合肥学院2013年暑期大学生社会实践活动先进系、

丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 1 页，共 52 页 目录 2018 年中国人民大学外国诧学院 816 英诧诧言学与英诧教学之诧言学教程考研基础五套测 （一） ..................................................................................................................................... 2 2018 年中国人民大学外国诧学院 816 英诧诧言学与英诧教学之诧言学教程考研基础五套测试题 （二） ................................................................................................................................... 10 2018 年中国人民大学外国诧学院 816 英诧诧言学与英诧教学之诧言学教程考研基础五套测试题 （三） ................................................................................................................................... 19 2018 年中国人民大学外国诧学院 816 英诧诧言学与英诧教学之诧言学教程考研基础五套测试题 （四） ................................................................................................................................... 30 2018 年中国人民大学外国诧学院 816 英诧诧言学与英诧教学之诧言学教程考研基础五套测试题 （五） ................................................................................................................................... 40 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 2 页，共 52 页 2018 年中国人民大学外国语学院 816 英语语言学与英语教学之语言学教程考研基础 五套测试题（一） 说明：根据本校该考试科目历年考研命题规律，结合出题侧重点和难度，精心整理编写。基础检 测使用。共五套试题，均含有详细解析，也是众多专业课辅导机构参考借鉴资料，考研必备。 —————————————————————————————————————————— 一、Explain-the-fllowing-terms 1． Speech community 【答案】 Speech community is a group of people who share a set of norms and expectations regarding the use of language. Speech communities can be members of a profession with a specialized jargon, distinct social groups like high school students or hip-pop fans. In addition, online and other mediated communities, such as many internet forums, often constitute speech communities. Members of speech communities will often develop slang or jargon to serve the group's special purposes and priorities. 2． cohort model 【答案】 The cohort model is a supposed doctrine dealing with the spoken word recognition postulated by Marslen-Wilson and Welsh in 1990. It is suggested that the first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set or cohort of word candidates that are consistent with the input. These candidates compete with one another for activation. As more acoustic input is analyzed, candidates that are no longer consistent with the input drop out of the set. This process continues until only one word candidate matches the input- the best fitting word may be chosen if no single candidate is a clear winner. 3． Government 【答案】 Government is another type of control over the forms of some words by other words in certain syntactic constructions. It differs from concord in that this is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the forms of others in terms of certain category. In English, for example, the pronoun after a verb or a preposition should be in the object form as in She gave him a book. She gave a book to him. In other words, the verb, or the preposition, determines, or governs, the form of the pronoun after it. 4． figure-ground alignment 【答案】 Figure-ground alignment seems to apply to space with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relational configuration. It also applies to human perception of moving objects. Since the moving object is typically the most prominent one, because it is moving, it is typically the figure, while the remaining stimuli constitute the ground. 5． constituent 【答案】 Constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: for example, in the sentence The boy ate the apple, S （A） , the boy （B） , ate the apple （C） , each part is a constituent. Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units. If two constituents, in 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 3 页，共 52 页 the case of the example above, B （the boy） and C （ ate the apple） , are joined to form a hierarchically higher constituent A （“S”，here a sentence） , then B and C are said to be immediate constituents of A. 6． Concatenation 【答案】 What makes a word separate from other words is that all the letters are lined up together with no intervening spaces. That is, in a word, all letters are concatenated. Sometimes new words can be made by concatenating two existing words—for example, “airline” is a concatenation of the words “air” and “line” into a new word. 7． distinctive features 【答案】 a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people. 8． Categorization 【答案】 Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. There are three levels in categories: the basic level，the superordinate level，and the subordinate level. 9． Endocentric construction 【答案】 Endocentric construction: An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e. a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable center, or head. Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction. Noun phrases like “Lovely Lucy” are typical endocentric constructions. 10．Polysemy 【答案】 Polysemy means a single word having several or many meanings. According to Crystal: Polysemy is a term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings. Polysemic words are signs of an advanced culture. Polysemy is also an essential feature of a language’s economy and efficiency. 二、Short-answer-questions 11．What are the four maxims of the co-operative principle? Which maxim does this speaker seem to be particularly careful about: "'Well, to be quite honest, I do not think she is ill today. 【答案】 The four maxims of the co-operative principle are as follows: Quantity. （1） Make your contribution as informative as is required （for the current purposes of the exchange）. （2） Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. Quality. Try to make your contribution one that is true. （1） Do not say what you believe to be false. （2） Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Relation. Be relevant. 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 4 页，共 52 页 Manner. Be perspicuous. （1） Avoid obscurity of expression. （2） Avoid ambiguity. （3） Be brief. （4） Be orderly. In the utterance given, it is probable that the speaker is particularly careful about the maxim of Quality, which rules that do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. 12．Cite an example to explain synchronic linguistics. 【答案】 Synchronic Linguistics is the description of a language at some point of time in history. It focuses on the characteristics of the language at a certain time. For example, when we study English, we learn about the vocabulary, the language points and oral English etc. At this time, we are learning English of current time in synchronic method. 13．Why is Saussure hailed as the father of modem linguistics? 【答案】 Saussure was the first to notice the complexities of language. He believed that language is a system of signs. To communicate ideas, signs must be part of a system of signs, called conventions. He held that the sign is the union of a form （signifier） and an idea （signified） , and it is the central fact of language. By providing answers to questions concerning many aspects of language, Saussure made clear the object of study for linguistics as a science. His ideas on the arbitrary nature of sign, on the relational nature of linguistic units, on the distinction of langue and parole and of synchronic and diachronic linguistics, etc. pushed linguistics into a brand new stage. 14．What are closed-class words and open-class words? 【答案】 A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc., are all closed items. The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. With the emergence of new ideas, inventions, etc., new expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items. However, the distinction between closed-class words and open-class words is not quiet as clear-cut as it seems. Preposition，though a closed-class，is relatively open one in English. Expressions such as “regarding”，“throughout”， “out of” are now recognized as prepositions or complex prepositions. In respect of open-class items，auxiliary verbs，which used to be ranked as open-class words, are relatively closed in number. 15．What are the three important points of the Prague School? 【答案】 The Prague School has three points of special importance, First, it stressed that the synchronic study of language is fully justified as it can draw on complete and controllable material for investigation. Second, it emphasised the systemic character of language, arguing that no element of any language can be satisfactorily analysed or evaluated if viewed in isolation. In other words, elements are held to be in functional contrast or opposition. Third, it looked on language as a tool performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it. 16．What is the relationship between linguistics and behaviorism according to Bloomfield? 【答案】 For Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of the positivistic brand of psychology known as 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 5 页，共 52 页 “behaviourism”. When the behaviourist methodology entered linguistics via Bloomfield, s writings, the popular practice in linguistic studies was to accept what a native speaker says in his language and to discard what he says about it. This is because of the belief that a linguistic description was reliable when based on observation of unstudied utterances by speakers; it was unreliable if the analyst had resorted to asking speakers questions such as “Can you say ... in your language?” 三、Essay-question 17．Explain speech act theory and list the different kinds of speech acts with examples for each. 【答案】 The speech act theory was proposed by John Austin. According to this theory, we are performing various kinds of acts when we are speaking. Actions performed through utterances are generally called speech acts. An utterance can perform different speech acts depending on the context and that one speech act can be performed by more than one utterances. According to Searle, speech acts all into five general categories. Specific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point, but differ in their strength. 1）Representatives: the acts of saying what the speaker believes to be true; they include stating, describing, asserting, and so on; such as “It’s raining”，“They won the game”. 2）Directives: acts of trying to get the hearer to do something. Commands, orders, requests, warnings, suggestions, and on so are of this type, as illustrated in “Be quiet!”，“Don’t touch that!” 3）Commissives: acts of committing the speaker himself to some future course of action. They include promising，vowing, offering，threatening, and so on. Examples are “I’ll take her to the vet.” and “We won’t do that.” 4）Expressives: acts of expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state. They can be statements of pleasure，pain，likes，sorrow, and so on. For example，“I’m sorry to hear that”. 5）Declarations: acts of bringing about immediate changes by saying something. They include resigning,dismissing, naming, appointing, and so on. For example, the priest may say in a wedding “I now pronounce you husband and wife”. 18．What are the unique features of Halliday’s systemic linguistics? 【答案】 Halliday’s Systemic Grammar is different from other linguistic theories in the following aspects. First, it attaches great importance to the sociological aspects of language. Secondly, it views language as a form of doing rather than a form of knowing. It distinguishes linguistic behavior potential from actual linguistic behavior. Thirdly, it gives a relatively high priority to description of the characteristics of particular languages and particular varieties of languages. Fourthly, it explains a number of aspects of language in terms of dines （ i.e. ungrammatical—>more unusual —> less unusual—>less usual —> grammatical）. Fifthly, it seeks verification of its hypotheses by means of observation from texts and by means of statistical techniques. Lastly, it has as its central category the category of the system. 19．Is it possible to separate semantics and pragmatics? Why or why not? What are the implications of your answer for second language teaching? 【答案】 Though both semantics and pragmatics have to do with the meaning of language, and 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 6 页，共 52 页 link language to the world, we think it is possible to separate semantics and pragmatics in linguistic study. Semantics is the study of literal meaning of linguistic expressions, particularly meaning of words, phrases and sentences. In using the term sense rather than reference, the focus of semantics is on the way people relate words to each other within the framework of their language. Pragmatics starts from the observation that people use language to accomplish many kinds of acts, broadly known as speech acts thus it is the study of how to do things with words or of the meaning of language in context. This kind of meaning in pragmatics usually refers to as speaker’s meaning, utterance meaning, or contextual meaning. Its interpretation depends more on who the speaker of the sentence is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used. Thus the distinction between semantics and pragmatics is clear: the former is more closely related to the words used, the more constant, inherent side of meanings; the latter is more closely related to the context, the more indeterminate side, or something extra. The first implication for second language study involves the appropriate use of the target language. The teaching of a foreign language in a classroom involves two types of instruction: one is informational and analytical and can be diagrammed on the axis of general semantic information about the language. But language learning also has a crucially important skill component, which involves the development of the ability to use the language, actively through speaking and writing and passively through listening and reading. This is the pragmatic turn in second language teaching. The language use should be analyzed in relation to the context of communication, and that language teaching and learning should focus on the appropriate use of the target language, oral and written, according to situational and wider social context. The second implication is concerned with vocabulary learning and translation. The learning of second language’s vocabularies involves the understanding and memory of their meanings. Since the differences between the first and second language’s culture, there may be no corresponding meaning underlying the same sayings. Teachers should explain the different usage or implication of the target language’s items. This is of much importance for cross-cultural translation practices. 20．How do you compare the traffic light system with a human linguistic system? 【答案】 Both the traffic light system and human linguistic system can symbolize some information in communication whereas the linguistic system is more complicated. However, the linguistic system has several distinctive features no other systems have, including the traffic light system. （1）Language is arbitrary which means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. But in traffic light system, there are direct logical connections between the light signals and their meanings. （2）Language is hierarchical, thafs to say linguistic system has two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. However, the traffic light system has no hierarchical system and the structure is composed by a single level. （3）Language is productive. By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its excursiveness. Because of duality, speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. But there is no recursive nature in traffic light system which means that it can not produce new meaning. 四、Synthesis 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 7 页，共 52 页 21．What does Chomsky mean by Language Acquisition Device? 【答案】 Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a Language Acquisition Device （LAD ）, which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning. He argues the child comes into the world with specific innate endowment, not only with general tendencies or potentialities, but also with knowledge of the nature of the world, and specifically with knowledge of the nature of language. According to this view, children are bomwith knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is universal. The categories and relations exist in all human languages and all human infants are bom with knowledge of them. According to him, the study of language, or the structure of language, can throw some light on the nature of the human mind. According to Chomsky, there are aspects of linguistic organisation that are basic to the human brain and that make it possible for children to acquire linguistic competence in all its complexity with little instruction from family or friends. He argues that LAD probably consists of three elements: a hypothesis-maker, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure. 22．姜望琪（1991: 79） claims that “To some extent, we can say that any two words of the same part of speech may become antonyms, as long as the meaning difference between them is what needs to be emphasized in the particular context” He uses the two sentences below as examples. What do you think of the claim? You have to peel a raw potato but you can skin a boiled one. He’s no statesman, but a mere politician. 【答案】 This is a reasonable claim. As the author said in the paper, “man” can be the antonym of “woman”，but it can also be the antonym of “boy” in a situation when the age difference is important. When the difference between a man and an animal is important，“man” can also be the antonym of “dog”. And when the difference between sometiiing animate and something inanimate is important，then “man” can even be the antonym of “stone”. In the extreme cases， so-called synonyms may also become antonyms, for example，“You have to peel a raw potato but you can skin a boiled one’’，“He，s no statesman, but a mere politician”. 23．What are non-language outcomes? 【答案】（1） Affect cultivation, such as confidence, motivation, interest （2）Learning strategies, thinking skills, interpersonal skills, etc. （3）Cultural understanding 24．In the text, we did not mention antonyms like ''friendly: unfriendly,,? "honest: dishonesf5, ''normal: abnormal ”, ''frequent; infrequent,,? ''logical; illogicar, and ''responsible: irresponsible,^ Which type of antonymy do they belong to? 【答案】 In terms of etymology, they may all belong to the complementary type. But in practice, some are gradable now, especially “friendly: unfriendly”. 25．For each of the underlined construction or word groups ,do the following. —State whether it is headed or non-hesded. —If headed,state its headword. 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 8 页，共 52 页 —Name the type of constructions. Ex.His son will be keenly competing. Answer:headed,headword—competing. （a）Ducks quack. （b）The ladder in the shed is long enough. （c）I saw a bridge damaged beyond repair. （d）Singing hymns is forbidden in some countries. （e）His handsome face appeared in the magazine. A lady of great beauty came out. （g）He enjoys climbing high mountains. （h）The man nodded patiently. （i）A man roused by the insult drew his sword. 【答案】（a）（non-headed, independent clause） （b）（non-head, prepositional phrase） （c）（headed; headword—damaged; adjectival group） （d）（headed; headword—singing; gerundial phrase） （e）（headed; headword—face; nominal group） （f）（non-headed; prepositional phrase） （g）（.headed; headword—climbing; gerundial phrase） （h）（non-headed; independent clause） （i）（headed; headword—roused; adjectival phrase） 26．What do you think of Bertrand RusselFs observation of the dog language, “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings? 【答案】 When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs. 27．Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why? 【答案】 It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish. 五、True-or-false 28．The two words borrow and lend are antonyms but the two sentences “Jan lent some money to Jack'' and “Jack borrowed some money from Jan” are synonymous.（ ） 【答案】T 【解析】borrow 与 lend 是关系反义词。第一个句子的意思是 Jan 借给 Jack—些钱，第二个句子是 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 9 页，共 52 页 Jack 借了 Jan 的一些钱，所以尽管这两个词是反义词，但这两个句子表达的是一个意思。 29．Language acquisition refers to the process involved in creating and expressing meaning through language.（ ） 【答案】F 【解析】语言产出是一个通过语言来表达意义的过程。 30．The ability to learn a second language as an adult may vary considerably between individuals.（ ） 【答案】T 【解析】不同的个体有不同的学习环境，并丐他们的学习能力也会受到学习动机和个人爱好的影 响。 31．All normal children have equal ability in learning their first language.（ ） 【答案】T 【解析】乔姆斯基的语言习得机制解释了这一点。 32．Auditory phonetics studies how sounds are perceived by the speaker.（ ） 【答案】F 【解析】它是研究声音怎样被听者接收的。 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 10 页，共 52 页 2018 年中国人民大学外国语学院 816 英语语言学与英语教学之语言学教程考研基础 五套测试题（二） 说明：根据本校该考试科目历年考研命题规律，结合出题侧重点和难度，精心整理编写。基础检 测使用。共五套试题，均含有详细答案解析，也是众多专业课辅导机构参考借鉴资料，考研必备。 —————————————————————————————————————————— 一、Explain-the-fllowing-terms 1． Contrastive analysis 【答案】 Contrastive analysis is an approach to analysis of second language acquisition, based on a belief that a more effective teaching pedagogy would come out when the similarities and differences between native language and target language are taken into consideration. By such an analysis, it is supposed that some leaning difficulties could be predicted in terms of language transfer. 2． bound root 【答案】 Bound root refers to the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity, and this base form could not occur alone, such as “-ceive” in “receive”. 3． subordination 【答案】 Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. Thus the subordinate constituents are words which modify the Head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers. In the phrase swimming in the lake, swimming is the head and in the lake are the words modifying the head. 4． Phonetics 【答案】 Phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and perceptual/auditory phonetics. 5． Assimilation 【答案】 It is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. It is often used synonymously with coarticulation. Nasalization, dentalization and， velarization are all instances of assimilation. There are two possibilities of assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is regressive assimilation; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation. For example, in “mink”，“n”，which is originally pronounced as will be velarized by the following “k”/k/，and therefore the word will be pronounced as 6． Conversational implicature 【答案】 Conversational implicature refers to a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 11 页，共 52 页 its maxims. For example, the implicature of He is a tiger could probably be he has some characteristics of a tiger. 7． IC analysis 【答案】 IC analysis: IC analysis （immediate constituent analysis） refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups （or phrases ） ,which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. In practice, for the sake of convenience, we usually stop at the level of word. 8． Corpus 【答案】 Corpus is a collection of linguistic data, either compiled as written texts or as a transcription of recorded speech. The main purpose of a corpus is to verify a hypothesis about language~~for example, to determine how the application of a particular sound, word, or syntactic construction varies. 9． Gradable antonym 【答案】 Gradable antonym. Gradable antonyms are antonyms that are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. For example, cold and warm constitute a pair of gradable antonyms. 10．computational linguistics 【答案】 Computational linguistics is a branch of applied linguistics, dealing with computer processing of human language, h includes programmed instruction, speech synthesis and recognition, automatic translation, and computer mediated communication. 二、Short-answer-questions 11．Decide which maxim of the cooperative principle has been flouted in the following utterances and what implicature can be drawn. （1）A: Can you tell me the secret? B: But John is there. （2）A: Let’s go to the movies. B: Fll bring the Kleenex. （3）A: Would you drive a Mercedes? B: I wouldn’t drive ANY expensive car. 【答案】 In the exchanges, the maxim of relation has been flouted. As to instance （1） , A will assume that if B is cooperative his reply must be relevant in a different sense: I will not talk about my secret now because I do not want to let John know. In （2 ），the answer of B seems irrelevant to A’s utterance. By doing so, A will likely derive the implicature that B has accepted his suggestion, and is going to get prepared. In （3） , by violating the maxim of relation, B intends to implicate that Mercedes is an expensive car and he would not drive a Mercedes. 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 12 页，共 52 页 12．What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies of language? 【答案】 The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the roles to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness, which are in the scope of prescriptive linguistics. 13．What is register? Use an example to illustrate your idea. 【答案】 There are many social constraints that come into play in controlling which variety from the linguistic repertoire of a speaker is to be used on a particular occasion. The type of language that is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. The register is determined by three social variables: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse. For example, an appropriate language to an academic lecture in a college should be formal and polite, which is called register. 14．What is the view of the environmentalist theories of language acquisition? What are the representatives? 【答案】 Environmentalist theories of learning hold that an organism^ nurture, or experience, is of more importance to development than its nature, or innate contributions. The best known examples are the various forms of behaviourist and neo-behaviourist stimulus-response learning theories. Schumann＇s pidginization hypothesis and acculturation model is among the current claims in this line. Schumann proposed that pidginization in L2 acquisition results when learners fail to acculturate to the target-language group, which is clue to social distance and psychological distance. 15．What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation? 【答案】 When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless, consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way; but when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced [b, z, d] are voiced consonants. 16．In what sense is the standard dialect a special variety of language? 【答案】（1） The standard dialect is a particular variety of a language in that it is not related to any particular group of language users, but it is the variety which any member of a speech community can possibly use regardless of his social and geographical backgrounds, his gender and age. （2）The standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language; usually it is the local speech of an area which is considered the nation’s political and commercial center. For example, standard English developed out of the English dialects used in and around London as they were modified over the centuries by speakers in the court, by scholars from universities and writers. Gradually, the English used by the upper classes in the capital city diverged markedly from the English used by other social groups and came to be regarded as the model for all those who wished to speak and write well. （3）The standard dialect is not a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is a superimposed variety; imposed from above the range of regional dialects. （4）The standard dialect has some special functions. Also designated as the official or national 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 13 页，共 52 页 language of a country, the standard dialect is used for such official purpose as government documents, education, news reporting; it is the language used on any formal occasions. 三、Essay-question 17．In what way are language and computer related, and how has their relationship affected language learning? 【答案】 With the development of the computer technology and internet system, more and more people touched upon the computer field. Computer has been used in the classroom for foreign language teaching and learning. CAI stands for computer-assisted instruction, which means the use of a computer in a teaching program. CAL stands for computer-assisted learning, which means the use of computer in both teaching and learning. Following CAI and CAL, CALL, acronym for Computer Assisted Language Learning, refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language. If CAI or CAL deals with teaching and learning in general, then CALL deals with language teaching and learning in particular. CALL provided a beneficial and convenient approach for language learners to improve their ability. For example, students can gain a quick access to any materials on the internet. The computer is not an individual resource for each student any more, instead, it is a trigger for interaction between the students and it is the focus for group work which allows some activities, such as the activity role-play interaction. The use of multimedia technology enables different information types to be simultaneously available on the computer, as a result, spoken language and moving video are produced other than mere presentation of written sentences. 18．Which of the following sentences are ambiguous? If you know how, use tree diagrams to show how these sentences are ambiguous. （1）The children put the toy in tile box. （2）The professor’s appointment was shocking. （3）No smoking section is available. （4）Jack refused to change his decision. 【答案】 Therefore, it could be clear that the sentence is ambiguous. Thus, this sentence is ambiguous. 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 14 页，共 52 页 Thus, this sentence is unambiguous. 19．What is communicative competence? How should we develop it in our foreign lauguage learning? 【答案】 Communicative competence is what a learner knows about how a language is used in particular situations for effective and appropriate communication. Communicative competence includes knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary, knowledge of rules of speaking, knowledge of how to use and respond to different types of speech acts and social conventions, and knowledge of how to use language appropriately. In order to develop communicative competence in our foreign language learning, language learners are encouraged to deal with accomplishing actions, which are believed to help them acquire the target language. Two types of tasks are usually required to be performed by the learners: real-world tasks and pedagogical tasks. For example, students may be asked to work or discuss in groups. Besides, teachers can adopt the communicative syllabus which aims at the learner’s communicative competence. It teaches the language needed to express and understand different kinds of functions, and emphasizes the process of communication. 20．