现代语言学Chapter10

e)Theroleofcorrectionandreinforcement纠错与强化的作用Chapter10LanguageAcquisition语言习得Firstlanguageacquisition第一语言习得Thebiologicalbasisoflanguageacquisition语言习得的生物基础Languageacquisitionisageneticallydeterminedcapacitythatallhumansareendowedwith.Humanisbiologicallyprogrammedtoacquireatleastonelanguage.人生来就具备一种天赋，或一种生物机Anychildwhoiscapableofacquiringsomeparticularhumanlanguageiscapableofacquiringanyhumanlanguagespontaneouslyandeffortlessly.语言习得是全人类均具备的通过遗传而得来的能力。制，使他们至少能习得一种语言。儿童只要能习得某种人类语言，它就能本能而轻松地习得任何人类语言。Languageacquisitionastheacquisitionofgrammaticalrules语言习得即语法规则的习得Languageacquisitionisprimarilytheacquisitionofthegrammaticalsystemoflanguage.Itdoesn'tmeanthateveryspecificruleallowedbythegrammaticalsystemofalanguagemustbeacquired.Whatisactuallyacquiredbyyoungchildrenaresomegeneralprinciplethatarefundamentaltothegrammaticalityofspeech.语言习得主要是语言的语法体系的习得。这并不意味着必须习得一种语言的语法体系的所有规则。儿童习得的是一些一般的原则，这些原则使口头语能合乎语法的基础。Theroleofinputandinteraction语言输入与交流的作用Althoughhumanbeingsaregeneticallypredeterminedtoacquirelanguage,thisgeneticpredispositionisnotasufficientconditionforlanguagedevelopment.Forlanguagetobeeventuallyacquired,childrenmustbeprovidedwithanappropriatelinguisticenvironmentwhichtheyhaveaccesstolanguagedataandopportunitiestointeractwiththeinput.虽然人的语言习得的能力是由遗传决定的，但这种先天遗传并不是语言发展的充分条件。要最终习得语言必须给儿童提供适当的环境，使儿童可以接触到语言信息并有机会用输入的语言进行交流。Theroleofinstruction语言教学的作用Forthevastmajorityofchildren,languagedevelopmentoccursspontaneouslyandrequireslittleconsciousinstruction.Infact,parentsoftenrules.对绝大多数儿童而言，语言发展是本能进行的，向儿童传授语法规则徒劳无益。failintheirattempttoteachchildrengrammatical几乎不需要成人刻意的传授。事实上，父母Correctionandreinforcementarenotkeyfactorsinchildlanguagedevelopment.Reinforcementhasbeenfoundtooccurusuallyinchildren'spronunciationorreportingofthetruthfulnessofutterances,ratherthaninthegrammaticalityofsentences.纠错和强化并不是儿童语言发展的主要因素。强化通常出现在儿童的发音和转述事实方面，而不是句子的语法方面。f)Theroleofimitation模仿的作用Selectiveimitationsuggeststhatchildrendonotblindlymimicadultspeechinaparrotfashion,butratherexploititinveryrestrictedwaytoimprovetheirlinguisticskills.Thepointisthatimitationplaysatbestaveryminorroleinthechild'smasteryoflanguage.选择性的模仿说明，儿童不是鹦鹉学舌般地模仿成人语言，而是对之加以有限的利用提高其自身的语言技能。结论是，模仿在儿童的语言学习中所起的作用不大。Stagesoffirstlanguageacquisitio第一语言习得的发展阶段Theprelinguisticstage前语言阶段是前语言阶段。无论哪个语言社区的新生儿Theearliestsoundsproducedbyinfantscannotbeconsideredearlylanguage.Thenoisessuchascriesandwhimpersofthenewborninalllanguagecommunitiessoundthesame.Suchnoisesarecompletelystimulus-controlled.婴儿最早发出的多种声音不能算是早期的语言，都发出同样的声音。这些声音全部是应激性的。Theone-wordstage独词句阶段Atsomepointinthelatepartofthefirstyearortheearlypartofthesecondyear,thebabblingstagegraduallygiveswaytotheearliestrecognizablestageoflanguage,oftenreferredtoastheone-wordstage.在儿童接近一岁或一岁初的某个时间，咿呀学语阶段逐步被语言最早的可辨识阶段所取代，此阶段通常被称为独词句阶段。Children'sone-wordutterancesarealsocalledholophrasticsentences,becausetheycanbeusedtoexpressaconceptorpredicationthatwouldbeassociatedwithanentiresentenceinadultspeech.儿童发出的一个词也可以被称为独词句，因为它们能够表达概念或论断，起到成人语言中一句话的作用。