英语写作基础教程

英语写作教程ChapterIUsingProperWords I.Usingwordscorrectly II.UsingwordsaccuratelyI.Usingwordscorrectly1.overcomeChinglish Eg: I’mnotafraidofthehotweather.Idon’tmindthehotweather.Ifoundtheroomrathercold. Ifelttheroomrathercold.OnSundaysIalwayssleeplate.OnSundaysIalwaysgetuplate. Theblanketfeltsofttoher. Shefelttheblanketsoft.HislevelofEnglishhasbeenproved.HisEnglishhasimproved.Hecameoutthefourthintheexam.Hereceivedthefourthplaceintheexam.2.Bewareofarchaisms,obsoletewords,andnewly-coinedwords●Wordsormeaningofwordswhicharenolongerincommonusedbutoccurinspecialtext(e.g.Religiousworks)andpoetryarecalledarchaic.Eg:mayhaps(v.hope;adv.maybe),quoth(vt.say),thy(pron.your),ere(prep.before)●Wordsormeaningwhichhavegoneoutofusealtogetherarecalledobsolete.Eg:admirable[废语]令人惊奇的finen.[废语]惩罚，处罚；为接受惩罚支付的钱●Newly-coinedwordsEg:junior-high-schooler,tube-steak,water-sensitive-crops,snow-poor-winter,…3.Avoidslang Onhearingthathisfatherhadkickedthebucket,wewrotehimalettertoexpressourdeepsympathies. Thebigbanquetheldinhonorofthedistinguishedstateguestswasreallyneat. [俚语]呱呱叫的；了不起的，极好的 Unexceptionable/admirable/excellentII.Usingwordsaccurately Theshadeofmeaning Eg1:eagleandhawk Eagleisabirdthatsoarshighandthusseefar.tohaveaneagleeye(tohaveexcellentvision) Hawkisabirdofpray,symbolizesharshness,thuspeoplecallthehardlinepolitician“thehawk”. Eg2:dumbandmute Heisadumb/muteman.1.Specificandconcretewords SpecificandgeneralAgoodman:kind/honest/just/generous/sympathetic/warm-hearted/selfless/honorableGoodfood:tasty/nourishing/rich/wholesome/high-priced/fresh/substantialGeneral:Inspring,theweatherinBeijingcanbeverybad.Specific:Inspring,itisoftenwindyanddustyhere.Morespecificwiththehelpofdetails:Inspring,thewindblowsalldaylong.Theairisthenfilledwithfinedustwhichsometimesshutsoutthesun.Thereisnoescapefromthefinedust.Itgetsintoyoureyes,yourears,yournostrils,andyourhair.2.DenotationandConnotation Denotationisthebasic,direct,literalmeaningofaword.Asdefinedbythedictionary. Connotationistheassociationaroundandtheovertoneabouttheword.it’sthefeelingorideasuggestedbytheword. E.g.国家 Countryemphasizestheterritory. Nationemphasizesthepeople. Stateemphasizespoliticalorganization. Landisoftenusedtoconnotecertainfeeling. Anislandcountry;neighboringcountry peace-lovingnation;theawakingnationofAfrica State-ownedenterprises Ourstatesystemisthepeople’sdemocraticdictatorship. Afar-away/foreignland;alandofliberty/opportunity●Differentconnotationreflectsthedifferentattitudeofthespeaker.ComplimentaryderogatoryneutralPublicservantbureaucratgovernmentemployeeFinancierspeculatorinvestorLawofficercoppolicemanCaptainofindustrytycoonsuccessfulbusinessmanInvestigatorspydetectiveCaptivejailbirdprisoner3.Synonyms Synonyms:Twoormoreformswithverycloselyrelatedmeaning,whichareoftenbutnotalways,intersubstitutableinasentence. Accordingtoformality: EarlyEnglish:small/littleasktimerise French:petitequestionagemount Latin:diminutiveinterrogateepochascend Generally,LatinwordsaremorebookishthanearlyEnglishandFrench.Examples: TheconcertconcludedwithaperformanceofBeethoven’s5thsymphony. TheyendedtheconcertwithBeethoven’s5thsymphony. Myfatherpurchasedalargeautomobile. Mydadboughtabigcar.ChapterIIMakingCorrectandEffectiveSentences ElementsofasentenceII.RequirementsofacorrectsentenceIII.RequirementsofaneffectivesentenceI.Elementsofasentence 