大学思辨英语教程精读教师用书

大学思辨英语教程精读教师用书Unit3VerbalandNon-verbalCommunicationUnitoverviewBothUnits1and2mentionakeyword“communication”.AsThomasPaynepointsoutinTextBofUnit2,mostofus,linguistsornonlinguists,havethecommon-sensenotionthat“themainpurposeofhumanlanguageiscommunication”.Thustodevelopadeeperunderstandingofthenatureandfunctionoflanguage,weneedtotakeacloseathumancommunication.Thisunitexaminesthistopicfromacross-culturalperspective,illustratingthesimilaritiesanddifferencesinverbalandnon-verbalcommunicationbetweendifferentcultures,whichlaysafoundationforfurtherexplorationintotheinterfacebetweenlanguageandcultureinthefollowingunits.TextAPeopleindifferentcommunitiesdemonstratedifferentperceptionsandrulesofbothverbalandnon-verbalcommunication.Thewaytheyinteractisculturallyrelativeinalmosteveryaspect,includingwhentotalk,whattosay,pacingandpausing,listenership,intonationandprosody,formulaicity,indirectness,andcoherenceandcohesion.TextBSomenon-verbalbehaviorsarepracticallyuniversalandhavethesamemeaningwhereveryouare(e.g.,smilingandfacialexpressionsofanger,surprise,fear,sadness,andsoon).Butforculturalandhistoricalreasons,therehavealsodevelopedgreatdifferencesandvariationsinsuchaspectsaseyecontact,touch,gestures,andterritorialspace,etc.Withoutanawarenessofrespectandaccommodationforpeoplefromadifferentbackground,thesedifferencesarelikelytocausemisunderstandingsincross-culturalcommunication.ThetwotextssupplementeachotherinthatTextAillustratescross-culturaldifferencesinbothverbalandnon-verbalcommunicationwhileTextBfocusesonnon-verbalbehaviorsandaddressesbothdifferencesandsimilarities.TeachingobjectivesThisunitisdesignedtohelpstudentsdeveloptheirreadingskills,communicativecompetence,criticalthinking,interculturalreflectionandabilitiesofautonomouslearninginthefollowingaspects.Readingskills:UsecontexttounderstandanewwordIdentifycohesivedevicesPredictthecontentofanupcomingsentence/paragraphCommunicativecompetence:Developacoherentandcohesiveoral/writtendiscourseUsetopicsentences,supportingsentencesandconcludingsentencesinpresentations/essaysCommunicateconstructivelyinteamworkCriticalthinking:EvaluatethestrengthsandweaknessesofpersonalexperienceasevidenceinargumentationOrganizetheargumentsusinganoutlineNoteandreflectonthedifferencesbetweenacademicwritingandeverydaywritingInterculturalreflectionIdentifysimilaritiesanddifferencesinnon-verbalcommunicationacrossculturesBeawareofmultiplelevelsofdifferencesonwhichcross-culturalcommunicationcanfalterInterpretcommunicationbehaviorsfromculturalandhistoricalperspectivesTeachingstrategiesNon-verbalcommunicationandcross-culturalcommunicationarebothinterestingtopicsinlinguistics.Theteachercanintroducethetwotextsbyquotinganecdotesorrelatingtostudents'ownexperiences(question5inPreparatorywork,p.59).Forstudentswholackexperienceofcross-culturalcommunication,thetopiccanbeledinbydiscussionsaboutinter-subculturalcommunication.TextAisaresearcharticlefromanacademicjournalanditsstructureandwritingstylearequiteclear.Itisrecommendedtodrawstudents'attentiontotheauthor'slogic(i.e.,waysofarguing)anduseofevidenceinclass.Ifwell-planned,allthequestionsinPreparatoryWorkandCriticalreadingcanbedealtwithinsomedetailinclass.TheteachercanfollowallthequestionsinUnderstandingthetexttocheckstudents'comprehensionofthetext,whilethetasksinEvaluationandexplorationcanbedividedandassignedtogroups.Forexample,inMakinganoutline(p.62),theteachercandividethestudentsintothreegroups,eachresponsibleforonetopic.Forclassicalworksininterculturalcommunication,pleasereferto:Hall,EdwardT.