One-wordutterancessometimesshowanoverextensionorunder-extensionofreference.Typically,childrenusethesamewordforthingsthathaveasimilarappearance.独词句有时表现出语义扩展过度或扩展不足的情况。非常典型的是，儿童会用相同的词来描述外貌相似的事物。Thetwo-wordstage双词句阶段这个阶段，儿童所说的双语句的Ingeneral,thetwo-wordstagebeginsroughlyinthesecondhalfofhechild'ssecondyear.Atthisstage,childrenareheardutteringtwo-wordexpressionsinavarietyofcombinations;expressacertainvarietyofgrammaticalrelations.一般而言，双语句阶段大概开始于儿童一岁半到两岁期间。组合方式是多样的，通过词序表达许多不同的语法关系。Inaddition,thelanguageatthisstagebeginstoreflectthedistinctionbetweensentencetypes,suchasnegativesentences,imperativeandquestions.除此之外，这一阶段的语言开始反映句型的区别，如否定句、祈使句和疑问句。Themultiwordstage多词句阶段开始说更长的具有更复杂语法结构的话。当儿童的话语超过两个词后，四词、五词或更长的话语，此阶段被称为多语句阶段。Betweentwoandthreeyearsold,childrenbegintoproducelongerutteranceswithmorecomplexgrammaticalstructures.Whenachildstartsstringingmorethantwowordstogether,theutterancesmaybetwo,three,four,orfivewordsorlonger,hencethemultiwordstage.儿童在两三岁的时候，就出现了两词、三词、utterancestypicallylackinflectionalmorphemesandmostminorlexicalTheearlymultiwordcategoriesas“to”,“the”,“can”.Thesemultiwordutterancesareusuallythe“substantive”or“content”wordsthatcarrythemainmessage.Becauseoftheirresemblancetothestyleoflanguagefoundintelegrams,utterancesatthisacquisitionstageareoftenreferredtoastelegraphicspeech.儿童早期的多语句有一个典型的特点，即缺少屈折语素和大多数的功能词，如to/the/can等。存在于多语句中的通常是一些表达主要信息的实词。由于这些言语与电报中的电文风格相似，所以这个习得阶段的言语经常被称为电报式言语。Althoughtheylackgrammaticalmorphemes,telegraphicsentencesarenotsimplywordsthatarerandomlystrungtogether,butfollowtheprinciplesofsentenceformation.尽管电报式言语缺少起语法作用的词素，但它们也不是随意攒到一起的，而是遵循一定的句法组合规则的。-s/-ed和介词等。Asthistypeoftelegram-formatspeechincreases,anumberofgrammaticalmorphemesbegintoappearinchildren'sspeech,suchas“-s”,“-ed”andprepositions.随着这类电报式言语的增多，儿童言语中开始出现一些语法性词素，如Itisnormallyassumedthatbytheageoffive,withanoperatingvocabularyofmorethan2000words,childrenhavecompletedthegreaterpartofthelanguageacquisitionprocess.通常认为，儿童五岁时的有用词汇量应该超过2000个，语言习得过程基本完成。Thedevelopmentofthegrammaticalsystem语法体系的发展Thedevelopmentofphonology音系学的发展It'ssuggestedthatevenbeforechildrenmasterthephonemiccontrastsoftheirlanguage,theybegintodevelopthearticulatorymovementsneededtoproducethesedistinctionsinspeech.儿童在掌握其语言的音位对立之前，就已经开始了这些相对的音所需要的发音实践。Astheydeveloptheirnativelanguage,childrenmustmasterasystematicsetofpatternsandlearnhowtofitgivensoundsintothosepatterns.儿童在习得母语的同时，必须掌握一套系统的模式，并学会将特定的语音纳入这些模式中。而一些“较Childrenfirstacquirethesoundsfoundinalllanguagesoftheworld,nomatterwhatlanguagetheyareexposedto,andinlaterstageacquirethe“moredifficult”sounds.儿童无论处于何种语言环境，他们最初习得的语音是全世界各种语言所共有的，难”的语音则在以后阶段习得。Ithasbeennotedthatcertainsoundsthatoccurinbabblingarelostwhenchildrenbegintospeakthelanguage,andthenreappearatalaterstage.人们注意到，儿童开始说话后，一些咿呀学语阶段的语音暂时消失了，以后又会出现。Thedevelopmentofsyntax句法的发展他们开始使用其语言中的屈折因素、派生词素和功能词形的发展Aschildrenproducesentencesthatmoreandmorecloselyapproximatetheadultgrammar,theybegintousefunctionalwordsaswellasinflectionalandderivationalmorphemesofthelanguage.随着儿童的语言越来越接近成人语法，词。