit ted Indians as American citizen by the law. But poverty, misery condition and being rejected remain the main features of American Indians today. There were about 19 million living in America in 1991. About 800,000 American Indians are living under poverty line. Today, less than 1% American Indians own their private land. In terms of education, for a long time American Indian students have been excl uded from American main universities for various reasons such as poverty, over-drin king, suicide as well as the language and the geographic barriers. American Indian students have a high rate of discontinuing study. Only 15% of them continue to re ceive the intermediate education, and few of them can get a degree. It can?t be de nied that, the tribe leaders have set up several institutions to help their nation unit e to preserve native culture and enhance tribe competence. Thus, they can get rid of the destiny of being fringed through education. But the tribe institutions account no more than 1% of the American secondary school, which can only meet 18% of all to receive higher education. On the basis of these facts, we can conclude that t he American government neither pays any attention to the Indian nation nor has th e Indian?s condition improved. B. Indian Religion Being Kept in Bondage Before the invasion of colonists, the Northern American Indians mainly believe in pri mitive religions, among which shamanism is their principal belief. Shaman is a perso n who is able to contact and dispatch the elves. As one of the main Indian tribes, Iroquois not only believed in Shamanism, but also worship agricultural products such as corns, beans and pumpkins, which are addressed “Three sisters”, “Our lives” an d “Our mothers”. [8] (P37) Having been living on the prairies, Indians worship the sun more than anything else. All kinds of rituals, dances, mythologies have created to show t heir worship for the sun. [8] (P39) In a word, Indian religious belief is full of myst eries. Today only pants of the rituals and activities are kept. Many details are nowh ere to be found due to ruthless wars. Before westward expansion, Indians had esta blished their own Polytheism. But their religious beliefs had been assimilated unprec edentedly by the thoughts of the whites during Westward Movement. This led to a large number of Indians to be Christians. Therefore, when white Americans celebrate the “Thanksgiving Day”, and when Holly wood stars are invited into Portsmouth to shoot the scenes again every year that h ow the European Puritanism landed on this land in those years, groups of Indian pr otestors are certain to put up a protest movement condemning what the white Ame ricans have done in the past such as their invasion to American Continent, the ethn ic cleaning and forcing Indians to change their own religious belief. The protesters r emind people that it is European emigrants who have brought all the hardness and sufferings upon them. American dream is nothing but a nightmare. What?s more, t hey address the “Thanksgiving Day” as their “Mourning Day”. C. The Beautiful and Rich Land Becoming a Scene of Desolated Ruins American Continent where the Indians once lived was a farm land. Also it was a br oad, prosperous world. The prairies extended as far widely: stout calf, tens of thous ands of deer, onyxes beavers. All these on the land formed a picturesque and flouri shing view. The virgin land was badly destroyed and became severely infertile with the cruel modern industrial expansion towards the west of America. 1. The Number of Buffalos Having Been Extinct In 1864, Sherman brothers lead separately to attack against Indians. Grant, the her o in Civil War and later president of America, even threatened that genocide of Indi ans would be necessary. The American military forced Indians to surrender by encir cling and suppressing their main food and cutting food origin. Then, Indians who w ere encircled only fed on buffalos. Therefore, in 1880, the number of buffalos in No rth America had plunged down to less than ten thousand and nearly extinct. 2. New Approach to Crop Cultivation Exhausting the Soil Native Americans had farmed this region for a long time, but white pioneers brough t a new kind of agriculture. While Native Americans had cultivated several crops on a single plot of land, the new immigrants dedicated one piece of land to a single crop, usually corn and later wheat and other grains. Pioneers also tried to produce as much as possible, since eventually they hoped both to provide for themselves an d to sell their crops in faraway eastern markets. This approach to crop cultivation e xhausted the soil much more quickly than Native American farming, and it created a demand for more and more land where settlers could grow crops. The pioneers? use and abuse of their environment pushed the frontier westward. 3. The “Black Storm Event” In the 1930?s, the “Black Storm Event” was also one of the most influential exa mples. The trailblazers brought vast nature prairie where was not suitable for farm l and under cultivation to the farmland planting wheat. As a result, the grasslands? ve getation under the semi-arid weather conditions was badly destroyed and provided c ondition for the sandstorm. The sandstorm on May 12th, 1934 had the largest influ ential area. It covered 2,400 km from north to west, 400 km from south to north. It almost swept over 2/3 territory of the USA. After its sweeping, 3 million tons sur face soil was blown from the west seashore to the north east seashore. Then, the direct consequence was that the outputs of American winter wheat reduced seriousl y, and 5100 million kilograms fewer than the past 10 years. Conclusion American Westward Movement is on the one hand a great history, on the other ha nd a miserable history. The legacy of it is a mixture of great accomplishments and grim tragedies, heroic persistence and terrible errors. American Westward Movement is not only the process of original accumulation of ca pital in the development of capitalism, but the process of promoting extensive explo itation of the west and rapid development of economy. It brings together under a s ingle government and economy the land that makes up the United States today. W estward Movement contributes to the emergence of the wealthiest and most powerf ul nation. The frontier experience also encourages the development of certain "Amer ican" characteristics. This has been achieved, however, by conquering and disposses sing other people, especially to Indians. We regret the Indian destruction greatly. In the past, they had brilliant civilization which shined over the area of North America n. Unfortunately, they lay down silently under the light of museum after American g overnment?s suppressing the way of life of them. The west had produced great wea lth and had supplied enormous resources to others in the nation and the world. Thi s production, however, had often resulted in enormous environmental damage. The pioneers became extremely wasteful because they lived among such plentiful natural resources. Pioneers cut down vast areas of forests, lost large amounts of gold and other minerals in careless mining operations, and exhausted the soil. The two opposite and related sides of Westward Movement are one of the most inf luential forces to shape North American history. American Westward Movement is th e movement of extensive immigrants? understanding and has great influence on Am erican economy, politics and the national spirit. Acknowledgements I am very grateful here to many individuals who helped me a lot in various ways i n the writing of this thesis. I would first express my sincere appreciation to my supervisor, Mr. Jiang Lu, who h as taught me so much in scientific studies and offered me many reference books. I have met so many difficulties when I did this course, and my tutor Mr. Jiang Lu g ave me great help. He also gave me a carefully check for my work. So I am deepl y grateful to him. Next, I want to give lots of thanks to my teachers: Zhang Chun, Yuan Bin, Liao Ho ng, Deng Xing-yi, Zhou Ronghui, Tang Guoping, Li Liqin, Ma Dong, and Yang Xiao-y an. They taught me the basic knowledge for the paper. My indebtedness also goes to my beloved family who give me confidence. I also o we my sincere gratitude to my friends and my fellow classmates who gave me their help and time in listening to me and helping me with my problems during the diffi cult course of the thesis. Finally I wish to extend my thanks to the library assistants who supplied me with r eference materials of great value. Notes [1] 何顺果.美国史论文集[M]. 北京: 三联书店出版社, 1983:pp136, 142. [2] 余志森.美国史纲[M]. 上海:华东师范大学出版社,1988:pp365, 412. [3] 厄力斯.帕刻.美国经济成功之秘密[M]. 上海:上海民智书局,1930:p23. [4] 柯恩.美国划时代作品评论集[C]. 北京: 三联书店,1988:p136. 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