跨文化交际资料整理

`·Enculturation文化习得:Theprocessoflearningone’sownculture·Acculturation文化适应:Adaptthecultureslearningbytheothercultures·VerbalInterculturalCommunication非言语行为:Peoplefromdifferentculturalbackgroundscommunicatewithotherpeoplethroughlanguage.·Socialculturalelements:①culturalvalues②worldview③socialorganization·globalization：①referstotheestablishmentofaworldeconomy,inwhichnationalbordersarebecominglessandlessimportantastransnationalcorporations,existingeverywhereandnowhere,dobusinessinaglobalmarket.②alsoreferstowhatiscalledtime-spacecompression.(theincreasingglobalmobilityofpeople/theimpactofnewelectronicmediaonhumancommunication)·humanneeds:①physiological（fundamentalneed）②safty③thebelongingness(love,affection)④theesteem(respect)⑤self-actualization(reachone’spotential)·文化冰山理论（EdwardTHall）:Culturelikeanicebergcanbedividedintotwoparts:cultureabovethewaterlineandculturebelowthewaterline.Cultureabovethewaterlineisexplicit,visible,tangible,easytochangewithtime,atipoftheiceberg.Culturebelowthewaterlineisimplicit,invisible,intangible,hardtochangewithtime,themajority.·culture:canbedefinedasthecoherent,learned,sharedviewofagroupofpeopleaboutlife’sconcernsthatrankswhatisimportant,furnishesattitudesaboutwhatthingsareappropriate,anddictatesbehavior.·languageandculture:①languagereflectstheenvironmentinwhichwelive.②reflectsculturalvalues③languagelives,itchangesovertime.④language–and-culturalisembeddedinculturalproducts,practices,perspectives,communities,andpersons.language–and-culturalaretwosidesofthesamecoin,membersofthecultureusetheirlanguagetoportraytheirculture,toputtheirculturalperspectivesintopractice.Languageunitesproducts,practices,perspectives,communities,andpersons.·文化维度culturaldimensions(GeertHofstede):individualism-collectivism，uncertainyavoidance，powerdistance，masculinity-femininity，long-termvsshort-term.·communication:①元素：context,participants(affectingaspectsarerelationship,gender,culture),messages(meaning,symbols,encodinganddecoding),channels(soundandsight),noise(external,internal,semantic),feedback.②过程，本质：dynamicprocess不断变化;symbolic象征的;systemic影响全局;complex;involvesmakinginferences;hasaconsequence.③作用：communicationisaprocessinvolvingtheexchangeofmessagesandthecreationofmeaning.Itiseffectivetotheextentthatweareabletominimizemisunderstanding.Generally,thegreaterourculturalandlinguisticknowledge,andthemoreourbeliefsoverlapwiththepeoplewithwhomwecommunicate,thelesslikelihoodtherewillbemisunderstandings.④方式：highinvolvement高度卷入(Talkmore,Interruptmore,Expecttobeinterrupt.Talkmoreloudlyattimes,Talkmorequicklythanthosefromculturesfavoring“highconsiderateness”)。。highconsiderateness高度体谅⑤言语交际方式:1）person-oriented/status-orientedverbalstyles：=individual-centeredverbalmode，emphasizestheimportanceofinformality&rolesuspensionsymmetricalinteractionrespectingunique,personalidentity/=role-centeredverbalmode，formality&largepowerdistance，asymmetrical，honoringprescribedpower-basedmembershipidentities2）Self-enhancement(boastingaboutone’saccomplishmentsandabilities)/Self-effacement(emphasizestheimportanceofhumblingverbalrestraints,modesttalk)⑥非言语交际作用:repeating,complementing,substituting,regulating,contradicting。。nonverbalbehaviorfunctionsasaculturallyrule-governedcommunicationsystem.Therulesaregovernedbyculture,andtherulesandnonverbalbehaviordifferamongcultures.·高低语境high-context(Mexico,Japan,theMiddleEast)/low-context(Germany,UK,US):①定义：Ahigh-context(HC)communicationormessageisoneinwhichmostoftheinformationiseitherinthephysicalcontextorinternalizedintheperson,whileverylittleisinthecoded,explicit,transmittedpartofthemassage.Alow-context(LC)communicationisjusttheopposite;i.e.,themassofinformationisvestedintheexplicitcode.②features：low-contextemphasizesdirecttalk,person-orientedfocus,self-enhancementmode,andtheimportanceoftalk.//high-context,stressesindirecttalk,status-orientedfocus,self-effacementmode,andtheimportanceofnonverbalsignalsandevensilence.·孔子confucianism:isnotareligionbutasetofpracticalprinciplesandethicalrulesfordailylife.①socialorderandstabilityarebasedonunequalrelationshipsbetweenpeople.