ThedevelopmentofmorphologyChildren'searlywordsaresimplyabunchofbarestemswithoutaffixes.Bythetimetheyaregoingbeyondthetelegraphicstage,children'sbegintoincorporatesomeoftheinflectionalmorphemeswhichindicatethegrammaticalfunctionofnounsandverbsused.-ng/-s/-ed.儿童早期的用词仅有词干，没有词缀。到多词句阶段后，儿童开始使用一些体现所用名词和动词语法的屈折性词素。如-ing/-s/-ed等。Thedevelopmentofvocabularyandsemantics词汇与语义的发展Itisestimatedthatduringthefirsttwoyears,achildhaveaverylimitedvocabularyrangingfrom50to100words.50到100个单词之间。儿童在出生后的两年里，词汇量极为有限，一般在Atthisstage,thesemanticreferentofawordexpands.Overgeneralizationcanbeobservedinchildren'sacquisitionofthesemanticsystem,astheyacquiremoreandmorewords,the“over-generalized”meaningnarrowsdown.在这个阶段，词义有泛指的特点。儿童习得语义体系有过度概括的情况，随着词汇量的增长，过度概括消除。Bytheageoftwoandahalfyears,children'svocabularyisexpandingrapidlyandtheyareactuallyinitiatingmoretalks.Byfive,children'sutterancesaverageabout4.6wordspersentence,andtheirvocabularyincreasesbyabouttwentywordseachday.Six-7800Eight-17600(28000ifderivedformsincluded)两周岁半的儿童的词汇量迅速增长，他们的话语实际上也增多了。五周岁时，儿童每句话平均大约有4.6个单词，而且词汇的增长达到日均20个。六周岁时词汇量可达7800个。八周岁时词汇量可达17600个，若包括派生形式，则为28000个。Ingeneral,childrenhavevirtuallyacquiredthebasicfabricoftheirnativelanguageattheageoffiveorsix.Itisagreedthatthepre-schoolyearsareacrucialperiodforfirstlanguageacquisition.一般来说，儿童在五六岁时，实际上已经掌握了其母语的基本结构。现在已有这样的共识：对儿童而言，学前阶段是第一语言习得的关键时期。Secondlanguageacquisition第二语言习得Acquisitionandlearning习得与学习Acquisitionreferstothegradualandsubconsciousdevelopmentofabilityinthefirstlanguagebyusingitnaturallyindailycommunicativesituations.习得指的是日常交际环境中通过自然的运用第一语言能力而逐步地、下意识地发展这种能力。Learning,however,isdefinedasaconsciousprocessofaccumulatingknowledgeofasecondlanguageusuallyobtainedinschoolsettings.而学习则被定义为在学校环境中有意识地积累第二语言知识的过程。Transferandinterference转移与干扰Naturally,learnerswillsubconsciouslyusetheirL1knowledgeinlearningasecondlanguage.Thisisknownaslanguagetransfer.学习者在学第二语言的过程中总是下意识地运用第一语言的知识，这种现象叫做语言转移。Transfercanbepositiveornegative.Presumably,positivetransferoccurswhenanL1patternisidenticalwith,orsimilarto,atargetlanguagepattern.Conversely,negativetransferoccurswhenanL1patternisdifferentfromthecounterpartpatternofthetargetlanguage.Negativetransferisaprocessmorecommonlyknownasinterference.语言转移可为正向转移，也可为负向转移。如果第一语言和目的语的模式相同或相似时，很可能出现正向转移。相反，如果第一语言的模式和目的语中相应的模式不同时出现的就是负向转移，即人们常说的干扰。Inordertoidentifytheareasoflearningdifficulty,aninter-lingualcontrastiveprocedurecalledContrastiveAnalysiswasdeveloped.语言学家们提出一种被称为对比的方法来研究本族语和目的语的不同之处。被称为“对比分析家”的学者认为，正向转移对第二语言学习起帮助作用，而负向转移学习则对第二语言学习起干扰作用，是造成错误的主要原因。实际的许多错误是由于Itwasfoundthatalargeproportionofgrammaticalerrorscouldnotbeexplainedbymothertongueinterference.Manyactualerrorsareattributabletoovergeneralizationinsteadofnegativetransfer.实际调查发现，有相当大比例的语法错误无法用母语干扰加以解释。过度概括而导致的。ErroranalysisandthenaturalrouteofSLAdevelopment错误分析与第二语言习得的自然发展轨道TheErrorAnalysisapproachshowsthattherearestrikingsimilaritiesinthewaysinwhichdifferentL2learnersacquireanewlanguage.Alargeproportionofdevelopmental-typeerrorsinlearners'L2utterancesprovidesupportfortheclaimthatthesesimilaritiespointtoanaturalrouteofL2developmentwhichresemblesthatreportedforL1development.EvidencefromanumberofmorphemeandlongitudinalstudiesalsolendsupportfortheclaimthatL2learnersfollowbroadlysimilarroutes,althoughminordifferencesexistduetovariablelearnerfactorsandlearningsituations.