(1955).TheAnthropologyofManners.ScientificAmerican192:85-89.Hall,EdwardT.(1959).TheSilentLanguageNewYork:Doubleday.Formoreupdatedinformation,pleasefindthefollowingjournals:Cross-CulturalCommunicationpublishedbyCanadianAcademyofOrientalandOccidentalCulture(CAOOC)AcrossLanguagesandCulturespublishedbyAkademiaiKiadoLanguageandInterculturalCommunicationublishedbyRoutledgeJournals,Taylor&FrancisLtd.PreparatoryworkAcademicinterests:genderandlanguage,interactionalsociolinguistics,conversationalinteraction,cross-culturalcommunication,framestheory,conversationalvs.literarydiscourse,andnewmediadiscourse.Mainpublications:YouJustDon'tUnderstand:WomenandMeninConversation.NewYork:Morrow,1990.That'sNotWhatIMeant!:HowConversationalStyleMakesorBreaksRelationships.NY:WilliamMorrow,1986.GenderandDiscourse.NY&Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1994.Note:OutsidetheacademicworldDeborahTannenisbestknownastheauthorof?anumberofbooksontheNewYorkTimesbestsellerandshe?isalsoafrequentguestontelevisionandradionewsandinformationshows.EdwardSapir(1884-1939):an?American?anthropologistwhoiswidelyregardedasoneofthemostimportantfiguresintheearlydevelopmentofmodernlinguistics.Hismaininterestsareinthewaysinwhichlanguageandcultureinfluenceeachother,therelationbetweenlinguisticdifferences,anddifferencesinculturalworldviews.Hismostimportantcontributioniswhatisknownastheprincipleof?linguisticrelativity?orthe"Sapir-Whorf"hypothesis.JohnJosephGumperz(1922-2013):anAmericanlinguist.HisresearchinterestsincludethelanguagesofIndia,code-switching,andconversationalinteraction.Well-knownforhiscontributionininteractionalsociolinguisticsandthe"ethnographyofcommunication",Gumperz'sresearchhasbenefittedsuchfieldsassociolinguistics,discourseanalysis,andlinguisticanthropology.E.M.Forster(1879-1970):anEnglishnovelist,shortstorywriter,essayistandlibrettist.Heisknownbestforhisironicandwell-plottednovelsexaminingclassdifferenceandhypocrisyinearly20th-centuryBritishsociety.HewasnominatedfortheNobelPrizeinLiteraturein13differentyears.RobertKaplan:AnAmerican?appliedlinguist.Hisresearchareacoversappliedlinguistics,discourseanalysis,languagepolicy,languageplanning,andESL/EFLTeaching.HeismostfamousforhiscontributioninContrastiveRhetoric,atermhefirstcoinedin1966.Kaplanhasauthoredoredited32books,morethan130articlesinscholarlyjournalsandchaptersinbooks,andmorethan85bookreviewsandotherephemeralpiecesinvariousnewsletters,aswellas9specialreportstotheU.S.governmentandtogovernmentselsewhere.(3)Pragmaticsisthesystematicstudyofmeaningdependentonlanguageinuse.Unlikesemantics,whichexaminesconventionalmeaning"coded"inagivenlanguage,pragmaticsstudieshowthetransmissionofmeaningdependsnotonlyonstructuralandlinguisticknowledge(e.g.,grammar,lexicon,etc.)ofthespeakerandthehearer,butalsoonthecontextoftheutterance,anypre-existingknowledgeaboutthoseparticipantsinvolved,theinferredintentofthespeaker,andotherfactors.Centraltopicsofpragmaticsincludeaspeaker'scommunicativeintentions,theuseoflanguagethatrequiressuchintentions,contextofuse,therelationbetweentheuserofalinguisticformandtheactofusingtheform,andthestrategiesanaddresseeemploystoworkoutwhattheintentionsandactsare.Cohesionreferstotheuseofvariousphonological,grammatical,and/orlexicalmeanstolinksentencesorutterancesintoawell-connected,largerlinguisticunitsuchasaparagraphorachapter.Inotherwords,cohesionachieveswell-connectednessbymeansoflinguisticforms.Example:Maryisasecretary.Sheworksinalawfirm.Yan(2012)Coherencereferstothelogicalwell-connectednessbetweendifferentpartsofapieceofspokenorwrittenlanguage,whichdistinguishesitfromarandomassemblageofsentencesorutterances.Yan(2012)Formly?incohesive?discourse?may?be?coherent?through?common?sense,?cultural?background,?contextual?information,?imagination,?logical?assumption,?etc.?Husband:?That’s?the?telephone?Wife:?I’m?in?the?bath.?Husband:?OK.?Pauseisatemporaryandbriefbreakintheflowofspeech,whichisoftenclassifiedintofilledpauseandunfilledorsilentpause.Theformeristakenuporfilledbyahesitationformlikeah,er,andum.Incontrast,thelatterisnotfilledbyahesitationform.Inotherwords,asilentpauseisonewherethereisnovocalization.CriticalreadingUnderstandingthetextThemainpurposeofthisarticleistoillustrateeightlevelsofcross-culturaldifferencesinnon-verbalaspectsofcommunication.Wecanunderstandthenatureoflanguagebyobservingitincommunicationandincontactwithothersystemsofcommunication.Pacingandpausing,listenership.Indecidingwhentotalkandwhattosay,thespeakerusuallytakesaconsciousspeechplanning,yetinpacingandpausingandinshowinglistenershipinaconversation,onedoesnotneedtostopandthinkforadecision.Section2.1startswithadirectthesisstatement.Thentheauthorexplainsitwithanexpert's(Scollon)researchfindingsandexamples.Insection2.2theauthorraisesanumberofquestions(inpara7,9and11)andrespondstothemwithrelevantresearchfindings(Goody'saswellashers)andherownpersonalexperience.Section2.3isalsoorganizedintheorderof“question-answer”.Section2.4illustratescross-culturaldifferencesinlistenershipwithtwoexamples,gaze(paras21and22)andloudresponses(para23),andthenmovesontotheconclusion(para24).Section2.5:example-discussion.Section2.6:personalexperienceandaverybriefinterpretation.Section2.7:thethesis(para30“howtobeindirectisculturallyrelative”)anddiscussionaboutthecasesofAmerican-non-Americandifferences(Americanmen,women,GreekandJapanese).Section2.8:definitionandillustration.Theexperienceinadinnerpartyinparagraph12indicatesthat(1)peoplefromdifferentculturesnotonlydifferinwhethercomplimentsshouldbeaccepted,rejectedordeflected,butalsoinwhichcomplimentsshouldbeaccepted/rejected/deflected;and(2)everyculturehasitsownconventionsaboutwhattosayonparticularoccasions,andwithoutknowledgeoftheseconventions,wecanbynomeansappropriatelyinterpretthemessagesincross-culturalcommunication.InPara.29,TannenreferstoherfirstvisittoGreecetoexemplifythecross-culturaldifferenceinformulaicity,i.e.,whatisnovelandwhatisconventionalindifferentlanguages.Generallyspeaking,theeightlevelsarearrangedintheorderofimportance,fromthecoreofverbalcommunicationtomoreperipheralfactors.Thefirstthreelevelsandthefifthlevelbelongtowhatissaidwhilethelastthreecenteronhowitissaid.Thefourthlevel,listenership,istheonlylevelexaminedfromtheperspectiveofthehearer.AshasbeenillustratedinpartII,verbalcommunicationinvolvesmanyhiddenrulesandconventionsthatvaryfromculturetoculture.Sinceeveryindividualhashis/herownuniqueexperience,educationbackground,andbeliefs,etc.,notwointeractantswouldshareexactlythesamecommunicativerulesandconventions.Inthissenseallcommunicationiscross-cultural.SummarywritingWaysofcommunicationareculturallydiversifiedinalmosteveryaspect,fromwhattosaytohowtosayit.Whentotalk(andwhennotto)isculturallyrelative.Peoplefromoneculturemayfindaparticularsilentmomentunbearablewhileitisdeemedappropriateinanotherculture.Whattosayalsodiffersgreatlyacrosscultures.Manyofusconsiderraisingquestionsasanaturalorevenbasicpartofdailycommunication,butinsomeculturesquestionsareperceivedimposingandhencerarelyasked.Acertaindegreeofindirectnessincommunicationisuniversalinalllanguages,buthowtobeindirectvariesfromculturetoculture.Americanmenvalue“stickingtofacts”whileJapaneseandArabofteninsistonelaborate“smalltalks”.Cross-culturaldifferencescanalsobeobservedinthedifferentwaysofshowinglistenership,controlofpaceandpause,useofconventionalandnovellanguage,andvariationofintonation.Evenwhenpeopleareaskedtodescribeorwriteaboutthesamething,theirorganizationofadiscoursewillverylikelydifferinwaysofestablishingcoherenceandcohesionasKaplanillustrated.EvaluationandexplorationEvaluatingthetextPersonalexperiencesandanecdoteshelpelucidateabstractanddifficulttermsandaddtothevividnessofthetext.Controlleduseofpersonalexperiencemayalsoshortenthedistancebetweentheauthorandthereader.Buttheoveruseandmisuseofpersonalstoriescanalsodamagetheobjectivityandcredibilityoftheargumentation.Besidepersonalexperience,Tannenmentionsalotofacademicresearches(e.g.inpara4,7,8,10,21,23,38and39),whichalladdweighttoherarguments.Itisobviouslynotanexhaustivelist.Cross-culturalcommunicationcanvaryatmanyotherlevels,e.g.,proxemicsandturntakinginamultipartycontext.ExploringbeyondthetextQuestionsforexplorationTherearealtogether16questionswhichhelpstructurethetextinparttwoandtheyarenotequallyimportant.Thequestioninpara2,forexample,isaglobalonethatcoversalltheeightsectionsinthemainbody,whilethequestioninpara20,“NowhowmanymillisecondsshallIwait?”,isjustanexampletoillustratewhypacingandpausingisanautomaticlevel.Seeabove.Thefirstquestioninpara7isaskedtointroducethetopicofthissection,whattosay.Itisatransitionfromsection2.1tosection2.2.Thisisarhetoricalquestionrequiringnoanswer.Itisaskedsimplytoreinforceourconvictionthatquestionsarebasictotheeducationalsetting,whichformsasharpcontrastwiththecaseofGonjans.Inalltheknownlanguagestherearestrategiesofmakingindirectrequests/apologies/invitations/,etc.Inastrictsense,theuseoflanguageisanindirectmeanstoachievecommunicativeends.Howtobeindirectdiffersfromculturetoculture.Forexample,inEnglisharequestisoftenputforwardasaquestionofability(Canyoupassmethesalt?).Forexample,introvertpeoplemaybemoretolerantofsilenceinface-to-faceverbalinteractionwhileextrovertsusuallyfindsilenceawkwardanduncomfortable.Thisisprimarilyaninterpersonaldifferencesinceinallculturesthereareintrovertandextrovertpeople.Gazeisanotherexample.Peoplewithmoreaggressivepersonalityusuallyholdlongerandsteadiergazewhentheytalktoothers,whileshyperplearemorelikelytodivergeineyecontact.LanguageenhancementI.WordsandphrasesAdverbsandprepositionsoff;(2)out;(3)across;(4)away;(5)up;(6)between,for;(7)after;(8)outof,into;(9)off;(10)up;(11)outofVerbsillustrate,vary,discussing,exemplifying,signaling,mean,sayvarydifferillustratedexemplifiesexpoundsdemonstrateselucidate,interpretWordsincontextOpentodiscussion:Toguessthemeaningofanewword,onecanfirstrecognizeitspartofspeech,analyzeitswordformation,identifyitsattitudeifnecessary,andthenevaluateitsmeaninginthelinguisticcontext.II.SentencesanddiscourseParaphrasingAthabaskanIndiansconsiderthatitisinappropriatetotalktopeopletheydonotknow.AccordingtoScollon,thiscausesastrangeeffectwhentheAthabaskanIndiansmeetpeoplefromothercultures.