1.Completenessinstructure; 2.Beginwithacapitalletter; 3.Endwithafullstop,oraquestionmark,oranexclamationmark; 4.Expressasinglecompleteidea.II.Requirementsofacorrectsentence 1.completenessinstructure 2.therightsubject 3.agreementbetweenthesubjectandthepredicateverb 4.agreementbetweenpronounandantecedent 5.clearpronounreference 6.endingsentenceswithfullstops 7.joiningclauseswithconjunctions 8.amainclauseinacomplexsentence 9.properuseofcomparisons 10.correctuseofthetense Correctthefollowingsentences: Becausehehadn’tfinishhisassignment,sohecontinuedworkingintheclassroom.completenessinstructure Notknowinghisname,itwasdifficulttointroducehim.therightsubject Anumberofspellingmistakeswasfoundinhiscomposition.agreementbetweenthesubjectandthepredicateverb Everybodyshouldreturnthebooksheborrowedwithinaweek.agreementbetweenpronounandantecedentCorrectthefollowingsentences: Shetoldmysisterthatherideawaspracticable.clearpronounreference Noonecometotheparty,itwasacompletefailure.endingsentenceswithfullstops/joiningclauseswithconjunctions Becausehehadnotheardaboutthatimportantdecision.amainclauseinacomplexsentence TheSaharaislargerthananydesertintheworld.properuseofcomparisons Wehaverevisedourworkplanlastnight.correctuseofthetense FragmentandEllipse Afragmentisapartofsentence(suchasaphraseordependant/subordinateclause)whichbeginswithacapitalletterandendsasasentencedoes. E.g. [Fragment]Theresultbeingthathelostthepresidentialelection. [Sentence]Theresultisthathelostthepresidentialelection.AsexclamationsOh!Nonsense!Welldone!Whataday!Howkindofyou!Susanasinger!? InspokenEnglish A:howaboutthis? B:verygood! A:Yournameandyouraddress,please? B:Allright,here. MoreFragment-likesentences ForemphasisandvividnessThereisapricetopayforsuccess.Thedemandingpriceofselfdenial,thepriceofbloodandsweatandtears.AstransitionsAndafinalinstance,…Toreturnfromourdigression,…Now,afewmorewordsaboutthemeetingtoday.III.Requirementsofaneffectivesentence 一.Unity一致性 Unity:Asentenceshouldexpressasinglecompleteidea,nomore,noless.Ifitcontainstoomuch,thenthesentencebecomesconfusing.Ifitcontainstoolittle,thentheideainitisincomplete. Inotherwords,asentenceviolatestheprincipleofunityifitcontainsideasthatarenotcloselyrelated;what’smore,asentenceisnotunifiedifitdoesnotexpressacompletethought. Eg: Ideasnotcloselyrelated: BorninasmalltowninSouthChinain1937,hegrewuptobeagreatmusician. HewasborninasmalltowninSouthChinain1937,andgrewuptobeagreatmusician. Ideaincomplete: DreamoftheRedMansionisthebest-knownnovel. DreamoftheRedMansionisoneofthebest-knownclassicalChinesenovel.1.Avoidchopped-upsentenceInthefollowingsentence,theideaofoneunifiedsentenceischoppedintoseveralshortsentences.E.g:Mybestfriendinhighschoolwasourliteratureteacher.HernamewasWangLi.Shetaughtusliteratureforthreeyears.Revised:Mybestfriendinhighschoolwasourliteratureteacher,WangLi,whotaughtusforthreeyears.2.AvoidFusedsentence:severalideasarefusedintoonesentence. Fused:Shesuddenlypausedanditseemedwonderfulthatshecouldspeaksoeasilybutshewasusuallybashful.Improved:Shesuddenlypaused.Itseemedwonderfulthatshecouldspeaksoeasily,butshewasusuallybashful. Fused:TheydidnotwinthegamesofarasIcouldseetheydidnoteventry.Improved:Theydidnotwinthegame.SofarasIcouldsee,theydidnoteventry. Coherencerequiresthatthepartsofasentencearesoarrangedthattheysticktogether,andthattheideasprogressinalogicalsequence. 