错误分析方法表明，不同的第二语言学习者在习得新语言时其方法具有惊人的相似性。第二语言学习者所犯的很多语言发展错误表明，不同的第二语言学习者在学习方法上的相似性体现了第二语言习得与第一语言习得一样，都有一条自然发展轨道。一些词素和纵向研究的结果也表明，第二语言学习者遵循着大致相同的发展轨道，尽管由于自身的一些因素与学习环境的不同，他们的语言发展轨道也存在一些细微的差别。d)Inter-languageandfossilization语际语与语言僵化现象SLAisviewedasaprocessofcreativeconstruction,inwhichalearnerconstructsaseriesofinternalrepresentationsthatcomprisesthelearner'sinterimknowledgeofthetargetlanguage,knownasinter-language,thatis,thelanguagethatalearnerconstructsatagivenstageofSLA.第二语言习得是一个创造性构建过程，在这一过程中，学习者构建了一系列内在的表达方式，这种表达方式组成了学习者对目的语的过渡性知识，此种知识被称为语际语，即学习者在第二语言习得的某一阶段所说的语言。Specifically,inter-languageconsistsofaseriesofinterlockingandapproximatelinguisticsystemsin-betweenandyetdistinctformthelearner'snativeandtargetlanguage.Itrepresentsthelearner'stransitionalcompetencemovingalongalearningcontinuumstretchingfromone'sL1competencetothetargetcompetence.具体地说，语际语包含一系列与本族语和目的语相关并相似的语言体系。既介于它们之间，又不同于它们的语言体系。它反映了学习者从第一语言能力向目的语语言能力的过度。Learner'sinter-languagefossilizedsomewayshortoftargetlanguagecompetencewhiletheinternalizedrulesystemcontainedrulesthataredifferentfromthoseofthetargetlanguagesystem.Thefossilizationofthelearner'sinter-languageisbelievedtobeamajorsourceofincorrectformsresistanttofurtherinstruction.学习者的语际语在未到达目的语言能力时，就发生了僵化，此时其内在化的规则体系与目的语语言体系所包含的规则不尽相同。据认为，学习者语际语的僵化现象是导致错误的语言形式的不可救药的主要原因。Theroleofinput语言输入的作用才能进行第二语言习得。ItisevidentthatSLAtakesplaceonlywhenthelearnerhasaccesstoL2inputandtheopportunitytointeractwiththeinput.很明显，学习者只有接受到第二语言输入并有机会纳入输入信息时，Theroleofformalinstruction正规教学的作用Agreatnumberofadultslearnasecondlanguagethroughformalinstruction.Formalinstructionoccursinclassroomswhenattemptsaremadetoraiselearner'sconsciousnessaboutthenatureoftargetlanguagerulesinordertoaidlearning.大多数成年人通过正规教学来学习第二语言。正规教学就是教师在课堂上设法提高学习者对目的语语言规则的特点的认识，从而帮助他们学习第二语言。AlthoughitisfoundthatformalinstructionhardlyaffectsthenaturalrouteofSLA,itdoesprovideopportunitiestoreceivecomprehensibleinput,andinsodoingenablestheclassroomlearnertoperformawiderangeoflinguistictasksthanthenaturalisticlearnerandtherebyacceleratestherateofacquisition.尽管正规教学对第二语言习得的自然发展轨道的影响微乎其微，但它却为接受可理解的语言输入信息提供了机会，这样就使得课堂学习者比自然学习者能完成更多的语言学习任务，从而加快语言习得的进度。Studiessuggestthatformalinstructionmaynoteasilyinfluenceaparticulartypeoflanguagetask,suchascasualandspontaneousconversation,butitmayhelplearnersperformothertypesoftasks,suchasthoseassociatedwithplannedspeech,writingorcareer-orientedexamination.研究表明，正规教学对一种特殊的语言学习任务，如自然随意的对话影响不大，但却有助于学习者完成其它学习任务，如有准备的发言、写作或职业考试。Individuallearnerfactors学习者的个人因素Itisknownthatthereisnouniformwayinwhichlearnersacquiretheknowledgeofasecondlanguage.Thereareanumberoffactorspertainingtothelearnerthatpotentiallyinfluencethewayinwhichasecondlanguageisacquired.Thelearnerfactorsincludeage,aptitude,motivation,personality,andcognitivestyle.学习者在习得第二语言知识时，没有统一的方式，这一点已成定论。可能影响第二语言习得方式以及和学习者自己有关的因素有很多，主要包括：年龄、领悟力、学习动机、个性以及认知方式。