There are two kinds of grammar based on different linguistic points of view. They are prescriptive grammar and descriptive grammar. A grammar may describe how language is actually spoken and/ or written, and may not state or postulate how it ought to be spoken or written. But a grammar may also state the rules for what is considered the best or most correct usage. Which grammar is descriptive grammar, and which grammar is prescriptive grammar? Cite some examples to give your reasons. 【答案】 The first one is typical of descriptive grammar, while the second one is prescriptive grammar. The descriptive grammar aims to describe how people speak and detail the underlying knowledge. It is believed in descriptive grammar that whatever occurs in natural speech, such as hesitation, incomplete utterance, should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, or corrupt; modem linguistics is mostly descriptive. Whereas, the prescriptive approach aims to teach people how to speak, read, and write a particular language; in the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. For example, the statement that “in standard English, a double negative is rarely used” is a description, showing how the language is used in standard English, regardless whether it is correct or not. <6You should never use a double-negative” is a typical grammar rule that prescribes what should be grammatically correct in the Standard English. As for the spelling, prescription says “judgment” is correct, but description accurately points out that “judgement” is considered by Edited English to be correct too, and a descriptive account for these two different spellings will show how the later one is used and who uses it. 四、Synthesis 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 15 页，共 52 页 21．Put brackets around the immediate constituents in each sentence. Ex. （（I） （（rode） （back））） （（when） （（it） （（was） （dark））））. （a）The boy was crying. （b）Shut the door. （c）Open the door quickly. （d）The happy teacher in that class was beaming away. （e）He bought an old car with his first pay cheque. 【答案】（a）（（The） （boy））（（was） （crying））. （b）（Shut） （（the） （door））. （c）（（Open） （（the） （door））） （quickly）. （d）（（The） （（（happy） （teacher）） （（in） （（that） （class））））） （（was） （（beaming） （away）））. （e）（He） （（（bought） （（an） （（old） （car）））） （（with） （（his） （（first） （（pay） （cheque））））））. 22．What will you say to a statement like “one culture’s meat is another culture’s poison”？ 【答案】 In cross-cultural communication, when people have some trouble and do not know bow to behave correctly, they tend to turn to their source culture for help, This is a strategy often used by communicators in a new cultural setting, Convenient as it is, this strategy may not always work, Far too many bad stories can be told to illustrate this point. This is because people from different communities think, behave, and speak differently. As our case studies in Chapter 7 show，if we are not ready for this difference，we may run into trouble. Therefore， a principle that cross-cultural communicators should follow is to understand the target culture by transcending the source culture. Put alternatively, try to do as the Romans do when in Rome. 23．What is Case Grammar? 【答案】 Case Grammar is a type of generative approach that stresses the semantic relationship of elements in a sentence. This grammar takes the verb as the most important part of the sentence, marking the relationships between the verb with various noun phrases as “cases”. Fillmore’s argument is based on the assumptions that syntax should be central in the determination of case and that covert categories are important. The various ways in which cases occur in simple sentences define sentence types and verb types of a language. Case Grammar shows clear semantic relevance of notions such as agency, causation, location, advantage tosomeone, etc. These are easily identifiable across languages, and are held by many psychologists to play an important part in child language acquisition. 24．Classify the following words as loanwords （LW） , Ioanblends （LB） , Ioanshifts （LS） or loan translation （LT）. booby trap coconut loan-word monk firewater free verse war paint yankee 【答案】 LW: monk; loan-word LB: booby trap; coconut 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 16 页，共 52 页 LS: Yankee LT: firewater; free verse; war paint 25．For linguistic studies of the new century, what is the significance of the division made between the faculty of language in the broad sense （FLB） and in the narrow sense （FLN） ? 【答案】 According to the hew development in linguistic studies （Hauser, Chomsky & Fitch, 2002）, a revolutionary point of view should be adopted in the linguistic research of the new century. In addition, a distinction has been made between the faculty of language in the broad sense （FLB） and in the narrow sense （FLN ） . The former covers a much wide range of linguistic studies by calling for an interdisciplinary study of linguistic issues, while the latter “only includes recursion and is the only uniquely human component of the faculty of language”（ ibid, 1569 ）. Clearly enough, this re-classification of linguistic studies will broaden the horizon of linguistic research, enrich linguistic science, and encourage healthier communication between relevant fields so that new breakthroughs in linguistic theorizing will be possible. 26．Mark the underlined parts of the sentences in Ex.4-37 with the terms such as participial phrase, gerundial phrase, and so on. （a）The best thing would be to leave early. （b）It’s great for a man to be free. （c）Having finished their task, they came to help us. （d ） Xiao Li being away, Xiao Wang had to do the work. （e）Filled with shame, he left the house. （f）All our savings gone, we started looking for jobs. （g）It’s no use crying over spilt milk. （h）Do you mind my opening the window? 【答案】（a） （infinitive phrase） （b） （infinitive phrase） （c）（past participial phrase） （d）（absolute phrase） （e）（past participial phrase） （f）（absolute phrase） （g）（gerundial phrase） （h）（gerundial phrase） 27．The following words contain different forms of the negative prefix in-. Group the data according to the variants and try to determine which kinds of base word take which kinds of prefix variant and what kind of mechanism is responsible for the variation, Formulate a rule and then test it against words that are formed in this way but are not mentioned here. Irregular incomprehensible illiterate Ingenious inoffensive inharmonic Impenetrable illegal incompetent Irresistible impossible irresponsible Immobile illogical indifferent Inconsistent innumerable inevitable （Based on Plag, 2003: 42） 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 17 页，共 52 页 【答案】 As far as orthography is concerned, there arc four variants: and but closer scrutiny shows that may be pronounced as before velar consonants, so there are five groups of words according to their variation on pronunciation: （1） : inharmonic, ingenious, inoffensive, indifferent, inevitable, innumerable or incomprehensible, incompetent, inconsistent impenetrable, impossible, immobile illiterate, illegal, illogical irresponsible, irresistible, irregular It is clear that the first sound of the base word governs the distribution of the variants, because the final consonant of the prefix in- must assimilate to the first segment of the base word. As a result of this, we find before labial consonants like or before the lateral before When the first consonant of the base word is the velar consonant it is in rapid speech and [in] in careful speech. In all uther cases is always the case. Assuming an underlying form the rule for the prefix in- looks roughly like this （in the simplest notation）: （2） This rule system could be further simplified if we eliminate the first rule, as the realization is actually optional. Unlike the other rules, this variation is due to a more general mechanism of assimilation in fast speech, which happens naturally. For example, in conference is also often pronounced as in fast speech, and the nasal in thank and think is also realized as a velar. We can test these rules by looking at other base words which can take the prefix in-, such as correct, moveable, legible, rational, and adequate. When prefixed, they are respectively pronounced [in]correct （or ）, moveable, ， rational, and adequate, which further support the rules above. （Based on Plag, 2003: 200 1） 五、True-or-false 28．The words “loose” and “books” have a common phoneme and a common morpheme as well.（ ） 【答案】F 【解析】这两个词中的/z/和/s/是同一个音位[z]的不同变体，所以有共同的音位，但 loose 中的语 素是 se，books 中的语素是 s。 29．It is easy for parents to teach their children grammar.（ ） 【答案】F 【解析】语法的获得一方面是语言掌握能力的提升，另一方面是语言表达能力的提高，孩子在十 岁之前很难掌 握一些语法之间的细微差异。 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 18 页，共 52 页 30．If a child is deprived of linguistic environment, he or she is unlikely to learn a language successfully later on.（ ） 【答案】T 【解析】如果一个孩子失去了语言环境，他戒她是不可能成功地学好一种语言的。 31．Wherever humans exist, language exists.（ ） 【答案】F 【解析】语言是在人类出现相当一段时间之后才出现的。 32．[p] is voiced bilabial stop.（ ） 【答案】F 【解析】[p]是双唇爆破音，没有摩擦。 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 19 页，共 52 页 2018 年中国人民大学外国语学院 816 英语语言学与英语教学之语言学教程考研基础 五套测试题（三） 说明：根据本校该考试科目历年考研命题规律，结合出题侧重点和难度，精心整理编写。基础检 测使用。共五套试题，均含有详细答案解析，也是众多专业课辅导机构参考借鉴资料，考研必备。 —————————————————————————————————————————— 一、Explain-the-fllowing-terms 1． Ferdinand de Saussure 【答案】 Ferdinand de Saussure is a Swiss linguist who is often described as “father of modem linguistics”. The great work, Course in General Linguistics, which was based on his lecture notes, marked the beginning of modem linguistics. Saussure^ idea on the arbitrary nature of sign, one the relational nature of linguistic units, on the distinction of langue and parole and of synchronic and diachronic linguistics, etc. pushed linguistics into a brand new stage. 2． CMC 【答案】 It is computer-mediated communication, distinguished by its focus on language and language use in computer networked environments, and by its use of methods of discourse analysis to address that focus. 3． Applied linguistics 【答案】 It is a branch of linguistics which studies the application of linguistics in reality. For example, there are studies on multilingualism, language acquisition, first and second language teaching and learning. 4． Syllable 【答案】 Syllable: It refers to a unit of spoken language that is bigger than a speech sound. It consists of one or more vowel sounds alone or of a syllabic consonant alone or of either with one or more consonant sounds preceding or following. 5． Language Acquisition Device （LAD ） 【答案】 Language Acquisition Device: LAD refers to an innate faculty of language in general with which children are bom. It is posited by Chomsky, who argues that LAD probably consists of three elements: a hypothesis-maker, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure. 6． Bound morpheme 【答案】 Bound morphemes refer to those morphemes that can not occur alone and must appear with at least another morpheme. For example, in the word “careless”，“-less” is a bound morpheme since it could not occur by itself as a word. 7． Contextual meaning 【答案】 It is also called speaker’s meaning, or utterance meaning, which is more closely related 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 20 页，共 52 页 to the context. For example, when a person says “My bag is heavy”，what he actually means may be asking the hearer to help him carry the bag. 8． Audiolingual method 【答案】 Audiolingual method refers to the teaching of a second language through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. It emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing and the use of mother tongue in the classroom is not allowed. 9． Concordance 【答案】 The computer has the ability to search for a particular word, sequence of words, or perhaps even a part of speech in a text. The computer can also retrieve all examples of a particular word. It can also calculate the number of occurrences of a certain word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered. We may also be interested in sorting the data in some way—for example, alphabetically on words occurring in the immediate context of the word. This is usually referred to as concordance. 10．Componential analysis 【答案】 It refers to a semantic approach which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components, or semantic features. For example, the meaning of the word boy may be analyzed into three components: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE. 二、Short-answer-questions 11．What is entailment? What are the sources of entailment? 【答案】 Entailment is basically a semantic relation （or logical implication） . If sentence A entails sentence B, it must observe that, in terms of truth value, when sentence A is true, sentence B must be also true; when sentence B is false, sentence A must also be false, and that when sentence B is true, sentence A may be true or false. The source of entailment may be lexical or syntactical. Lexical source of entailment can be shown in the example like, （a）The anarchist assassinated the emperor. （b）The emperor died. The relationship of entailment between （a） and （b） derives from the lexical relationship between assassinate and die. In some sense the meaning of assassinate contains the meaning of die. Other sources for entailment are syntactic: for example, active and passive versions of the same sentence will entail one another. Sentences below show this well: （c）The Etruscans built this tomb. （d）This tomb was built by Etruscans. 12．How would you describe this short exchange in terms of the actions performed by the speakers? Carol: Are you coming to the party tonight? Lara: I've got an exam tomorrow. 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 21 页，共 52 页 【答案】 In this short exchange, obviously Lara breaks the maxim of relation of CP by talking about something totally irrelevant with CaroFs question. However, we can understand her meaning perfectly. Lara is conveying an indirect meaning by giving out an utterance containing a conversational implicative. Her aim is to refuse Carol’s invitation in a polite and less harsh manner. 13．What is your opinion on “true synonymy is non-existent”？ 【答案】 Generally speaking, synonyms are the words which have different forms but similar meaning. There are several types of synonyms: dialectal synonyms, such as lift/elevator, flat/apartment; synonyms of different styles, as shown in gentleman/guy; synonyms of different registers, such as salt/sodium chloride; synonyms differing in affective meaning, such as attract/seduce; synonyms differing in collocation, such as beautiful/handsome, able/capable. 14．What is indirect language use? How is it explained in the light of the speech act theory? 【答案】 When a speaker is using indirect language, he is performing two speech acts simultaneously: one is the primary speech act and the other is the second speech act. The primary one is the speaker's goal of communication and the second one is the means by which he achieves his goal. 15．What is free variation? 【答案】 Free variation is a linguistic term used both in phonology and sociolinguistics. In phonology, if two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast. For example，the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds are said to be in “free variation”. For instance，both either and direction are pronounced differently in British English and American English without changing their meaning, which are often caused by the regional differences. 16．A number interesting word-formation processes can be discerned in the following examples. Can you identify what is going on in these? （a） The deceased’s cremains were scattered over the hill. （b） He's always taking pills, either uppers or downers. 