(leaderandfollower,fatherandson,husbandandwife,olderbrotherandyoungerbrother,friends)②thefamilyistheprototypeforallsocialrelationships③propersocialbehaviorconsistsofnottreatingothersasyouwouldnotliketobetreatedyourself④peopleshouldbeskilled,educated,hardworking,thrity,modest,patient,andpersevering.·theSapir-WhorfHypothesis:Ahypothesisholdingthatthestructureofalanguageaffectstheperceptionsofrealityofitsspeakersandthusinfluencestheirthoughtpatternsandworldviews.Italertedpeopletothefactthatlanguageiskeyedtothetotalculture,andthatitrevealsapeople’sviewofitstotalenvironment.·stereotype:isafixednotionaboutpersonsinacertaincategory,withnodistinctionsmadeamongindividuals.Inotherwords,itisanovergeneralizedandoversimplifiedbeliefweusetocategorizeagroupofpeople.·prejudice:anattitudebasedonerroneousbeliefsorpreconceptions.包括verbalabuse,physicalavoidance,discrimination,physicalattack,massacre.如何解决：wesuggestthatempathyisthemaincommunicationskillweshouldlearn.Empathicpersonsknowhowtoshowunderstandingbyprojectingthemselvesintotheirpartner’sposition.Thismeansthattobeempathicininterculturalinteractionsweneedtobeopenmindedintermsofinformationsharings,tobeimaginativeincorrectlydrawingthepictureofother’ssituation,andtoshowacommitmentorstrongwillingnesstounderstandourculturallydifferentpartnersinanykindofsituation.·适应新文化：adaptingtonewculturesinvolvesfirstworkingthroughcultureshock.①donotbecomeover-reactionary②meetnewpeople③trynewthings④giveyourselfperiodsofrestandthought⑤workonyourself-concept⑥write⑦observebodylanguage⑧learntheverballanguage.·ethnocentrism:beliefintheintrinsicsuperiorityofthenation,culture,orgrouptowhichonebelongs,oftenaccompainiedbyfeelingsofdislikeforothergroups.如何克服：①toavoidcomplicatingthealreadydifficulttaskofinterculturalcommunication,participantsinacross-culturalsituationneedtoconsiderfirstthepossibilitythatanegativeevaluationmightbebasedonanunrecognizedculturaldifference.Eachpersonneedstobeawarethatheorsheisevaluatingtheother,oftenonsimilarlyethnocentricgrounds.②culturalself-awarenessisnecessary,asissomeknowledgeofpredominantpatternsinthetargetcultureandtheirvariations.·Identifythecontrastbetweenhigh-contextandlow-contextcultureandthenuseittointerpretthedifferencebetweenAmericanandJapaneseorChinesenegotiatingstyle?①Negotiationatmosphere。American:efficient,professionalism（职业精神）andcompromise(妥协，让步)Japanese:socializing,trustChinese:socialization②Detail。American:thefacts,writtenagreementsorcontrastJapanese:fewerspecificissuesandlessdetailoriented,briefwrittenagreementsChinese:generalwrittenagreements③Communicationstyle。American:moreinterestedinlogicalargumentsthaninthepeopletheyaredealingwithdislikesilenceJapanese:encouragecovert,fragmentedChinese:avoidopenlyconfrontconflict4Culturalvariationsinselectingnegotiators。American:technicalexpertise:youngernegotiatorsarecommon;womenareincluded;havingfullauthoritytomakedecisionsJapanese:(Chinese):Status,knowledge,age,seniority4Problem-solvingProcess。American:universalproblemsolvers;rationalthinkingandconcretedata,utilizeafactualinductivestyleofpersuasionJapanese:consensus-buildingChinese:highlevelauthorities4OrganizationalStructure。American:task-relatedstageisthemostimportant;negotiatingoutcomesdependoneventsatthenegotiationtableJapanese:pre-negotiationisslowlyandcautiously;mediatorisusedChinese:concessiononlycomesattheend·WhataretheAmerican/ChineseculturalvalueslikeintermsofCulturalOrientationputforwardbyKluekhohnandStrodthbeck?1.Humannature(人生)isevilbutperfectible(American)Goodbutcorruptible(Chinese)2.RelationtothenatureHumanbeingscan/shouldmaster/conquerwithnature(American)Liveharmoniouslywithnature(Chinese)3.Senseoftime。