托福阅读TPO13MethodsofStudyingInfantPerception

MethodsofStudyingInfantPerceptionInthestudyofperceptualabilitiesofinfants,anumberoftechniquesareusedtodetermineinfants'responsestovariousstimuli.Becausetheycannotverbalizeorfilloutquestionnaires,indirecttechniquesofnaturalisticobservationareusedastheprimarymeansofdeterminingwhatinfantscansee,hear,feel,andsoforth.Eachofthesemethodscomparesaninfant'sstatepriortotheintroductionofastimuluswithitsstateduringorimmediatelyfollowingthestimulus.Thedifferencebetweenthetwomeasuresprovidestheresearcherwithanindicationofthelevelanddurationoftheresponsetothestimulus.Forexample,ifauniformlymovingpatternofsomesortispassedacrossthevisualfieldofaneonate(newborn),repetitivefollowingmovementsoftheeyeoccur.Theoccurrenceoftheseeyemovementsprovidesevidencethatthemovingpatternisperceivedatsomelevelbythenewborn.Similarly,changesintheinfant'sgenerallevelofmotoractivityturningthehead,blinkingtheeyes,crying,andsoforth——havebeenusedbyresearchersasvisualindicatorsoftheinfant'sperceptualabilities.Suchtechniques,however,havelimitations.First,theobservationmaybeunreliableinthattwoormoreobserversmaynotagreethattheparticularresponseoccurred,ortowhatdegreeitoccurred.Second,responsesaredifficulttoquantify.Oftentherapidanddiffusemovementsoftheinfantmakeitdifficulttogetanaccuraterecordofthenumberofresponses.Thethird,andmostpotent,limitationisthatitisnotpossibletobecertainthattheinfant'sresponsewasduetothestimuluspresentedortoachangefromnostimulustoastimulus.Theinfantmayberespondingtoaspectsofthestimulusdifferentthanthoseidentifiedbytheinvestigator.Therefore,whenobservationalassessmentisusedasatechniqueforstudyinginfantperceptualabilities,caremustbetakennottoovergeneralizefromthedataortorelyononeortwostudiesasconclusiveevidenceofaparticularperceptualabilityoftheinfant.Observationalassessmenttechniqueshavebecomemuchmoresophisticated,reducingthelimitationsjustpresented.Filmanalysisoftheinfant'sresponses,heartandrespirationratemonitors,andnonnutritivesuckingdevicesareusedaseffectivetoolsinunderstandinginfantperception.Filmanalysispermitsresearcherstocarefullystudytheinfant'sresponsesoverandoverandinslowmotion.Precisemeasurementscanbemadeofthelengthandfrequencyoftheinfant'sattentionbetweentwostimuli.Heartandrespirationmonitorsprovidetheinvestigatorwiththenumberofheartbeatsorbreathstakenwhenanewstimulusispresented.Numericalincreasesareusedasquantifiableindicatorsofheightenedinterestinthenewstimulus.Increasesinnonnutritivesuckingwerefirstusedasanassessmentmeasurebyresearchersin1969.Theydevisedanapparatusthatconnectedababy'spacifiertoacountingdevice.Asstimuliwerepresented,changesintheinfant'ssuckingbehaviorwererecorded.Increasesinthenumberofsuckswereusedasanindicatoroftheinfant'sattentiontoorpreferenceforagivenvisualdisplay.Twoadditionaltechniquesofstudyinginfantperceptionhavecomeintovogue.Thefirstisthehabituation-dishabituationtechnique,inwhichasinglestimulusispresentedrepeatedlytotheinfantuntilthereisameasurabledecline(habituation)inwhateverattendingbehaviorisbeingobserved.Atthatpointanewstimulusispresented,andanyrecovery(dishabituation)inresponsivenessisrecorded.Iftheinfantfailstodishabituateandcontinuestoshowhabituationwiththenewstimulus,itisassumedthatthebabyisunabletoperceivethenewstimulusasdifferent.Thehabituation-dishabituationparadigmhasbeenusedmostextensivelywithstudiesofauditoryandolfactoryperceptionininfants.Thesecondtechniquereliesonevokedpotentials,whichareelectricalbrainresponsesthatmayberelatedtoaparticularstimulusbecauseofwheretheyoriginate.Changesintheelectricalpatternofthebrainindicatethatthestimulusisgettingthroughtotheinfant'scentralnervoussystemandelicitingsomeformofresponse.Eachoftheprecedingtechniquesprovidestheresearcherwithevidencethattheinfantcandetectordiscriminatebetweenstimuli.Withthesesophisticatedobservationalassessmentandelectrophysiologicalmeasures,weknowthattheneonateofonlyafewdaysisfarmoreperceptivethanpreviouslysuspected.However,thesemeasuresareonly"indirect"indicatorsoftheinfant'sperceptualabilities.Paragraph1:Inthestudyofperceptualabilitiesofinfants,anumberoftechniquesareusedtodetermineinfants'responsestovariousstimuli.Becausetheycannotverbalizeorfilloutquestionnaires,indirecttechniquesofnaturalisticobservationareusedastheprimarymeansofdeterminingwhatinfantscansee,hear,feel,andsoforth.Eachofthesemethodscomparesaninfant'sstatepriortotheintroductionofastimuluswithitsstateduringorimmediatelyfollowingthestimulus.Thedifferencebetweenthetwomeasuresprovidestheresearcherwithanindicationofthelevelanddurationoftheresponsetothestimulus.Forexample,ifauniformlymovingpatternofsomesortispassedacrossthevisualfieldofaneonate(newborn),repetitivefollowingmovementsoftheeyeoccur.Theoccurrenceoftheseeyemovementsprovidesevidencethatthemovingpatternisperceivedatsomelevelbythenewborn.Similarly,changesintheinfant'sgenerallevelofmotoractivityturningthehead,blinkingtheeyes,crying,andsoforth—havebeenusedbyresearchersasvisualindicatorsoftheinfant'sperceptualabilities.Paragraph1indicatesthatresearchersuseindirectmethodsprimarilytoobservetheGrangeofmotoractivityinneonates(frequencyanddurationofvariousstimuliQhangeinaninfant'sstatefollowingtheintroductionofastimulusChangeofaninfant'svisualfieldTheworduniformlyinthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoQlearlyQuickly(^consistently(^occasionallyWhydoestheauthormentionrepetitivefollowingmovementsoftheeye?Uoidentifyaresponsethatindicatesaneonate'sperceptionofastimulusUoexplainwhyaneonateiscapableofrespondingtostimulionlythroughrepetitivemovementsUoarguethatmotoractivityinaneonatemayberandomandunrelatedtostimuliUoemphasizethatresponsestostimulivaryininfantsaccordingtoageParagraph2:Suchtechniques,however,havelimitations.First,theobservationmaybeunreliableinthattwoormoreobserversmaynotagreethattheparticularresponseoccurred,ortowhatdegreeitoccurred.Second,responsesaredifficulttoquantify.Oftentherapidanddiffusemovementsoftheinfantmakeitdifficulttogetanaccuraterecordofthenumberofresponses.Thethird,andmostpotent,limitationisthatitisnotpossibletobecertainthattheinfant'sresponsewasduetothestimuluspresentedortoachangefromnostimulustoastimulus.Theinfantmayberespondingtoaspectsofthestimulusdifferentthanthoseidentifiedbytheinvestigator.Therefore,whenobservationalassessmentisusedasatechniqueforstudyinginfantperceptualabilities,caremustbetakennottoovergeneralizefromthedataortorelyononeortwostudiesasconclusiveevidenceofaparticularperceptualabilityoftheinfant.WhichofthefollowingisNOTmentionedinparagraph2asaprobleminusingthetechniqueofdirectobservation?Otisimpossibletobecertainoftheactualcauseofaninfant'sresponse.dnfants'responses,whichoccurquicklyanddiffusely,areoftendifficulttomeasure.dnfantsdonotrespondwelltostimulipresentedinanunnaturallaboratorysetting.dtmaybedifficultforobserverstoagreeonthepresenceorthedegreeofaresponse.ThewordpotentjnthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoCartificialCpowerfulQommonCsimilarWhichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformationinthehighlighted_sentenceinthepassage?Incorrectchoiceschangethemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessentialinformation.CResearchersusingobservationalassessmenttechniquesoninfantsmustnotovergeneralizeandmustbasetheirconclusionsondatafrommanystudies.COnthebasisofthedatafromoneortwostudies,itseemsthatsomeinfantsdevelopaparticularperceptualabilitynotobservedinothers.Uousedatafromoneortwostudiesoninfant'sperceptualabilities,itisnecessarytousetechniquesthatwillprovideconclusiveevidence.CWhenresearchersfailtomakegeneralizationsfromtheirstudies,theirobserveddataisofteninconclusive.Paragraph3:Observationalassessmenttechniqueshavebecomemuchmoresophisticated,reducingthelimitationsjustpresented.Filmanalysisoftheinfant'sresponses,heartandrespirationratemonitors,andnonnutritivesuckingdevicesareusedaseffectivetoolsinunderstandinginfantperception.Filmanalysispermitsresearcherstocarefullystudytheinfant'sresponsesoverandoverandinslowmotion.Precisemeasurementscanbemadeofthelengthandfrequencyoftheinfant'sattentionbetweentwostimuli.Heartandrespirationmonitorsprovidetheinvestigatorwiththenumberofheartbeatsorbreathstakenwhenanewstimulusispresented.Numericalincreasesareusedasquantifiableindicatorsofheightenedinterestinthenewstimulus.Increasesinnonnutritivesuckingwerefirstusedasanassessmentmeasurebyresearchersin1969.Theydevisedanapparatusthatconnectedababy'spacifiertoacountingdevice.Asstimuliwerepresented,changesintheinfant'ssuckingbehaviorwererecorded.Increasesinthenumberofsuckswereusedasanindicatoroftheinfant'sattentiontoorpreferenceforagivenvisualdisplay.Whatistheauthor'sprimarypurposeinparagraph3?UoexplainwhyresearchersmustconductmorethanonetypeofstudywhentheyareattemptingtounderstandinfantperceptionUodescribenewtechniquesforobservinginfantperceptionthatovercomeproblemsidentifiedinthepreviousparagraphUopresentandevaluatetheconclusionsofvariousstudiesoninfantperceptionUopointoutthestrengthsandweaknessesofthreenewmethodsforquantifyinganinfant'sreactiontostimuliThewordquantifiableinthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoCvisualpermanentCmeaningfulCmeasurableParagraph3mentionsallofthefollowingasindicationsofaninfant'sheightenedinterestinanewstimulusEXCEPTanincreaseinOuckingbehaviorCheartrate□henumberofbreathstakenCeyemovementsParagraph4:Twoadditionaltechniquesofstudyinginfantperceptionhavecomeintovogue.Thefirstisthehabituation-dishabituationtechnique,inwhichasinglestimulusispresentedrepeatedlytotheinfantuntilthereisameasurabledecline(habituation)inwhateverattendingbehaviorisbeingobserved.Atthatpointanewstimulusispresented,andanyrecovery(dishabituation)inresponsivenessisrecorded.Iftheinfantfailstodishabituateandcontinuestoshowhabituationwiththenewstimulus,itisassumedthatthebabyisunabletoperceivethenewstimulusasdifferent.Thehabituation-dishabituationparadigmhasbeenusedmostextensivelywithstudiesofauditoryandolfactoryperceptionininfants.Thesecondtechniquereliesonevokedpotentials,whichareelectricalbrainresponsesthatmayberelatedtoaparticularstimulusbecauseofwheretheyoriginate.Changesintheelectricalpatternofthebrainindicatethatthestimulusisgettingthroughtotheinfant'scentralnervoussystemandelicitingsomeformofresponse.Accordingtoparagraph4,whichofthefollowingleadstotheconclusionthatinfantsareabletodifferentiatebetweenstimuliinahabituation-dishabituationstudy?CDishabituationoccurswiththeintroductionofanewstimulus.CElectricalresponsesintheinfant'sbraindeclinewitheachnewstimulus.CHabituationiscontinuedwiththeintroductionofanewstimulus.Uheinfantdisplayslittlechangeinelectricalbrainresponses.Inparagraph4,whatdoestheauthorsuggestaboutthewayaninfant'sbrainperceivesstimuli?CAninfant'spotentialtorespondtoastimulusmayberelatedtothesizeofitsbrain.CChangesintheelectricalpatternsofaninfant'sbrainaredifficulttodetect.CDifferentareasofaninfant'sbrainrespondtodifferenttypesofstimuli.CAninfantisunabletoperceivemorethanonestimulusatatime.Paragraph5:Eachoftheprecedingtechniquesprovidestheresearcherwithevidencethattheinfantcandetectordiscriminatebetweenstimuli.Withthesesophisticatedobservationalassessmentandelectro-physiologicalmeasures,weknowthattheneonateofonlyafewdaysisfarmoreperceptivethanpreviouslysuspected.However,thesemeasuresareonly"indirect"indicatorsoftheinfant'sperceptualabilities.Paragraph5indicatesthatresearcherswhousedthetechniquesdescribedinthepassagediscoveredthatinfantsfinditdifficulttoperceivesometypesofstimuliQeonatesofonlyafewdayscannotyetdiscriminatebetweenstimuliCobservationalassessmentislessusefulforstudyinginfantperceptionthanresearcherspreviouslybelievedCaneonateisabletoperceivestimulibetterthanresearchersoncethoughtParagraph3:Observationalassessmenttechniqueshavebecomemuchmoresophisticated,reducingthelimitationsjustpresented.Filmanalysisoftheinfant'sresponses,heartandrespirationratemonitors,andnonnutritivesuckingdevicesareusedaseffectivetoolsinunderstandinginfantperception.Filmanalysispermitsresearcherstocarefullystudytheinfant'sresponsesoverandoverandinslowmotion.Precisemeasurementscanbemadeofthelengthandfrequencyoftheinfant'sattentionbetweentwostimuli.Heartandrespirationmonitorsprovidetheinvestigatorwiththenumberofheartbeatsorbreathstakenwhenanewstimulusispresented.Numericalincreasesareusedasquantifiableindicatorsofheightenedinterestinthenewstimulus.Increasesinnonnutritivesuckingwerefirstusedasanassessmentmeasurebyresearchersin1969.Theydevisedanapparatusthatconnectedababy'spacifiertoacountingdevice.Asstimuliwerepresented,changesintheinfant'ssuckingbehaviorwererecorded.Increasesinthenumberofsuckswereusedasanindicatoroftheinfant'sattentiontoorpreferenceforagivenvisualdisplay.Lookatthefoursquares[剧thatindicatewherethefollowingsentencecouldbeaddedtothepassage.Therepetitionallowsresearcherstoobservetheinfant'sbehavioruntiltheyreachagreementaboutthepresenceandthedegreeoftheinfant'sresponse.Wherewouldthesentencebestfit?Directions:Anintroductorysentenceforabriefsummaryofthepassageisprovidedbelow.CompletethesummarybyselectingtheTHREEanswerthatexpressthemostimportantideasinthepassage.Somesentencesdonotbelonginthesummarybecausetheyexpressideasthatnotpresentedinthepassageorareminorideasinthepassage.Thisquestionisworth2points.ResearchersuseanumberoftechniquestodeterminehowinfantsrespondtochangesintheirenvironmentAnswerchoicesCDatafromobservationalmethodsmustbeconfirmedthroughmultiplestudies.CNewtechniquesforstudyinginfantperceptionhaveimprovedtheaccuracywithwhichresearchersobserveandquantifyinfantresponses□ndirectobservationismostaccuratewhenresearchersuseittotestauditoryandolfactoryperceptioninneonates.CVisualindicatorssuchasturningthehead,blinkingtheeyes,orcryingremainthebestevidenceofaninfant'sperceptualabies.CPacifiersarecommonlyusedinstudiestocalmaninfantwhohasbeenpresentedwithexcessivestimuli.(Sophisticatedtechniquesthathaveaidednewdiscoveriesaboutperceptionintheneonatecontinuetobeindirectmeasures.参考：0303O10302O1020404O1030402DatafromobservationalNewtechniquesfor…Sophisticatedtechniquesthat