Thenon-AthabaskansmaywanttomakeacquaintancewiththeAthabaskansbytalkingtothem,buttheAthabaskanswillnottalktothenon-Athabaskansbeforetheybecomeacquaintances.Gonjanstakeitforgrantedthatquestionsarealwaysaskedtoachieveindirectfunctions,sotheyneveraskquestionsforpureinformation.TheAmericansusuallytakeitforgrantedthatincommunicationpeopleshouldbedirectandsaynomoreorlessthanneeded,andthatwhatpeoplesayisexactlywhattheymean.ThisisespeciallytrueinbusinessandeducationandappliesmoretoAmericanmenthantowomen.Notwopeoplehavejustthesameculturalbackground.Therefore,allcommunicationiscross-culturaltosomeextent.Inthissense,understandingcross-culturalcommunicationcanhelpusunderstandthenatureoflanguageandtackleproblemsintheworld,especiallythosecausedbyandrelatedtotheuseoflanguage,e.g.obstaclesinforeignlanguageteachingandlearning.Translation物理学家通过观察物质元素在不同环境中的表现及其与其他物质的相互作用来理解它们的本质。与此相似，我们通过观察交际中的语言以及语言与其他交际符号系统的关联来认识语言的本质。外语学习者可能会把在一种新的语言中所学的显性的词汇和语法填充到母语交际系统中隐性的语篇框架或副语言外壳里。社交网络总是区域性而非全球性的，不同社区的人有不同的语言手段来实现交际目标，与其他文化模式一样，人们说话的方式将他们界定为一个“(言语)社区”。Youareverylikelytofindmanypeoplewhohave?stereotypedideasabouttheformsandfunctionsoflanguage.Pleaseletmeelaborateonmyproposal.Runawayinflationfurtherplaguedthewage-orsalary-earner.(EdwinO.Reischauer)Suchjokestendto?reinforce?racialstereotypes.Paragraphcompletion⑴B(2)E(3)CRhetoricaldevicesrhetoricalquestion;(2)antithesis,rhyme;(3)antithesis,alliteration;(4)ellipsisRhetoricalquestion:Ifwintercomes,canspringbefarbehind?Antithesis:Rudewordsbringaboutsadness,butkindwordsinspirejoy.Antithesisandrhyme:Manproposes,Goddisposes.Alliteration:Thefairbreezeblew,thewhitefoamflew(S.T.Coleridge:TheRimeoftheAncientMariner).Ellipsis:Fredtookapictureofyou,andSusan?tookapicture?ofme.InterculturalreflectionChineseandAmericanpeoplearedifferentinmanyaspectsofnonverbalcommunication.TextAandTextBhavealreadymadeaquitecomprehensivelistforthis,includingwhentospeak,pausing,listenership,intonation,indirectness,cohesionandcoherence,eyecontact,touch,gestures,andterritorialspace.Inadditiontoallthese,ChineseandAmericansalsodifferincourtesy,useoffacialexpressions,andparticipationingroupcommunication,etc..Classroomtactics:pleaserefertothedistinctionbetweenintuitiveandcriticalwaysofthinkingdefinedinUnit2ofTeacher'sbook(p.11).ThedifferentconventionsofeyecontactbetweenEastAsiansandAmericansmaybepartlyaccountableintheirhistoryandculture.Americanculturehasadeepevolutionaryrootincapitalism,whichnurturesanefficientandreasonablesocialsystem.Insuchaculture,directnessisencouragedinbothverbalandnon-verbalbehaviors.Eyecontact,asasignofdirectness,helpsthespeakergetandholdthehearer'sattentionandfacilitatesmessageconveying.InEastAsiancountriesConfucianismhaslongbeentheoverwhelmingideology.Inaccordancewiththisideology,communicatorsmuststrictlyconformtothesocialhierarchy,anddirecteyecontactissupposedtobeimpoliteandhenceprohibitedbetweensocialunequals.SinceKaplan's(1966)groundbreakingresearchincomparativerhetoric,manyscholarshavemadeeffortstovalidateorfalsifyhisconclusionfromdifferentperspectives.SomeconcludethatChinesearemoreindirectinverbalcommunicationinordertoshowpoliteness;whileothersconductempiricalresearches(e.g.,inwriting)totestthisfinding.Kaplan's(1966)observationofdifferentwaysofthinkingbetweenChineseandEnglishawaitsfurtherevidence,yetitisfairtosaythatcross-culturaldifferencesofthoughtpatternsseemtoshowinbothverbalandnon-verbalcommunication.(c.f.eyecontactinQuestion2)