Americansarefutureoriented.Chinesearepastoriented.4.AttitudestowardworkandhumanactivityAstoAmericans,doingleadstoexternal/achievementsChinese,being-and-becomingisakindofspiritualgoodofinnerharmonyandpeace.5.SocialrelationshipAmerican:Selfismoreimportantthangroup(individualism)Chinese:Incultureswithgroupvalues,peoplemakedecisionsbyconsemsus·IdentifythefeaturesofeachoffourHofstede’sculturaldimensionsandapplyitinthecasestudy辨别+分析+结合案例1.individualismVScollectivism(个人/集体主义)2.lowpowerdistanceVShighpowerdistance(远/近权力距离)3.masculinityVSfemulinity(男性/女性文化)4.lowuncertaintyavoidanceVShighuncertaintyavoidance(不确定性)5.highcontextcultureVSlowcontextculture·HowisChineseaddressingdifferentfromAmericanaddressing?InChinese,thesurnameisputbeforethegivenname.InAmerican,viceversa,thenameorder.Inrecentyears,manyEnglish-speakingpeopletendtoaddressothersbytheirgivennames,evenwhenmeetingforthefirsttime.ButinChinese,wetendtoaddresseachotherwiththefullname.AnothercommonChineseformofaddressistheuseofaperson’stitleoffice,orprofessionTherefore,onecanconcludethattheChinesecustomsofaddressingmemberswiththekinshipterms(亲戚关系)evennotrelatedbybloodormarriage·Whoshouldbeintroducedfirstinthewest?Thesenior,thefemale,theguest·HowisChinesehospitalitydifferentfromAmericanhospitality?A:InChina,aguestusuallyobservestheprincipleofavoidingbringingtroubletothehost.InAmerican,incontrast,itisthehostwhotriestoavoidinterferinginguests’freedomofactionbyleavingroomforthegueststomakechoices.B:TheChinesehostusuallygoestotroubletomakesurethereissomethingleftafterthemeal;the“wastefulness”ofthispracticehasbeencriticizedinAmerican,andsomeadvocateorderingmoresensiblequantities.·Aculturalassumption文化定式AculturalassumptionIswhenweassumethatapersonhasparticularvaluesandattitudesbasedontheirculturalbackgrounds.·HowwouldAmericansmisunderstandtheChineseresponsestothecompliments?1.Inthefirstcase,theimplicationwasthatthepraisorhadpoorjudgement2.Thepraisorwasnotsincere3.TheChinesewouldbesuspectedof“fishingforcompliments”·（重要）HowistheChinesedifferentfromAmericansinexpressinggratitude?1.Chinesepeopledon'tusuallysay"thankyou"tothosewhoareverycloseandwhoareinalowerposition.ThankyouisverycommoninAmerican,sotheytendtothankpeoplealldaylongregardlessofrelationship2.TraditionalChinesecustomsdon'trequirepeopletoexpressthanksforthesmallfavors.TheAmericanswouldthankyouallthewayforverysmallandmostordinarythings.·Whatarethe4majorverbaldifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglish?1.Aterminonelanguagedoesn’tnecessarilyhaveacounterpart(对等的人事物)intheotherlanguage.2.Wordsortermsinbothlanguagesappeartorefertothesameobjectorconceptonlyonthesurface,butactuallyrefertoquitedifferentthings3.Thingsorconceptsarerepresentedbyoneorperhapstwotermsinonelanguage,butbymanymoretermsintheotherlanguage,forexample,finerdistinctionsintheotherlanguage4.Termshavemoreorlessthesameprimarymeaning,buthavesecondaryoradditionalmeaningsthatmaydifferconsiderablyfromeachother.·Monochronictime=M-time单时性文化Emphasisonschedules,segmentationandpromptness(efficiency)andpunctuality.Itfeaturesoneeventatatime.·Polychronictime=P-time多时性文化practicedbymostotherpeoplesislessrigidandclock-bound.PeoplefromP-timeculturesscheduleseveralactivitiesatthesametime,andtimeforthemismoreflexibleandmorehuman-centered·Proxemics空间学theperceptionanduseofspace·Kinesics身势学morethanjusthandorarmgestures;itreferstoanylittlemovementofanypartofthebody·Paralanguage副语言languageliesbetweenverbalandnonverbalcommunication.Itinvolvessoundsbutnotwords,itmeansthesetofnonphonemicpropertiesofspeech,suchasspeakingtempo(节奏),vocalpitch（音高）andintonationalcontours（语音语调）·WherearethedifferentfeaturesofM-timeandP-time？M-time:meanspayingattentiontoanddoingonlyonethingatatime.Emphasisonschedules,segmentationandpromptness(efficiency)andpunctuality.Itfeaturesoneeventatatime.P-time:practicedbymostotherpeoplesislessrigidandclock-bound.PeoplefromP-timeculturesscheduleseveralactivitiesatthesametime,andtimeforthemismoreflexibleandmorehuman-centered·WhatcontrastingworldviewscanbedrawnfromBuddhismandChristianity?1.Chiristansseeseachonewasbornwithsinsandthereforeweshouldsalvageourselves(自我拯救).Thesalvationoftheindividualisachievedthroughhardworkandpiety.Christianityrecognizestheimportanceofworkandfreeownershipofproperty.2.Buddhistsbelievesthatthereisasupremeandwonderfultruththattheuniversesrunsbasedonadynamicbalance.Theydon’tattachthemselvestotheimpermanentobjectsandthepursuitofmaterialwell-being.Thus,littlesupportisaccordedtofreeenterprise..Word文档