1.Parallelism E.g:IforgotthatmyresearchpaperwasdueonTuesdayandmyteacherhadsaidhewouldnotacceptlatepapers.二.Coherence连贯性 Thechildwasprettyandhadbrains.Thechildwasprettyandintelligent. Hesatdownandwasbeginningtowork.Hesatdownandbegantowork. Iwillwaituntilyoucallorshecomes.Iwillwaituntilyoucalloruntilshecomes. IwenttothedancewithagirlfromMemphisandwhohasasouthernaccent.IwenttothedancewithagirlwhoisfromMemphisandwhohasasouthernaccent.Inparallelconstructionitisnecessarytobalancewordforword,phrasewithphrase,clausewithclause,sentencewithsentence.Itissometimesnecessarytorepeattheintroductorywordorphraseorclause.2.Consistency(1)keepthesamegrammaticalsubjectunlessthereisgoodreasonforchanging.Eg:Thecastfirstdiscussestheplayandthennightlyrehearsalsbegin.Thecastfirstdiscussestheplayandthenbeginnightlyrehearsals.(2)Keepthepersonofpronounconsistent.Eg:Havingeatenourlunch,theydepartedbyboat.Havingeatentheirlunch,theydepartedbyboat.(3)KeepthenumberofnounsandpronounsconsistentEg:Beingastudent,weallwishtolearntowritewell.Onecanneverwriteeffectively,unlesstheywriteasmuchandasoftenastheycan.(4)Keepthemoodandthevoicethatyouhavedecidedupon.Eg:Firstbuildafireandthenyoushouldmakethecoffee.Hedrovethecarintothegarageandthemotorwasquicklystopped.3.SubordinationCorrectsubordinationclarifiestherelationshipsbetweenideas,thusstrengthensthecoherenceofasentence.Subordinationalsoleadstogreatereconomyinwriting,permittingonetoexpressoneselfinthefewestpossiblewords.Itcanbeachievedbyturningtheotherclauseinto:(1)anadverbialclause(2)anadjectiveclause(3)apresentparticipialphrase(4)apastparticipialphrase(5)anappositiveEg:A.Iwasincollege.Ihadaroommate.Hewasstudyingtobealawyer.B.Iranoutofink,thusbeingunabletofinishmytheme.C.Thedeanissuedabulletin,anditsaidthelibrarywouldremainopenonweekends.三.Conciseness简洁性1.NowordinessWordinessalsoviolatestheprincipleofunity,theideagetsblurredbyunnecessarywordswhichobscureitlikecloudsandsmoke.Sorry,I’mnotinapositiontoofferassistancetohim.Sorry,Iamunabletohelphim.ThemaidputtheletterthatcamefromPragueonmydesk.ThemaidputtheletterfromPragueonmydesk.Thereareseveraladvantagestobuyingamotorbike.Buyingamotorbikeoffersseveraladvantages.I’dliketotaketheopportunitytosaythankyou.Thankyou.2.ClarityClarityrequiresthatasentenceshouldbewrittenwithitsmeaningunmistakablyclear.Misunderstandingisoftencausedbythepositionofmodifiers：Themeaningofasentencecanbechangeddrasticallybychangesinthepositionofmodifiers.Eg：Ireallydon’tmindwaiting.Idon’treallymindwaiting.Inoneword,themodifiermustbeplacedasneartothemodifiedaspossible.四.Emphasis强调性Emphasisisthemeansbywhichyougivedesiredforcetoyourwriting.1.positioningforemphasisThesentenceend---theplaceofstrongestemphasisThesentencebeginning---theplaceofsecondaryemphasisThemiddle---theplaceofleastemphasisE.g.Hewillnothavetheenduranceneededforthelongtrainingrequiredtobeadentist,Ithink.Attention:movethepointtobeemphasized,outoforder,tothefront,thisprocessisoftencalledfrontingorinversion.E.g:ThisIwillneverdo.2.useoftheappropriatevoiceforverbs Ingeneraltheactivevoiceispreferablebecauseitismoredirectandprecise,butsometimesthepassiveismoreappropriatethantheactive. E.g. Theadvicewhichwasgiventomebyyouwillbefollowedbyme. Televisionwaswatchedbythewholefamilyintheevenings. Passivevoiceispreferable: whenthereceiverofanactionismoreimportantthanthedoer. whenthedoerisvagueorunknown. whenthedoeristobeespeciallyemphasized.3.Climacticorder Climacteorderistheorderthatgoesfromtheleastimportanttothemostimportantorthatgoesfromthegeneraltothespecific. Shewasakind-hearted,good–looking,andwell-manneredlady. Revised:Shewasgood–looking,well-manneredandkind-hearted. Hesaidhehadlostinterestinlife,fame,positionandmoneyafterthattragedy. Revised:Hesaidafterthattragedyhehadlostinterestin…… Note: Theoppositeofclimaticorderresultsinanticlimax.itisoftenuseddeliberatelyforhumorouseffects. E.g.Atonefellswoop,helosthiswife,hischild,hishouseholdgoods,andhisdog.4.Rhetoricalquestion Arhetoricalquestiondiffersfromanordinaryquestioninthatitdoesnotneedananswer,itisusedforemphasis. Therhetoricalquestionisoftenreservedforspecialoccasiontoexertitsgreatforce.Apositiverhetoricalquestionislikeastrongnegativestatement,whileanegativerhetoricalquestionislikeastrongpositivestatement. E.g. Ifwintercomes,canspringbefarbehind? Isn’titbeautifulweather?5.Thebalancedsentence Thebalancedsentence,bypositioningtogethertwoormoreparallelitems,makesforpoignancyandemphasis. E.g. Readingmakethafullman;conferenceareadyman;andwritinganexactman.----FrancisBacon:“OfStudies”6.Periodicsentences Aperiodicsentenceisonethatisnotcompleteinstructureormeaninguntilitreachesthelastword,whichisthemostimportantwordofthesentence. Eg:Itisgenerallyacknowledgedthatthesolecriterionoftruthispractice. Hesaidforbuyingahousehehadpreparedeverythingbutmoney.Chapter3DevelopingParagraphsI.GeneralIntroductiontoParagraph:1.Inform:setoffbyindentationorspacing2.Incontent:closely-relatedsentences…II.TypicalstructureofparagraphTopicSentenceSupportingDetailsClosingSentenceTopicsentence Whatisthetopicsentence?Thetopicsentenceisthefirstsentenceinaparagraph. Whatdoesitdo?Itintroducesthemainideaoftheparagraph. HowdoIwriteone?Summarizethemainideaofyourparagraph.Indicatetothereaderwhatyourparagraphwillbeabout.Supportingsentences Whataresupportingsentences?Theycomeafterthetopicsentence,makingupthebodyofaparagraph. Whatdotheydo?Theygivedetailstodevelopandsupportthemainideaoftheparagraph. HowdoIwritethem?Youshouldgivesupportingfacts,details,andexamples.Closingsentence Whatistheclosingsentence?Theclosingsentenceisthelastsentenceinaparagraph. Whatdoesitdo?Itrestatesthemainideaofyourparagraph. HowdoIwriteone?Restatethemainideaoftheparagraphusingdifferentwords.ExampleTherearethreereasonswhyCanadaisoneofthebestcountriesintheworld.First,Canadahasanexcellenthealthcaresystem.AllCanadianshaveaccesstomedicalservicesatareasonableprice.Second,Canadahasahighstandardofeducation.Studentsaretaughtbywell-trainedteachersandareencouragedtocontinuestudyingatuniversity.Finally,Canada'scitiesarecleanandefficientlymanaged.Canadiancitieshavemanyparksandlotsofspaceforpeopletolive.Asaresult,Canadaisadesirableplacetolive.III.RequirementsforparagraphwritingUnitySinglenessofpurposeFullnessBrevityTopicsentenceRequirementsforparagraphwriting2.Coherence(1)Waysofdevelopingparagraph(2)TransitionWaysofdevelopingparagraphDefinitionParagraphClassificationParagraphDescriptionParagraphCompareandContrastParagraphSequenceParagraphChoiceParagraphExplanationParagraphEvaluationParagraphRequirementsforparagraphwriting3.Emphasis(1)Proportion(2)Position(3)Climaticorder(4)RepetitionandparallelismChapter5SummarizingAsummaryisabrief,conciserestatementofthemainfactsorpointsofapassageorabook.Itisdifferentfromacompositioninthatitdoesnotexpressthewriter’sbutsomeoneelse’sideas.Requirementsforsummarywriting