【答案】 The words “deceased” “upper” and “downer” have undergone a process of class shift. By shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as zero-derivation, or conversion. In the sentences above, “deceased”，“upper” and “downer” are originally adjectives, meaning “dead”， “higher” and “lower” respectively; in the sentences above, however, they mean “dead people”，“a drug used as a stimulant.” and “a depressant or sedative drug”，which are nouns. 三、Essay-question 17．How many semantic relations are there among sentences? Give examples. 【答案】 There are basically six: （1）Synonymy, e.g. X: “He was a bachelor all his life." Y: “He never married all his life." X is synonymous with Y. （2）Inconsistence, e.g. X: “Mark is married." Y: “Mark is a bachelor.” 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 22 页，共 52 页 X is inconsistent with Y. （3）Entailment，e.g. X: “Mark married a blonde heiress:”Y: “Mark married a blonde.” X entails Y. （4）Presupposition, e.g. X: ''John's bike needs repairing^ Y: '"John has a bike." X presupposes Y. （5）Contradiction, e. g. X: '"My unmarried aunt is married to a bachelor.” X is a contradiction. （6）Anomaly, e.g. X: "'The blackboard has a bad temper.” X is semantically anomalous. 18．Consider the following sentence, and then, answer questions （1） to （3） . The boy saw the man with the telescope. （1）Is this sentence ambiguous? If so, describe the ambiguity briefly in your own words. （2）Draw the constituent structure trees for each possible interpretation. （3）What can be known about tree diagrams from （1） and （2） ? 【答案】（1） Yes, this is an ambiguous sentence. This is a structurally ambiguous sentence, which can be rewritten in two ways as follows: a.The boy saw the man. The man had a telescope. b.Using the telescope, the boy saw the man. （2） Since the sentence is an ambiguous one, which has two ways of interpretation, there are two ways of drawing constituent structure trees for it. （3） Tree diagrams are more advantageous and informative than linear structure analysis. In addition to revealing a linear order, a constituent structure tree has a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, and consequently, can truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements. 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 23 页，共 52 页 19．A speech act consists of three related acts according to J. L. Austin’s Speech Act theory. What are they? Analyze the following conversation in the light of Speech Act theory. Customer: Waiter! There's a fly in my soup. Waiter: Don’s worry, there's no extra charge. 【答案】 A speech act consists of three related acts according to J. L. Austin’s Speech Act theory, namely, locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act. The locutionary act is the ordinary act we perform when we speak. It is the act of saying. The illocutionary act is the act performed in the performing of a locutionary act, that may said to be the extra meaning of the utterance; while perlocutionary act concerns the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer, depending on specific circumstances. Austin suggests that the three kinds of acts are performed simultaneously when a speaker saying something. In this conversation, by saying “Waiter! There’s a fly in my soup”，the locutionary act of this utterance is that the customer produces a number of sounds with its literal meaning that there is a fly in his/her soup. The illocutionary act is that the customer intends not to just review the information to the waiter, but might express his feelings and expect the waiter to do something. It might be a complaint, a warn, a criticism, or a threaten, but whatever it might be, it is no doubt a force, making the waiter to change soup or give some compensation. The perlocutionary act of the utterance here is the waiter’s doing nothing but giving a strange respond. As to the waiter^ responding, by saying that he not only produces a number of sounds to state that there is no extra charge, but also shows his possible misinterpretation or his sense of humor or his indirect refusal. 20．How many types of data analysis have been employed in language acquisition research? How are these types of data analysis significant in SLA research? 【答案】 Four types of data analysis have been employed. They are contrastive analysis，error analysis, performance analysis, and discourse analysis. Contrastive analysis （CA） systematically compares native languages and target languages to find the interference of native language when acquiring target languages. It has a close relationship with behaviourism. Although contrastive analysis was faced with a downfall as behaviorism was challenged, as a methodological option it was not abandoned. Error analysis （EA） studies and analyzes the errors made by L2 learners and suggests that many learner errors are not due to the learner’s mother tongue interference but reflect universal learning strategies such as overgeneralization and simplification of rules. Error analysis also fell into disfavor for （1） its narrowness——focusing on errors only and having difficulty in identifying the unitary source of an error, and （2） its failure to account for all the areas of the SL in which learners have difficulty. Nevertheless error analysis was not doomed to death rather incorporated into performance analysis. Performance analysis （PA） is an analysis of the learners5 interlanguage performance. It is superior to error analysis in that it is not limited to analyzing the errors learners commit. Also like its predecessors, however, performance analysis was found to be too limiting; it did not take the input to the learner into consideration. And this limitation led to the emergence of discourse analysis. Discourse analysis （DA） recognizes the need to examine not only the leamer?s performance but also the input to the learner. Another quality of discourse analysis applied to SLA is that researchers are concerned not only with how IL forms evolve, but how learners learn how to use the forms appropriately for a particular discourse function as well. 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 24 页，共 52 页 四、Synthesis 21．Why can a sentence like John kills John be transformed into John kills himself ? 【答案】 The Reflexive Rule says that in simple sentences, if a noun appears twice, the second noun should be in the reflexive form. Thus, the second John becomes himself. 22．Define the following terms. （1）performative （2）constative （3）locutionary act （4）illocutionary act （5） perlocutionary act （6）cooperative principle （7）conversational implicature （8）entailment （9） ostensive communication （10）communicative principle of relevance （11）relevance （as a comparative notion） （12）（Horn’s） Q-principle （13）R-principle （14）division of pragmatic labor （15）Levinson’s three heuristics 【答案】 （1） A performative is a sentence like ul name this ship the Queen Elizabeth,,? which does not describe things and cannot be said to be true or false. The uttering of a performative sentence is, or is a part of, the doing of an action. Verbs like “name” are known as performative verbs. （2） In contrast to performative, sentences like “I pour some liquid into the tube” is a description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking. The speaker cannot pour any liquid into a tube by simply uttering these words. He must accompany his words with the actual pouring. Otherwise one can accuse him of making a false statement. （3） The locutionary act is the ordinary act we perform when we speak, i.e. we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning. For example，when somebody says MorningV% we could say he produced a sound, word or sentence — “Morning!” （4） The illocutionary act is the act performed in the performing of a locutionary act. When we speak we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood, or they also have certain forces as Austin prefers to say. In the example of “Morning!” we can say it has the force of a greeting, or it ought to have been taken as a greeting, （5）The perlocutionary act concerns the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer. By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer on something, or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce him to do something, etc. Whether or not these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act that the speaker has performed. （6） This is the principle suggested by Grice about the regularity in conversation, which reads uMake your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged”. There are four categories of maxims under it, namely, quantity maxims, quality maxims, relation maxim, and manner maxims. （7） This is a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims. In this sense, implicature is comparable to illocutionary force in speech act theory in that they are both concerned with the contextual side of meaning, or 言外之意 in Chinese. （8） This is a logical relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 25 页，共 52 页 necessarily follows from the truth of the first, while the falsity of the first follows from the falsity of the second. For example, when “I saw a boy” is true, “I saw a child” is necessarily true; and if “I saw a child” is not true, “I saw a boy” will not be true either. （9） “ Ostensive communication”，or “ inferential communication”， is a shorthand for “ostensive-inferential communication”. That is, communication is not simply a matter of encoding and decoding, it also involves inference on the part of the hearer and ostension （making clear of one’s intention to express something） on the part of the speaker. （10） This is the principle first proposed by Sperber and Wilson in 1986, which reads “Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.” （11） Sperber and Wilson have defined the notion relevance in three ways. In their view, relevance is a comparative concept, so they also have an extent-conditions format as follows: Extent condition 1: an assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that its contex 加 al effects in this context are large. Extent condition 2: an assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that the effort required to process it in this context is small. （12）The Q-principle （Hearer-based） : MAKE YOUR CONTRIBUTION SUFFICIENT （cf. Quantity 1） SAY AS MUCH AS YOU CAN （ given R） （13） The R-principle （Speaker-based） : MAKE YOUR CONTRIBUTION NECESSARY （ cf. Relation, Quantity2, Manner） SAY NO MORE THAN YOU MUST （given Q） （14） Horn observes that the Q-based and R-based principles often directly collide and suggests the resolution comes from a division of pragmatic labor, which reads uThe use of a marked （relatively complex and/or prolix） expression when a corresponding unmarked （simpler, less “effortful”） alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message （one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed） . （15）In 2000, Levinson renamed his three principles as heuristics and simplified the contents as follows: Heuristic 1 What isn’t said, isn’t. Heuristic 2 What is simply described is stereotypically exemplified. Heuristic 3 What’s said in an abnormal way, isn’t normal; or Marked message indicates marked situation. 23．Why should chatroom sometimes be monitored? 【答案】 Although the users are free to enter a chatroom site and are free to talk whatever they like, many chatrooms are monitored for unacceptable, offensive, racial, violence, sexual content, etc. 24．What is important about Firth’s prosodic analysis? 【答案】 Prosodic analysis, or prosodic phonology, is Firths second important contribution to linguistics. Since any humor/ utterance is a continuous speech flow made up of at least one syllable, it cannot be cut into independent units. Phonological description only deals with paradigmatic relations, 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 26 页，共 52 页 leaving syntagmatic relations outmof consideration. Firth pointed out that in actual speech, it is not phonemes that make up the paradigmatic relations, but phonematic units. There are fewer features in phonematic units than in phonemes, because some features are common to phonemes of a syllable or a phrase （even a sentence） . When these features are considered in syntagmatic relations, they are all called prosodic units, which include features such as stress, length, nasalisation, palatalisation, and aspiration. In any case, these features cannot be found in one phonematic unit alone. 25．Define the following terms. （1）psycholinguistics （2）language acquisition （3）holophrastic stage （4）two-word stage （5）three-word utterances （6）connectionism （7）cohort model （8）interactive model （9） race model （10）serial model （11）parallel model （12）resonance model （13）construal （14）construal operations （15）figure-ground alignment （16）trajectory （17）landmark （18） basic level category （19）subordinate level （20）image schema （21）metaphor （22） metonymy （23）ontological metaphors （24）structural metaphors （25）generic space （26） blend space 【答案】（1）Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. As an interdisciplinary academic field based on psychology and linguistics, psycholinguistics investigates the six following subjects: language acquisition, language comprehension, language production, language disorders, language and thought，and cognitive architecture of language, The most important research subjects are acquisition, comprehension and production. （2） Language acquisition is one of the central topics in psycholinguistics. Acquiring a first language is something every child does successfully, in a matter of a few years and without the need for formal lessons. Four phases are identified and acknowledged in the process of language acquisition: holophrastic stage， two word stage, three-word utterances, and, fluent grammatical conversation stage. （ 3）Holophrastic stage is the first phase of language acquisition. The main linguistic accomplishments during this stage are control of the speech musculature and sensitivity to the phonetic distinctions used in the parents’ language. Shortly before their first birthday, babies begin to understand words, and around that birthday, they start to produce them. At this stage, words are usually produced in isolation; this one-word stage can last from two months to a year. About half the words are for objects: food, body parts, clothing, vehicles, toys, household items, animals. There are words for actions, motions, and routines. （4）Two-word stage is the second phase of language acquisition. Around 18 months, the child begins to learn words at a rate of one every two waking hours, and keeps learning that rate or faster through adolescence. The primitive syntax begins with two- word strings. Children announce when objects appear, disappear, and move about, point out their properties and owners, comment on people doing things and seeing things, reject and request objects and activities, and ask about who, what, and where. These sequences already reflect the language being acquired: in 95% of them, the words are properly ordered. （5） Three-word utterances stage is the third phase of language acquisition. Three-word utterances look like samples drawn from longer potential sentences expressing a complete and more complicated idea. For example, although the children never produced a sentence as complicated as Mother gave John 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 27 页，共 52 页 lunch in the kitchen, they did produce strings containing all of its components in the correct order. （6）With respect to language comprehension, connectionism in