研究生英语考试summary

ScientistsShouldn’tBeSurprisedbythePopularityofIntelligentDesignInthisarticleScientistsShouldn’tBeSurprisedbythePopularityofIntelligentDesignwhichaddressesmanyscientists’grumpsoverthepersistenceifID(IntelligentDesign),ScottLilienfeldpostulatesthatmanyAmericans’approvalofidcannotbeblamedontheirlackofcommonsensebutrathertheirdependenceontheircommonsenseorintuitioninmakingjudgmentswhichturnsthemawayfromthetheoryofnaturalselection.AccordingtoLilienfeld,thedifficultyinintuitinghowmarvelouscreaturesandorganismshaveresultedfromnaturalselectionhaspreventedmanyAmericansfromacceptingDarwinianTheorywhilethesamecommonsensehasmadeIDrathertemptingtothem.Asisindicatedbyamultitudeofexamplesofwrongbeliefsbasedoncommonsense,intuitiondoesnotprovideareliablemeansofunderstandingtheworld.Unfortunately,scientistsandscienceeducatorshavefailedtoteachresearchmethodsandacademicskillsthatcanhelpdebunkmisconceptionscompatiblewithpeople’scommonsense.Finally,Lilienfeldconcludesthataradicalshiftinscienceeducationhastobeinitiatedsothatscientistswouldnotfacefiascowhenconfrontingerroneousclaimsrefugedbypeople’scommonsense.EmpowermentandRestraintinScientificCommunicationInhisarticle”EmpowermentandRestraintinScientificCommunication”,PhilipCampbellhighlightsadirelikelyconsequenceofbiologists’increasedabilitytoobtainanddistributescientificinformationthatsuchinformationmaybeexploitedbypeoplewithheinousintentions.Scientificcommunication,accordingtoCampbell,hasseensignificantdevelopmentduetotheinventionofpowerfulsoftwareandhardwarethatfacilitatescientists’acquisitionofinformationandreducethetroublethemayotherwisehavetotakeinordertopublicizetheirresearch.However,theresultingplethoraofbiologicalinformationspawnsahazardthattheinformationmaybeusedtobuildbiologicalweapons,andthishazardhascometopeople’sattentionwithsyntheticbiology’sresentdevelopment.Campbellpointsoutthatitisrelativelyeasytoabusebiologicalknowledgewhilebiologicalstudiesoftenbringaboutunexpectedresults.Peopleusingbiologicalinformationformaliciouspurposesmaybewhoeverhaveleanttoexploitsimplebiologicaltechnologiesandarenotnecessarilycommittedtoterroristagendas.Campbellbelievesthatthedecisionsmadebyfundingagenciesandscientificjournalswhoarethegatekeepersofbiologicalresearchwillbecrucialinreducingtherisksofinformationabuseandwhatproactivemeasuresshouldbetakenhastobeconsideredbyallrelatedparties.SummaryOf‘Ethical,LegalAndSocialImplicationsOfAutonomousSystems’Inhisarticle”EthicallegalandsocialImplicationsofAutonomoussystems”,AustinModinehighlightsthatrobotdriverwillcontrolthevehicleswhichraisesproblemsindifferentsociallevels.Autonomousrobotswilldeprivepeopleoftheircontrol.ForModine’sassumethathumaninteractionisnecessary,buthumanwillmakemistakesbecauseoftheirwrongdecision.Autonomoussystermsalsohaveatendencytomakemistake.Andthereisaproblemthatwhowillberesponsibleforthefailure.Aconcernthatautonomoussystemsareheldbackuntiltheydon’tmakemistakesanymore.Thereactiontofailuresbetweenautonomoussystemsandmannedsystemsshouldbechosenifitmakelessmistakesthanhuman-operatorsandtechnicalsystems.Finally,AustineModineconcludethatmanyquestionsshouldbesolvedinordertomakeautonomoussystemsacceptlegallyandsocially.SummaryOf‘WhyDoThingsBecomeMoreComplex’Inhisarticle“WhyDoThingsBecomeMoreComplex”Carringtonhighlightsaphenomenonthatsimplicitybecomesmorecomplex,andpeopleareinterestedinthecomplexity.Inthehistory,theturbojetengineinventedbyFrankWhittlejustuseasimplecompressor-turbinecombinationasthemotivation.Aftermanyyears,thejetenginechangedmorecomplicatedasthepressureofcommercialandmilitaryinterests,usuallybyaddingasubsystem.Modernengineshaveavastlycomplexarrayofinterconnectedsubsystemssubassemblyes.Thejetenginesworklikeacheetahbothintheoutsideandinside,sleeklyandcomplicatedly.Intheprocessofgrowingcomplexity,ithasmanyobstacleforpeopletoovercome,suchasnewbureaucraticofficesanddepartments.Thecomplexitybringsamassofproblemstokeeptheperformancelikemaintenancerepairs,et.al..Andfunctionsandmodificationstendstoincreasecomplexitythroughovercominglimitations,abnormalcircumstancesandadaptingtothecomplexworld.Therenewablesimplicityoftenemergesslowlyafterthegrowingcomplication.Finally,Carringtonconcludesthatcomplexityshouldbecheckedsothatitcanevolvesnaturallyanddeliverpowerfulperformance.Andalsoneedtofinalthingstobringrenewablesimplicityafterthecomplexity.