generallyasummaryshouldnotbelongerthanathirdofthelengthoftheoriginalpassage. itshouldbefaithfultotheoriginal,withnochangeinfactsorviews,andnoimportantpointsleftout. itshouldbewrittenincontinuousprose,notintheformofanoutline.Procedures reading writing omittingthedetails reducingtheexamples simplifyingthedescriptions eliminatingallrepetition makingphrasesdotheworkofclausesorsentences usinggeneralwordsinsteadofspecificwords usingtheshortestpossibletransitions avoidingfigurativelanguage revisionChapter6EssayWritingI.BasicOrganization Introduction(beginning) Body(middle) Conclusion(end)IntroductionParagraphWhatisanintroductionparagraph?Whatdoesitdo?HowdoIwriteone?E.g.HockeyhasbeenapartoflifeinCanadaforover120years.IthasevolvedintoanextremelypopularsportwatchedandplayedbymillionsofCanadians.ThegamehasgonethroughseveralchangessincehockeywasfirstplayedinCanada.SupportingParagraphs Whataresupportingparagraphs?Supportingparagraphsmakeupthemainbodyofyouressay Whatdotheydo?Theydevelopthemainideaofyouressay. HowdoIwritethem?1.Listthepointsthatdevelopthemainideaofyouressay.2.Placeeachsupportingpointinitsownparagraph.3.Developeachsupportingpointwithfacts,details,andexamples.SummaryParagraph Whatisasummaryparagraph? Whatdoesitdo? HowdoIwriteone?Example: Overall,thechangesthatoccurredinhockeyhavehelpedtoimprovethegame.Hockeyisfasterandmoreexcitingasaresultofchangesinthepast120years.Forthesereasons,modernhockeyisabettergamethanhockeyinthe1890s.II.StepsEssaywriting PrewritingEssays WritingEssays EditingEssays PublishingEssaysIII.Typesofoutlines Atopicoutlineuseswordsorphrasesforallentriesandusesnopunctuationafterentries. Advantages:presentsabriefoverviewofworkandisgenerallyeasierandfastertowritethanasentenceoutline. Asentenceoutlineusescompletesentencesforallentriesandusescorrectpunctuation. Advantages:presentsamoredetailedoverviewofworkincludingpossibletopicsentencesandiseasierandfasterforwritingthefinalpaper.IV.TypesofWriting Narration1.Whatisnarration?Themethodofdevelopmentinwhichthewritertellsastorytosupportapoint.Narrativewritingtellsastory.Inessaysthenarrativewritingcouldalsobeconsideredreflectionoranexplorationoftheauthor'svaluestoldasastory.Theauthormayrememberhisorherpast,oramemorablepersonoreventfromthatpast,orevenobservethepresent.2．EssentialFeatures Context--thewritermakesclearwhathappened,when,where,andtowhom Pointofview--thewritertakesaconsistentpointofviewinrelationtotheaction,writingeitherasaparticipant(firstperson--using"I")orasaspectator(thirdperson--using"he,""she,""it,""they"). Selectionofdetail--thewriterfocusesonlyontheactionsanddetailsthatfurtherthestoryandpromotethepoint,minimizingoreliminatingothers. Organization--thewriterorganizestheeventsofthestoryinachronologicalorderusingtimetransitions. Purpose—there'sareasonfortellingthestory.Onewaytofinditistocompletethestatement,"Themoralofthestoryis..."Chapter7WritingforPracticalPurposesNoticesContemporaryBritishTheatreSpeaker:Prof.BernardHollandProfessorofEnglishLiterature,CambridgeUniversityAuthorofTheExperimentalTheatreDate:Monday,6OctoberTime:10a.m.Place:Rm.201AllWelcomeNotesofintroduction2Feb.2006DearMr.Smith,ThisistointroduceMr.MaMing.Heisagraduatestudentinlinguisticsatouruniversity.Mr.Maislookingforateachingassistant’spost.Anyassistancerenderedhimwouldbehighlyappreciated.JaneThank-youNotes28July,2005DearPam&Sam,I’mwritingtothankyouforthelovelydinneryesterday.Weenjoyedtheeveninggreatly.Itwasmostkindofyoutointroducesomenewfriendstous.Welovedtomeetthoseinterestingpeople.Pleaseacceptourwarmestthanks.CathyNotesofinvitation20March,2005DearHelen,WearegoingtohaveanEnglisheveninginourclassroomthiscomingSaturday.Thetimeis7:00pm.Woulditbepossibleforyoutojoinus?Wewouldbeveryhappyifyoucouldbewithus.Dropmealineifyouareinterested.Yours,JianhuaNotesofAppointment15May,20__DearSydney,I’dliketodiscusswithyouaboutournewproject.CouldwemeetforaboutanhourattheCooper’sonMondayafternoonat3o’clock?Ifyouareotherwiseengaged,pleaseringmetomakeanothertime.Thankyou.PaulNotesofCongratulationAugust8,20____DearRosemary,ThenewsofyourmusicscholarshiptotheUniversitymademyday.Noonecouldhavebeenmoredeserving.Howexcitingitmustbefortorealizeyourdreamafterallthoseyearsoffaithfulpracticeandproficientperformance.Yourdiligencecombinedwithyourinnatetalentsindicatesadynamicfuture.Iwishyouallthebestinyourcollegeyears.KateNotesofApologies4October,20__DearBetty,I’mterriblysorryIfailedtomeetyouinyourofficeyesterdayafternoon.Oneofmyfriendsgotinjuredinacaraccident,soIhadtosendhimtohospitalandlookedafterhimallnight.Ishouldhavecalledtotellyou,butIwasratherbusythen.Dopleaseforgiveme.PeterJohnChapter7ManuscriptFormandPunctuation A.L.isthesonofMrs.R.W.andahighschoolgraduate. Whentheburglarwasarrested,hehadseveralMercedes,ayachtand$250,000incashstashedunderhismistress.I.PunctuatingCompoundSentences1.Acommaisusedinacompoundsentenceofwhichtheclausearejoinedbyaconjunction.--Heboughtaredeveningdress,andhegaveittohiswifeforherbirthday.I.PunctuatingCompoundSentences2.Useasemicolonbeforeindependentclauses.(1)whentheyarenotjoinedbythecoordinatingconjunctionsuchas“as,and,but,for,or,nor”.--Smokingisdangerousinthewoods;itmayresultinafire.(2)Whentheyarejoinedbysuchconnectivesas:“forexample,nevertheless,otherwise,thatis,besides,therefore,accordingly,however,also,consequently,hence,still,stead,thus”.Thesectionafterthesemicolonexpressesideaswhichastagefurtherthethoughtintheproceedingsection.--Iwaitedforhim;therefore,Isavedhimaseat.(3)whentherearecommaswithintheclauses,thatis,whentheclausesareinternallypunctuatedbycommas.--Thetravelagency,thefirstonetoopeninourcity,offeredspecialtoursatreducedratestoanycitywithintheprovince,andsomecitiesinneighboringprovincestonewlyweds,andgroupsorganizedbypeasantsassociationsandworkersunions;andwithinthreeweeksover1,000peopleboughttickets.I.PunctuatingCompoundSentences3.Useasemicolonoracolonbetweenimpendentclauseswhenthesecondclauseexplainorrestatestheideainthefirst.--Exposuretothesunwillnotcausethesedrapetofade:theyaremadeofacolor-fastsyntheticmaterial.4.whenacompoundsentenceisveryshort,acommabeforetheconjunctionisnotessential.--Thethunderroaredandthelightningflashed.II.PunctuatingSeries1.placeacommaaftereachiteminaseriesexceptthelastone.----Theysentbooksforson,recordsforthedaughter,andasetofdishesforparents.2.Ifalloftheitems