psycholinguistics claims that readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate the pronunciations of written words and to access the pronunciations of familiar words, or words that are exceptions to these patterns. In this view, similarity and frequency play important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the novel items being processed based on their similarity to the known ones. （7）The cohort model is a supposed doctrine dealing with the spoken word recognition postulated by Marslen-Wilson and Welsh in 1990. It is suggested that the first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set or cohort of word candidates that are consistent with the input. These candidates compete with one another for activation. As more acoustic input is analyzed, candidates that are no longer consistent with the input drop out of the set. This process continues until only one word candidate matches the input- the best fitting word may be chosen if no single candidate is a clear winner. （8）The interactive model holds that in recognizing the spoken words higher processing levels have a direct, “top down” influence on lower levels. Lexical knowledge can affect the perception of phonemes. There is interactivity in the form of lexical effects on the perception of sublcxical units. In certain cases, listeners9 knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes; in other cases, listeners continue to “hear” phonemes that have been removed from the speech signal and replaced by noise. （9）The race model suggests in spoken word recognition there are two routes that race each other—a pre-lexical route, which computes phonological information from the acoustic signal, and a lexical route, in which the phonological information associated with a word becomes available when the word itself is accessed. When word-level information appears to affect a lower-level process, it is assumed that the lexical route won the race. （10）Serial model proposes that the sentence comprehension system continually and sequentially follows the constraints of a language’s grammar with remarkable speed. Serial model describes how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of information that is guaranteed to be relevant to its interpretation, primarily grammatical information. Any such representation is then quickly interpreted and evaluated, using the full range of information that might be relevant. （11）Parallel model emphasizes that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of information, including grammatical, lexical, and contextual, as well as knowledge of the speaker/writer and of the world in general Parallel model describes how the processor uses all relevant information to quickly evaluate the full range of possible interpretations of a sentence. It is generally acknowledged that listeners and readers integrate grammatical and situational knowledge in understanding a sentence. （12） The resonance model is a model about text comprehension, in this model, information in long term memory is automatically activated by the presence of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it. Semantic details, including factors such as negation that drastically change the truth of propositions, do not seem to affect the resonance process. It emphasized a more active and intelligent search for meaning as the basis by which a reader discovers the conceptual structure of a discourse. In reading a narrative text, reader attempts to build a representation of the causal structure of the text, analyzing events in terms of goals, actions, and reactions. A resonance process serves as a first stage in processing a text, and, reading objectives and details of text stmctoe detemiine whether a reader goes further and searches for a coherent structure for the text. （13） Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 28 页，共 52 页 specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation etc. （14）Construal operations are conceptualizing processes used in language process by human beings. That is, construal operations are the underlying psychological processes and resources employed in the interpretation of linguistic expressions. （15） Figure-ground alignment seems to apply to space with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relational configuration. It also applies to human perception of moving objects. Since the moving object is typically the most prominent one, because it is moving, it is typically the figure, while the remaining stimuli constitute the ground. （16） Trajector means a moving or dynamic figure. （17）Landmark means the ground provided for a moving figure. （18）Basic level category is the most economical level at which you can find the most relevant information. The information on our interactions with objects in the real world are stored at this level. It is at this level that we conjure up the general gestalt of the category. （19）Subordinate level is the level at which we perceive the differences between the members of the basic level categories. （20）Image schema is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual’ interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to oar experience. （21） Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. It5s often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that We use in order to describe the experience. （22） Metonymy is a figure of speech that has to do with the substitution of the name of one thing for that of another. （23）Ontological metaphors mean that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances. （24）Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. （25）Generic space maps onto each of the inputs. It reflects some common, usually more abstract, structure and organization shared by the inputs. It defines the core cross-space mapping between them. （26）Blend space is the fourth space onto which is partially projected by inputs 11 and 12. 26．Why should language instructors look to sociolinguistics? 【答案】 According to Bems （1990: 339） , sociolinguistics can make the following contributions to language teaching. If you like, you may add more. Sociolinguistics has contributed to a change of emphasis in the content” of language teaching. It has also contributed to innovations in materials and activities for the classroom. It has contributed to a fresh look at the nature of language development and use. It has contributed to a more fruitful research in this field. 27．Explain why Generative Grammar can produce well-formed sentences （e. g. Mary reads a book） but not ill-formed ones （e.g. * A book reads Mary）. 【答案】 The Standard Theory has a selectional restriction to rule out ill- formed sentences of this 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 29 页，共 52 页 kind. It ensures that is an active voice the animate noun appears before the verb and the inanimate noun appears after the verb. 五、True-or-false 28．The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.（ ） 【答案】T 【解析】把词语意义跟它所指称戒所代表的事物联系起来的理论，叨做指称理论。 29．When children learn to distinguish between the sounds of their language and the sounds that are not part of the language， they can acquire any sounds in their native language once their parents teach them.（ ） 【答案】F 【解析】不论孩子们生活在何种语言环境中，他们首先获得的是丑上所有语言的普遍性知识，之 后他们才会学 习更为复杂的语言。 30．The initial consonants are identical in alliteration.（ ） 【答案】T 【解析】在压头韵里，句首的辅音是一致的。 31．The utterance meaning of the sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered. （ ） 【答案】T 【解析】话语意义随着话语情境的变化而不同。 32．A stem is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.（ ） 【答案】T 【解析】词干指能加屈折词缀的语素（组合，它相当亍词根戒词根加派生词缀。 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 30 页，共 52 页 2018 年中国人民大学外国语学院 816 英语语言学与英语教学之语言学教程考研基础 五套测试题（四） 说明：根据本校该考试科目历年考研命题规律，结合出题侧重点和难度，精心整理编写。基础检 测使用。共五套试题，均含有详细答案解析，也是众多专业课辅导机构参考借鉴资料，考研必备。 —————————————————————————————————————————— 一、Explain-the-fllowing-terms 1． Surface structure 【答案】 It is a term used in generative grammar to refer to the final stage in the syntactic representation of a sentence, which provides the input to the phonological component of the grammar, and which thus most closely corresponds to the structure we articulate and hear. For instance, “John is easy to please.” and “John is eager to please.” are two sentences with the same surface structure. 2． basic level category 【答案】 Basic level category is the most economical level at which you can find the most relevant information. The information on our interactions with objects in the real world are stored at this level. It is at this level that we conjure up the general gestalt of the category. 3． MT 【答案】 It refers to machine translation, the use of machine （usually computers） to translate texts from one natural language to another 4． Foregrounding 【答案】 This term is meant for what is unusual, attractive, unconventional, salient. In literature, foregrounding is often achieved through unconventional expressions which attract the readers9 attention. The main manifestations of foregrounding are deviation and parallelism. 5． Open-class words 【答案】 Open-class words refer to words whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited and with the emergence of new ideas, inventions, and so on; new expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. For example, nouns, verbs, and adjectives all belong to this class. 6． Language acquisition 【答案】 It refers to the gradual development of ability in a language by using it naturally in communicative situations. 7． Embedding 【答案】 It refers to the inclusion of a clause within a phrase or another clause, or of a phrase into another phrase. An example of embedded clauses is: What I do is none of your business. （Nominal clause embedded as subject of another clause） 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 31 页，共 52 页 8． Cognition 【答案】 Cognition is, in psychology, used to refer to the mental processes of an individual, with particular relation to a concept which argues that the mind has internal mental states （such as beliefs, desires and intentions ） and can be understood as information processing, especially when much abstraction or concretization is involved, or processes such as involving knowledge, expertise or learning for example are at work. Another definition of “cognition” is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment. 9． Diglossia 【答案】 When two languages or language varieties exist together in a community and each one is used for different purposes, this is called diglossia. Usually, the more standard variety can be called the high variety or H-variety, which is used in government, the media, education, and for religious services. The other one is usually a non-prestige variety, the low variety or L-variety used in the family, with friends, when shopping, etc. 10．Functional Sentence Perspective （FSP） 【答案】 It is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to art analysis of utterances （or texts） in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole. 二、Short-answer-questions 11．Linguists have taken an internal and/or external focus to the study of language acquisition. What is the difference between the two? 【答案】 The difference between internal and/or external focus to the study of language acquisition. （1） The internal focus seeks to account for speakers9 internalized, underlying knowledge of language. The external focus emphasizes language use, including the functions of language which are realized in learners production at different stages of development. （2）According to the above difference, the linguist Noam Chomsky claims that human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking. Originally Chomsky referred to this innate ability as Language Acquisition Device，also known as LAD. Later Chomsky prefers this innate endowment as Universal Grammar （UG） and holds that if children are pre-equipped with UG, then what they have to learn is the ways in which their own language makes use of these principles and the variations on those principles which may exist in the particular language they are learning. The interaetionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops. Integrated with the innatist view, the interaetionist further claims that the modified language which is suitable for the child’s capability is crucial in his language acquisition. 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 32 页，共 52 页 12．Why is back-formation a productive way of forming verbs? 【答案】 Backformation is a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is derived by the deletion of an imagined affix of a longer form already present in the language. It is a special kind of metanalysis, combined with analogical creation, e.g. the verb edit was formed from editor by dropping the imagined derivational suffix -or. The majority of backformed words are verbs，for verbs have a peculiar property to develop around them a number of deverbal nouns, such as the agent noun and the noun of action, like edit from editor. Verbs also generate various types of participial adjectives, such as creating and created. Hence people expect to find a family of derivatives attached to a verb. On the other hand, when people come across one or more apparently deverbal nouns, they often take for granted that there must he a corresponding verb, and they simply create the verb base from which the original word seems to be derived. 13．Why is Saussure hailed as the father of modem linguistics? 【答案】 Saussure was the first to notice the complexities of language. He believed that language is a system of signs. To communicate ideas, signs must be part of a system of signs, called conventions. He held that the sign is the union of a form （signifier） and an idea （signified） , and it is the central fact of language. By providing answers to questions concerning many aspects of language, Saussure made clear the object of study for linguistics as a science. His ideas on the arbitrary nature of sign, on the relational nature of linguistic units, on the distinction of langue and parole and of synchronic and diachronic linguistics, etc. pushed linguistics into a brand new stage. 14．How would you describe the oddness of the following sentences, using semantic features? （a）The television drank my water. （b）His dog writes poetry. 【答案】（a） The verb drink represents a behavior of the animate beings, therefore, it is required that the subject of this verb should have a semantic feature as （+ANIMATE） , however, the word television, which is in position of subject, has an opposite feature:（-ANIMATE） . That’s why such a collocation results in oddness. （b） The action of writing poetry is normally one which only human beings could do, therefore, the subject is required to have a semantic feature as （+HUMAN） ; however, the word dog in the subject position is featured as （-HUMAN） . Therefore, the sentence is odd. 15．How well, in your opinion, does the word “communication” represent the function of human language? 【答案】 We use language for an almost infinite number of purposes, from writing letters to gossiping with our friends, making speeches and talking to ourselves in the mirror. But the primary function of language is to transmit information and to convey commands, feelings and emotions. That is, language is a tool of communication. The term “communication” can be used to cover much of the function of language. This function can be further divided into more specific functions, such as phatic function/communion, directive function, informative function, interrogative function, expressive function, evocative function, performative function etc. 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 33 页，共 52 页 16．thrived 10. breathed 11. turned 12. hissed 【答案】 三、Essay-question 17．What, in your view, makes a text a text, rather than a series of unconnected utterances? What are the implications of your answer for second language teaching? 【答案】 The factor to distinguish connected texts which make sense from those which do not is usually described as coherence. Coherence is traditionally described as the relationships that link the ideas in a text to create meaning for the readers, apart from cohesive devices. It should be noticed that cohesion by itself would not be sufficient to enable us to make sense of what read or hear; it is quite easy to create a highly cohesive text which has a lot of connections between the sentences, but which remains difficult to interpret. And coherence, as the invisible net of a text, performs a function of “connectedness” which makes the text interpretable to people. Regarding the importance of coherence to a whole text, it seems necessary for a teacher of SFL to help students develop coherence in writing. Research has found that in their writing, ESL/EFL students focus almost exclusively on the word and sentence levels rather than the level of the whole discourse, that is, textual coherence. A pedagogical focus on coherence can shift students' attention from sentence-level grammar to discourse features such as textual structuring and propositional unity, which are crucial to creating meaning in texts. Indeed, helping students improve the coherence of their writing ought to be a significant aspect of L2 writing instruction. To help students focus on coherence in writing, it is essential that teachers have a thorough understanding of what makes a text coherent. As is shown in the composition text books, it seems common to regard coherence simply as connectedness between sentences, use of explicit cohesive devices at the paragraph level, and use of connective devices such as pronouns, repetitive structures, and transitional markers. However, coherence should not be narrowed in terms of sentence-level connectedness and paragraph unity rather than discourse unity. Thus, to help students create coherence in their writing, it is necessary for teachers to pay more attention in the broader sense of coherence. 18．Think of the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle proposed by P. Grice, and explain the violation of maxims in the cases below. 1）A: Have you seen my watch? B: Look in the drawer. 2）A: Reno s the capital of Nevada. B: Yeah, London s the capital of New Jersey. 3）A: I really liked that dinner. B : Tm a vegetarian. 4）A: Let’s dine out with the kids this weekend B: Okay, but not M-c-D-o-n-a-l-d-s. 【答案】 The four maxims of the Cooperative Principle proposed by P. Grice are the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner. In （1） , B violates the maxim of quantity, for his/her not giving enough information to A9s 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 34 页，共 52 页 question. B does not answer “yes” or “no” to a yes-no question，so A doesn’t know whether B is sure it is in the draw. But B says this way may imply he/she is unsure about it （look at the drawer, maybe it is there）, or he/she is sure （just go get it, it is in the drawer）. In （2）, B violates the maxim of quality. Apparently London is not the capital of New Jersey. What B says is a false statement, and B knows it is false. But B says it to imply that A9s statement is also false, that is, Reno is not the capital of Nevada. In （3） , B violates the maxim of relations. B does not talk about “that dinner” directly but with “I’m a vegetarian instead. Although the two utterances are not relevant superficially, yet what B says may imply that "there is meat in that dinner, and I am a vegetarian, so I don’t like it.” which makes the conversation coherent. In （4） , B violates the maxim of manners. B may be deliberately obscure by saying in that way so that the children will not be able to understand what they are talking about. 19．Describe the process of language perception, comprehension and production. 【答案】 From the perspective of psycholinguistic analysis, language use in terms of perception, comprehension and production follows a certain pattern which involves the coordination of various language centers. When we speak, words are drawn from Wernicke's area and transferred to Broca's area, which determines the details of their forms and pronunciation. The appropriate instructions are then sent to the motor area which controls the vocal tract to physically articulate the words. When we hear something and try to comprehend it, the stimulus from the auditory cortex is transmitted to Wernicke's area, where it is then interpreted. When we perceive a visual image, a message is sent to the angular gyrus, where it is converted into a visual pattern. 20．MORPHEME is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical concept or a semantic one? What is its relation to phoneme? Can a morpheme and a phoneme form an organic whole? 【答案】 As a matter of fact, morpheme is both a grammatical concept and a semantic one. for instance, we can recognize that English word-forms such as talks, talker, talked and talking must consist of one element talk, and a number of other elements such as -s, -er, -ed, -ing. All these elements are described as morphemes. The definition of morpheme is “the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content”. We would say that the word reopened in the sentence The pglice reopened the investigation consists of three morphemes. One minimal unit of meaning is open, another minimal unit of meaning is re- （meaning again） , and a minimal unit of grammatical function is -ed （indicating past tense） . Therefore, we are in a position to conclude that those which can stand by themselves as single words, e.g. open, are semantic concepts, and those which cannot normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form, e.g. re-, -ist, -ed, -s, are grammatical concepts. As we know, each one of the meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language is described as a phoneme. An essential property of a phoneme is that it functions contrastively. If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then the two sounds represent different phonemes. The relation between morpheme and phoneme is also of two fold feature, viz. one-to-one, one-to-more. As with the former type, one-to-one, re- is the kind of morpheme that always consists of 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 35 页，共 52 页 two phonemes as for the latter type, one-to-more relation, a typical example would be the plural morpheme that follows a noun or a verb. after a noun can be pronounced in three ways, viz. and as in locks, bags, and watches; after a verb can also be pronounced in three ways, viz. and as in stops, drags, and catches. Seen from an integrative perspective, a morpheme and a phoneme, indeed, can form an organic whole, as the number of the sound of each morpheme cannot be unlimited. 四、Synthesis 21．What are the 4 phases in the course of CALL development? 【答案】 Phase L During this period, computers were large mainframe machines kept in research institutions. Program were stored on large mainframe computers and could only be accessed from terminals on certain university sites. Phase II. Small portable computers appeared and cost cheaper than before. This made a generation of programs possible. They could be stored on tapes or floppy disks. Phase III. The learning was based on cognitive problem-solving techniques and the interaction between students in a group. Activities such as role play interaction are carried out. Phase IV. Students are enabled to compose and try out their own writings in a non-permanent form. Multimedia technology is used. This leads to the phase of ICALL—intelligent CALL. 22．Are there any affixes that attach （relatively） productively to verbs, contribute no or very specific meaning, and do not change category? 【答案】 -ing, He is walking home, of progressive aspect -ed, He walked home, of simple past tense -s, He walks home, of simple present tense. 23．Draw a tree diagram for each of the following sentences. （1）The police attacked the suspect. （2）These children cannot understand her painting. 【答案】 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 36 页，共 52 页 24．What does psycholinguistics study and what are the subjects of it? 【答案】 Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. Most problems in psycholinguistics are more concrete, involving the study of .language acquisition especially in children and linguistic performance such as producing and comprehending utterances or sentences among adults. An important focus of psycholinguistics is the largely unconscious application of grammatical rules that enable people to produce and comprehend intelligible sentences. Psycholinguists investigate the relationship between language and thought, a perennial subject of debate being whether language is a function of thinking or thought is a function of the use of language. Psycholinguistics is also concerned with how languages are learned, and the role they play in our thinking. As an interdisciplinary study of language and psychology, psycholinguistics has its roots in structural linguistics on the one hand, and in cognitive psychology on the other hand. It is also closely related to a set of other disciplines, such as anthropology, or the neurosciences. The work of Chomsky and other proponents of transformational grammar have had a marked influence on the field. In the 1960s and early 1970s numerous psychologists and linguists used the transformational-generative model proposed by Chomsky to discover how children come to know the grammatical processes that underlie the speech they hear and to investigate the processing and comprehension of language; spoken or written. And now, psycholinguistics has been turning increasingly to other functionally related and socially oriented models of language structure, Experts use experiments to investigate such topics as short- term and long term memory, perceptual strategies, speech perception based on linguistic models, the brain activity involved in language use, and language impaired due to brain damage, cognition and language. It is customary to distinguish six subjects of research within psycholinguistics: 1） Acquisition: how does a child acquire the language skills （first language acquisition） and how are they extended to other languages （second/foreign language acquisition） ? 2） Comprehension : how is the acoustic or visual signal linguistically interpreted by the hearer or reader? 3） Production: how is the information that somebody wants to convey transformed into acoustic waves, or written characters? 4） Disorders: what causes the occurrence of transient or more permanent disturbances of the speech and language processing systems? 5 ） Language and thought: what role does human language play in thinking? And what differences do different languages make to how we think? 6） Neurocognition: how is the cognitive architecture of language and language processing implemented in the human brain, i.e., what is the cerebral-functional architecture of our language faculty? Here, we will focus on the former three subjects, say, acquisition, comprehension and production.3.Describe the stages of first language acquisition. 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 37 页，共 52 页 Key: Language acquisition is one of the central topics in psycholinguistics. Possessing a language is the quintessentially human trait: all normal humans speak, no nonhuman animal does. Learning a first language is something every child does successfully, in a matter of a few years and without the need for formal lessons. With language so close to the core of what it means to be human, it is not surprising that children’s acquisition of language has received so much attention. Anyone with strong views about the human mind would like to show that children’s first few steps are steps in the right direction. Language acquisition begins very early in the human lifespan, and begins with the acquisition of a language’s sound patterns. The main linguistic accomplishments during the first year of life are control of the speech musculature and sensitivity to the phonetic distinctions used in the parents3 * 5 language. Around 18 months, language changes in two ways. Vocabulary growth increases; the child begins to learn words at a rate of one every two waking hours, and will keep learning that rate or faster through adolescence. Children’s two and three-word utterances look like samples drawn from longer potential sentences expressing a complete and more complicated idea. Between the late two-word and mid-three-word stage, children’s language blooms into fluent grammatical conversation rapidly, sentence length increases steadily. Because grammar is a combinatorial system, the number of syntactic types increases exponentially, doubling every month, reaching the thousands before the third birthday. Normal children can differ by a year or more in their rate of language development, though the stages they pass through are generally the same regardless of how stretched out or compressed and many children speak in complex sentences before they turn two. 25．Determine the original term from which the following words were back- formed. （a）asset （b）burgle （c）enthuse （d）greed （e）hush （ f ）automate （g）donate （h）escalate （i）homesick （j）peddle （k）diagnose （I）tuit （ m ）amusing （n） loaf （o） self-destruct （p）attrit （q）hairdress （r）emote （s）drowse （t） frivol 【答案】（a） assets （b）burglar （c）enthusiasm （d）greedy （e）husht （f）automation （g）donation （h）escalator （i）homesickness （j）peddler （k）diagnosis （1） intuition （m） amuse （n）loafer （o）self-destruction （p） attrition （q）hairdresser （r ） emotion （s） drowsy （t） frivolous 26．Analyse the poem below from the semantic point of view, taking a special account of sense relations. Coloured Dear White Fells You White Fella Couple things you should know When you bom, you pink When I bom, I black Whenyou grow up, you white When I grow up, I black Whenyou go in sun, you red When I go in sun, I black Whenyou cold, you blue When I cold, I black Whenyou seared, you yellow When I scared, I black When you sick, you green When I sick, I black And when you die you grey 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 38 页，共 52 页 And when I die-I still black And you have the cheek To call me coloured? 【答案】 This poem is about the use of the word “coloured”. The author cleverly makes use of “coloured” in the sense of “different colours” to oppose the practive to refer to black people as “coloured”. This shows from another point of view that “coloured” is not a superordinate to “red”, “green”, “yellow”，etc. 27．What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies? 【答案】 A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To collie to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others,... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness. （Noam Chomsky: Reflectionson Language. 1975:4） It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”； and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation. （M. A, K, Halliday. 1970: 142） The first quote shows children＇s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user＇s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language. 五、True-or-false 28．In the sound writing system, the reference of the grapheme is the phoneme.（ ） 【答案】T 【解析】字形是根据音位的表达写出来的。 29．In the sentence “Money is often said to be the root of all evil”，“root” is used in its conceptual meaning.（ ） 【答案】F 【解析】这里的“mot”是用了它的联想意义中的内涵义，不是概念意义。 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 39 页，共 52 页 30．Odgen and Richards argue that the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct.（ ） 【答案】T 【解析】奥格登和理查兹在《意义的意义》一书中提出了语义三角的理论。他们认为词与所指事 物之间没有直 接的关系。它们是以概念为中介的。 31．Metonymy involves using the familiar to stand for the unfamiliar.（ ） 【答案】T 【解析】转喻是一种一个词戒词组被另一个与之有紧密联系的词戒词组替换的修辞方法。 32．All roots are free and all affixes are bound.（ ） 【答案】F 【解析】词根可分为自由词根和黏着词根，所以并不是所有的词根都是自由词根。 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 40 页，共 52 页 2018 年中国人民大学外国语学院 816 英语语言学与英语教学之语言学教程考研基础 五套测试题（五） 说明：根据本校该考试科目历年考研命题规律，结合出题侧重点和难度，精心整理编写。基础检 测使用。共五套试题，均含有详细答案解析，也是众多专业课辅导机构参考借鉴资料，考研必备。 —————————————————————————————————————————— 一、Explain-the-fllowing-terms 1． Register 【答案】 It is a speech variety used by a particular group of people, usually sharing the same occupation （e.g. doctors, lawyers） or the same interests. A particular register often distinguishes itself from others by having a number of distinctive words, by using words or phrases in a particular way, and sometimes by special grammatical constructions （e.g. legal language）. 2． 1-narrator 【答案】 The person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story, relating the story after the event. In this ease the critics call the narrator a FIRST-PERSON NARRATOR or I- NARRATOR because when the narrator refers to himself or herself in the story the first person pronoun I is used. First-person narrators are often said to be “limited” because they don’t know all the faces or “unreliable” because they trick the reader by withholding information or telling untruths. This often happens in murder and mystery stories. 3． Stylistics 【答案】 Stylistics is a branch of linguistics studies the features of situationally distinctive uses （varieties ） of language, and tries to establish principles capable of accounting for the particular choices made by individual and social groups in their use of language. 4． Linguistic determinism 【答案】 Linguistic determinism, is one of the two points of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, and has developed into the strong version of this hypothesis. It could be summarized as follows: （1） One’s thinking is completely determined by his native language because one cannot but perceive the world in terms of the categories and distinctions encoded in the language. （2） The categories and distinctions encoded in one language system are unique to that system and incommensurable with those of other systems. Therefore, the following statement could represent this hypothesis 4tIf Aristotle had spoken Chinese, his logic would have been different”. 5． Linguistic relativity 【答案】 This is one of two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. It states that similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world is. For example, not every language has the same set of words for the colors; in Spanish there is no word that corresponds to the English meaning of “blue”. 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 41 页，共 52 页 6． Homonymy 【答案】 In any language there are words which have the same linguistic form but are different in meaning. These words are called homonyms. For example, bank （of a river） , and bank （financial institution）. 7． Paradigmatic relations 【答案】 Paradigmatic relation, Saussure originally called associative, is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent. 8． Lingua franca 【答案】 It is language that is used for communication between different groups of people, each speaking a different language, lhe lingua franca could be an internationally used language of communication （e. g. English） , it could be the native language of one of the groups, or it could a language which is not spoken natively by any of the groups but has a simplified sentence structure and vocabulary and is often a mixture of two or more languages. 9． stream of consciousness writing 【答案】 The term was originally coined by the philosopher William James in his Principle of Psychology （1890） to describe the free association of ideas and impressions in the mind. It was later applied to the writing of William Faulkner, James Joyce, Virginia Woolf and others experimenting early in the 20th century with the novelistic portrayal of the free flow of thought. Note, however, that the majority of thought presentation in novels is not stream of consciousness writing. The examples we have discussed above are not stream of consciousness writing because they are too orderly to constitute the free association of ideas. Perhaps the most famous piece of stream of consciousness writing is that associated with Leopold Bloom in Joyce’s Ulysses. Here he is in a restaurant thinking about oysters. “Filthy shells. Devil to open them too. Who found them out? Garbage, sewage they feed on. Fizz and Red bank oysters. Effect on the sexual. Aphrodis. （sic） He was in the Red bank this morning. Was he oyster old fish at table. Perhaps he young flesh in bed. No. June has no ar （sic） no oysters. But there are people like tainted game. Jugged hare. First catch your hare. Chinese eating eggs fifty years old, blue and green again. Dinner of thirty courses. Each dish harmless might mix inside. Idea for a poison mystery.66 This cognitive meandering is all in the most free version of direct thought. It is also characterised by a highly elliptical sentence structure, with as many grammatical words as possible being removed consistently allowing the reader to be able to infer what is going on. The language is not very cohesive，and breaks the Gricean maxims of Quantity and Manner. But we must assume that apparently unreasonable writing behaviour is related to a relevant authorial purpose. It is the assumption that Joyce is really cooperating with us at a deeper level, even though he is apparently making our reading difficult, that leads us to conclude that he is trying to evoke a mind working associatively. 10．Glottal Stop 【答案】 Vocal tract is composed of oral cavity, nasal cavity and pharynx. When the vocal folds are totally closed, no air can pass between them. The result of this gesture is the glottal stop. 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 42 页，共 52 页 二、Short-answer-questions 11．Explain with an example that the evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic. 【答案】 As a social phenomenon, language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social. To a linguist, all language forms and accents are equally good as far as they can fulfill the communication functions they are expected to fulfill. Therefore, judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic. A case in point is the use of the postvocalic [r]. While in England accents without postvocalic [r] are considered to be more correct than accents with it, in New York city, accents with postvocalic [r] enjoys more prestige and considered more correct than without it. 12．What does the concept morphophoneme mean? What is the relationship between phoneme and morphophoneme? 【答案】 Morphophoneme refers to the phoneme （or string of phonemes ） that constitutes the various allomorphs of a morpheme. Relationship between phoneme and morphophoneme: Generally speaking, the concept of morphophoneme adds a grammatical meaning to the concept of phoneme. For example, as to the phoneme /s/, it is in fact a configuration of allomorphs of different morphemes, such as the plural morpheme and the 3 rd person present simple morpheme. Therefore, we would regard this phoneme as a morphophoneme, represented as /s/. 13．Whafs your understanding of language? 【答案】 Language is a system of vocal symbols used for human communication. Language must be a system, since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules, they cannot be combined at will. Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no logic connection between the word and the thing it refers to. Language has symbolic nature: words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention. For all languages, the primary medium is sound, no matter how well developed are their writing system. Language is human-specific, it is very different from the communication system other forms of life possess. 14．In English, the phoneme is pronounced differently in pat, spat, and tap, can you form a rule that can generalize this linguistic phenomenon? 【答案】 In English, there is a rule that a is unaspirated after but aspirated in other places. So in pat, tap is aspirated but unaspirated in spat since it is after To bring out the phonetic difference, an aspirated sound is transcribed with a raised “h” after the symbol of the sound. So a phonetic transcription for peak is and that for speak is So are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. The allophones are said to be in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same context: occurs after while occurs in other places. We can present this rule as: elsewhere （note:is the position in which appears.） In addition, sometimes a phoneme may also have free variants. The final consonant of tap may not be released by some speakers so there is no audible sound at the end of this word. Such phenomenon is 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 43 页，共 52 页 called free variation. 15．Please disambiguate the following 5 sentences, using the tree-diagram, or any other means that you think is appropriate. （1）Jane showed her baby pictures. （2）The old man is drinking in the air. （3）We need more realistic officials to handle the economy. （4）We are sweeping the ground cigarettes on the street. （5）Tom exchanged the money and fell around the corner. 【答案】（1） 16．What is the definition of cognitive linguistics? 【答案】 Cognitive linguistics is a newly established approach to the study of language that emerged in the 1970s as a reaction against the dominant generative paradigm which pursues an autonomous view of language. Cognitive linguistics is based on human experiences of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the world. 三、Essay-question 17．What is the relationship between speech event and speech act? （Explain with an example）. 【答案】 Speech act refers to an utterance as a functional unit in communication. There are many kinds of speech acts, such as requests, orders, commands, complaints, and promises. A speech act that 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 44 页，共 52 页 is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirect speech act. Speech event refers to a particular instance when people exchange speech, e.g. an exchange of greetings, an enquiry, a conversation. Speech events are governed by the rules and norms for the use of speech, which may be different in different communities. The structure of speech events varies considerably according to the genre they belong to. Both speech act and speech event are concerned about the actual utterance of sentences. But speech act deals with a particular utteranceh that has locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act. Speech event is related to certain speech situations that are composed of many utterances, though may be not speech act. For example, when you ask for the time at a bus stop with the sentence, “What time is it?” your meaning is that you want to know the time. This speech act takes place within a speech event, which could be called asking for the time. Such an event is very brief and usually has three speech acts: asking the time, giving the time, and thinking. Speech events usually take place within the larger context of speech situations. Based on the differences between speech act and speech event, the former is usually studied in pragmatics while the latter is the focus of socio-linguistics. 18．Use examples to illustrate different ways to extend syntactic constituents. 【答案】 In this chapter, several ways to extend syntactic constituents are brought under the category of recursiveness, including coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic and so on. Coordination and conjoining are the different names for the same linguistic phenomenon, that is, to use and, but or or to join together syntactic constituents with the same [unction. For instance, the sentence A man got into the car could be extended into a sentence like this “[NP A man, a woman, a boy, a cat and a dog] got into the car”. While subordination and embedding can be understood as the extension of any syntactic constituent by inserting one or more syntactic elements with different functions, into another. I saw the man who had visited you last year is an extended sentence by changing the independent clause The man had visited you last year into a dependent element （here a relative clause）. However, hypotaxis and parataxis are the two traditional terms for the description of syntactic relations between sentences. In the examples below, the former is hypotactic, while the latter is paratactic: We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate. He dictated the letter. She wrote it. 19．How are affixes classified? 【答案】 Considering the free and bound morpheme, affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme, so it is naturally bound. Depending on their position with reference to the root or stem of the word, affixes are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix, and infix. For examples, “para-” as prefix, “-tion” as suffix, and “-bloomingly-” in word “abso-bloomingly-luty” as infix. Affix can also be classified depending on the distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes. The formal often only add a minute grammatical function to the stem and do not change the word class of the word they attach to; while the latter are very productive in making new words and often change the lexical meaning. For instances, “-s” in words “toys”, “walks” and “John's” is inflectional affixes, while “-tion” is a derivational affix in word “recitation”. 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 45 页，共 52 页 20．What are phonemes, phones and allophones? Explain their relationship with examples from English or Chinese. 【答案】 A phoneme is a minimally distinctive set of sounds in a language that can signal a difference in meaning. It is an abstract phonological unit represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. A phone is an individual phonetic unit or segment that occurs in speech. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Each of the set of phones which correspond to a single phoneme of a language is called an allophone. Phonemes are placed between slant lines and phones are placed between square brackets Allophones of the same phoneme generally occur in different contexts and never distinguish one word from another. For example, when we pronounce the two words peak and speak, we are aware that the sound is pronounced differently, in the word peak, the sound is pronounced with a strong puff of air stream; but the same stop sound is pronounced slightly differently in the word speak, the puff of air is withheld a little. The sound in peak is called an aspirated and the sound in speak is an unaspirated There is a slight difference in the way they are pronounced, but such a difference dose not give rise to difference in meaning. So a phoneme in the English sound system, and it can be realized differently as aspirated or unaspirated in different contexts. The phoneme /p/ in English can be realized as aspirated and unaspirated which are allophones of the phoneme stressed than the other. The more stressed syllable is the primary stress while the less stressed syllable is known as the secondary stress. Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Different rates of vibration produce what is known as different frequencies, and in auditory terms as different pitches. Pitch variations may be distinctive like phoneme, that is, when they may contribute to distinguish between different words. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. When we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas. The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker. In English, there are four intonation patterns: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone. 四、Synthesis 21．What is a corpus? Can you give some examples of how the use of a corpus contributes to language teaching? 【答案】 Corpus is a collection of texts input into a computer. Language corpora make it possible for material developers to select authentic, natural and typical language, The two most important factors in a corpus are the size and types of texts selected. Usually the uses that will be made of the corpus decide the number and type of texts in a corpus. Corpora usually provide the following types of information. （1）Frequency information. Corpora can tell us how frequently certain language items or structures are used. This kind of information is useful when we try to select what to teach, select what to focus on, and decide what senses to focus on in the language classroom. （2）Context and co-text information. Contexts are the situational environments in which language is used. Co-texts are the linguistic environments. Sometimes it is very difficult to tell the differences of two words or phrases which have similar meaning. However, if we look at the context and co text in 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 46 页，共 52 页 which they are used, the difference becomes clear. （3）Grammatical information. We usually refer to grammar books for grammatical information. However, what the corpora show is far more complicated than what grammar books tell about grammar. For example, information from corpora has shown that conditionals in English are far more than 3 （first, second and third conditionals）. （4）Collocation and phraseology information. It is usually difficult for second and foreign language learners to learn which words are frequently used together, e.g. should we say make effort or take ejfortl A search in corpus will do the job. （5）Pragmatics information. Information from corpora can tell us how language is actually used in communication. For example, students are often told that if someone says “How do you do?”，they should say “How do you do’？”. Data from corpora show that in this situation there is more than one way to response. For example，we can also say “Nice to meet you. ” 22．What do you think about Chomsky^ criticism and the revival of corpus linguistics? 【答案】 Chomsky held the view that the corpus could never be a useful tool for the linguist, as the linguist must seek to model language competence rather than performance. Second, the only way to account for a grammar of a language is by description of its rules—not by enumeration of its sentences. Third, language is not a finite construct. It was the wonder of computer that heralded the revival of corpus linguistics. The computer has the ability to search for a particular word, sequence of words, or perhaps even a part of speech in a text. The computer can also retrieve all examples of a particular word, usually in context, which is a further-aid to the linguist. It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered. We may then be interested in sorting the data in some way, for example, alphabetically on words occurring in the immediate context of the word. 23．Discuss the following questions. 1）What organs are involved in speech production? 2）Why did George Bernard Shaw say he could spell the word fish as ghoti? 3）How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels? 4）To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ? 5）“Assimilation is often used synonymously with coarticulation”. Discuss. 6）The pronunciation of tell is [tet], but that of teller is [tele]. Discuss why the phoneme/1/ is realized as [1] and [1] respectively in this situation. 【答案】 1） Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea （or windpipe）, the throat, the nose, and the mouth. The pharynx, mouth, and nose form the three cavities of the vocal tract. Speech sounds are produced with an airstream as their sources of energy. In most circumstances, the airstream comes from the lungs. It is forced out of the lungs and then passes through the bronchioles and bronchi, a series of branching tubes, into the trachea. Then the air is modified at various points in various ways in the larynx, and in the oral and nasal cavities: the mouth and the nose are often referred to, respectively, as the oral cavity and the nasal cavity. Inside the oral cavity, we need to distinguish the tongue and various parts of the palate, while 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 47 页，共 52 页 inside the throat, we have to distinguish the upper part, called pharynx, from the lower part, known as larynx. The larynx opens into a muscular tube, the pharynx, part of which can be seen in a mirror. The upper part of the pharynx connects to the oral and nasal cavities. The contents of the mouth are very important for speech production. Starting from the front, the upper part of the mouth includes the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate （or the velum） , and the uvula. The soft palate can be lowered to allow air to pass through the nasal cavity. When the oral cavity is at the same time blocked, a nasal sound is produced. The bottom part of the mouth contains the lower lip, the lower teeth, the tongue, and the mandible. At the top of the trachea is the larynx, the front of Which is protruding in males and known as the “Adam’s Apple”. The larynx contains the vocal folds, also known as “vocal cords” or “vocal hands”. The vocal folds are a pair of structure that lies horizontally below the latter and their front ends are joined together at the back of the Adam＇s Apple. Their rear ends, however, remain separated and can move into various positions:inwards, outwards, forwards, backwards, upwards and downwards. 2）This is because g h is pronounced as [f] in enough, o as [i] in women, and o as [J] in nation. 3）In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. For example, the initial sound in bad involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade （or the tip ） of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the basis of several factors. The most important Of these factors are: （a） the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract, and （b） where in the vocal tract there is approximation, .narrowing, or the obstruction of air. The former is known as the Manner of Articulation and the latter as the Place of Articulation. The Manner of Articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished:（a） the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; （b） they may narrow the space considerably; or （c） they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other. The Place of Articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds. Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart. As the vowels cannot be described in the same way as the consonants, a system of cardinal vowels has been suggested to get out of this problem. The cardinal vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages. The cardinal vowels are abstract concepts. If we imagine that for the production of [8] the tongue is in a neutral position （neither high nor low, neither front nor back） , the cardinal vowels are as remote as possible from this neutral position. They represent extreme points of a theoretical vowel space: extending the articulators beyond this space would involve friction or contact. The cardinal vowel diagram （or quadrilateral） in the IPA is therefore a set of hypothetical positions for vowels used as reference points. The front, center, and back of the tongue are distinguished, as are four levels of tongue height; the highest position the tongue can achieve without producing audible friction （high or close） ； the lowest position the tongue can achieve （low or open）； and two intermediate levels, dividing the 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 48 页，共 52 页 intervening space into auditorily equivalent areas （ mid-high or open- mid, and mid-low or close-mid）. 4）Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Imagine that the speech sound is articulated by a Speaker A. It is then transmitted to and perceived by a Listener B. Consequently, a speech sound goes through a three-step process: speech production, sound transmission, and speech perception. Naturally, the study of sounds is divided into three main areas, each dealing with one part of the process: Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds, Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, and Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds. Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It dims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. 5）Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, if a nasal consonant （such as [m]） precedes an oral vowel （such as[æ] in map） , some of the nasality will carry forward so that the vowel[æ] will begin with a somewhat nasal quality. This is because in producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the nasal tract. To produce the following vowel[æ], the soft palate must move back to its normal position. Of course it takes time for the soft palate to move from its lowered position to the raised position. This process is still in progress when the articulation of[æ] has begun. Similarly, when[æ] is followed by [m], as in lamb, the velum will begin to lower itself during the articulation of[æ] so that it is ready for the following nasal. When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process 'coartieulation'. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as 'anticipatory coarticulation'. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is 'perseverative coarticulation, as is the case of map. Assimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation, which is more of a phonetic term. Similarly, there are two possibilities of assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it 'regressive assimilation': the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as 'progressive assimilation' Anticipatory coarticulation is by far the most common cause of assimilation in English. For example, Ex. 1 a. b. Ex. 2 a. b. Ex. 3 a. 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 49 页，共 52 页 b. In both ex. la and lb, the words differ in two sounds. The vowel in the second word of each pair is “nasalized” because of the influence of the following nasal consonant. In ex. 2, the nasal is “dentalized” before a dental fricative. In ex. 3, the alveolar nasal Ini becomes the velar nasal before the velar stop In this situation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundaries, as shown by the following: Ex. 4 a. b.he go now Studies of English fricatives and affricates have shown that their voicing is severely influenced by the voicing of the following sound, Ex. 5 a. b. c. d. The first column of symbols shows the way these phrases are pronounced in slow or careful speech while the second column shows how they are pronounced in normal, connected speech. It indicates that in English fricatives and affricates are devoiced when they are followed by voiceless sounds. This however does not occur with stops and vowels. 6）The word teller is formed by adding a suffix -er to the base word tell to form a new word. We are all familiar with the rule that governs the allophones of the phoneme /l/: when preceding a vowel, it is [1] and when following a vowel it is [1]. However, in teller it has a vowel both before and after it, so how do we decide that it should be pronounced as [1], not [1]? We notice that tell is a monosyllabic word while teller is disyllabic. In a polysyllabic word, we follow the Maximal Onset Principle （MOP） for the division of syllable. By MOP, the must be placed in the onset position of the second syllable instead of the coda position of the first syllable. Thus, the phoneme is realized as it should be before the vowel in the second syllable. The same is true with telling, falling, and many others. We can see from this that the phonological structure of a complex word is often different from its morphological structure, i. e. how the word is formed. In word formation it is tell+er while in syllable structure it is 24．Analyze the following sentences on two levels. First, identify the Subject, Finite, Predicator, and Adjunct. Second, identify Mood and Residue. Explain the difference, if any, between the two levels of analysis. （1）Mr. Hu made a speech at a conference yesterday. （2）The university president has been awarded an international prize. （3）Three days ago, an honorary title was given to a professor from Yale. 【答案】 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 50 页，共 52 页 25．Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable? （A）It is I. （B）It is me. You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin. （A） Who did you speak to? （B ） Whom did you speak to? You should say B instead of A. （A）I haven’t done anything. （B）I haven’t done nothing. B is wrong because two negatives make a positive. 【答案】（1） the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal. （2）Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech. （3）Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negatives only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now. 26．You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language： The proof of the pudding is in the eating. Let sleeping dogs lie. You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear. Rome was not built in a day. When in Rome, do as the Romans do. All roads lead to Rome. 【答案】 Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the 4The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for we can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associative meaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality. 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 51 页，共 52 页 27．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often? 【答案】 There are many expressions such as to tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to say, Such expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation. 五、True-or-false 28．The word of “impossibility” contains four morphemes.（ ） 【答案】F 【解析】包括三个语素：“im-”“possibl-” 29．A phoneme in one language or one dialect may be an allophone in another language or dialect.（ ） 【答案】T 【解析】同一个音位在不同语音环境中的实现方式被称为该音位的音位变体。同一个音位在不同 的语言中有不 同的实现方式，所以在另一语言中是音位变体。 30．In the Classical theory, Chomsky＇s aim is to make linguistics a science. This theory is characterized by three features:（1） emphasis on prescription of language; （2） introduction of transformational rules; and （3） grammatical description regardless of language formation. 【答案】F 【解析】乔姆斯基的古典理论有三个特点：（1）重视语言的生成能力，而非性；（2）转换 规则的介绍；（3） 语法描述，不研宄意义，而非不研宄语言形式。 31．The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communications are all phonemes.（ ） 【答案】F 【解析】我们所听见和说出的声音并不总是音位，有可能是音素，叧有那些有区别意义的才是音 位。 32．After comparing “They stopped at the end of the corridor.” with “At the end of the corridor, they stopped”，you may find some difference in meaning, and the difference can be interpreted in terms of collocative meaning.（ ） 【答案】F 【解析】搭配意义是通过词语的常用搭配而传达的意义。主位意义是通过顺序和重音这种信息的 丏注考研丏业课 13 年，提供海量考研优质文档！ 第 52 页，共 52 页 方式所传达 的意义。显然这里用的是主位意义。