英语语言学概论

Introducing Linguistics ——Course offered in Year 2007 Wang Yi 汪  溢 School of Foreign Languages Northeast Normal University Some Basic Information Length： September 2007 to January 2008 Time： Monday， from 7：30 Pm to 9：00 Pm Contact：keyang1234567@sina.com.cn Grading Criteria Total mark： 100 points. It includes： 1.Attendance/Participation and Homework： 20% 2.Final Exam： 80%（close） Aims of the Course To understand the basic notions To use theories and approaches in analysing  linguistic phenomena To understand the nature and the functions as well as the system of language at different levels Course Description Two kinds of divisions： 1.The intra-disciplinary divisions phonetics phonology morphology syntax semantics pragmatics Course Description 2.The inter-disciplinary divisions language in social contexts second language acquisition linguistics and foreign language teaching Reference Books 课堂教材： 杨忠（主编），《语言学概论》Introducing Linguistics，北京：高等教育出版社，2002。 参考资料： 1.胡壮麟，刘润清，李延福（主编），《语言学教程》，北京：北京大学出版社，1988。 2.胡壮麟（主编），《语言学教程》（修订版），北京：北京大学出版社，2001。 3.戴炜栋，何兆熊，华钧（编著），《简明语言学教程》，上海：上海外语教育出版社，1989。 Chapter One  Language and Linguistics： an Overview 1. What does ‘language’ mean？ ＊General sense the universal properties of all human  languages， i.e. the common features， not just one  particular language. Used without articles. ＊ Specific sense “in bad/dirty language”： “Lu Xun’s language” “Wang Shuo’s language”： “scientific language” “formal language” “LSP” “the Chinese language” “the English language”：    Electronic Language Text Messaging 1.RU OK？ 2.Y NY 3.OK CU2DAY？ 4.NO 2MORO 5.WER？ 6.@J’S. CUL8TR 7.LUV B.        8.  F2T？ 9.N. WER RU？ 10.@ WK. NU？ 11.@HM. CU L8TR？  12.  Y. WEN？ 13.OK. B4N.            Electronic Language Text Messaging 1.  RU OK？                          >    Are you OK？ 2.  Y NU                              >    Yes and you？ 3.  OK CU2DAY？                >  OK. See you today？ 4.  NO 2MORO                    >    No. Tomorrow. 5.  WER？                            >  Where 6.  @J’S. CUL8TR              >  At John’s. See you later. 7.  LUV B.                          >  Love Bob 8.  F2T？                            >  Free to talk？ 9.  N. WER RU？                > No. Where are you？ 10.  @ WK. NU？                > At work. And you？ 11.  @HM. CU L8TR？        > At home. See you later？ 12.  Y. WEN？                      > Yes. When？ 13.OK. B4N.                        > OK. Bye for now. Electronic Language ---F2T？ ---Y ---WER RU？ ---@HM. --- CU2DAY？ ---NO 2MORO ---WER？ ---@J’S. CUL8TR ---OK. B4N. North east language 1、咋整的——怎么搞的。 2、稀罕——喜欢，爱。我稀罕你，是说：我爱你。 3、没咒念——没办法了。 4、嘛答——瞧不起人，用眼皮乜人。你嘛答谁？是说：你瞧不起谁？ 5、挠岗子了——跑了。 6、瘪茄子了——败了，没救了。 7、尿性——有本事，有能耐。 8、哪疙瘩——哪个地方。 9、激头白脸——发火，耍脾气的样子。 10、老鼻子啦——很多。不着调——没正经的。 11、的色（ｄèｓè）——不稳重。 12、糟尽了——浪费，可惜了。 13、吭哧瘪肚——说话不流畅，被称为是吭哧瘪肚的人 14、巴瞎——无根据的胡说。 2. What is language？ Many definitions： Language is a tool for human communication. Language is a set of rules by which sentences are formed. Language is an instrument for expressing thoughts or for reasoning. A generally accepted definition： Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. （Vardhaugh， 1977）. What does “a system” mean？ Example 1： For the following sounds /s/， /t/， /i/， /l/， /p/ Possible combinations： Impossible combinations： Example 2： For the following words cat， dog， the， chased， the Possible combinations： Impossible combinations： The chased cat the dog. BUT： Colourless green ideas sleep furiously. The “symbolic nature” of language    Vocal？ Sound is the primary medium through which meaning is conveyed. Language may be of Spoken form          Written form √                            √ √                              ╳ ╳                              √ Human？ Only human beings have language that is very different from the communication systems that other animals have. The arbitrary nature of language A Summary Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To sum up， the above definition  captures some important aspects of language. Oral practice Part one：sentence making 1.My mother/father is（like）......，because...... 2.Winter of Changchun is（like）......， because...... 3.Jakie Chan  is （like）......， because...... 4. Computers are（like）......， because...... Part two： chain story It begins like this： Sara is a girl....... 3. Features of human language （also： Design Features） the defining properties of human language which are distinguishable from those of the communication systems of other animals. 3. Features of human language Creativity / Productivity Duality Arbitrariness Displacement Cultural transmission Interchangeability Reflexivity 3.1 Creativity / Productivity Language is creative / productive in that users can produce and understand what they have never spoken or heard before. Or we may say， language users can create infinite sentences following finite rules. e.g. ‘A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed.’ The first and foremost in importance and peculiar to human language A child’s language acquisition can show this is so. 童言无忌 妞妞与嘟嘟的对话 妞妞：你是新小朋友吗？ 嘟嘟：不是，我是旧小朋友。^^…… 问：有个老爷爷丢了一匹马，你认为马还会回来吗？ 答：那匹马肯定会回来的，因为它认识自己的脚印。 答：我觉得马到外面去结婚了，不会回来了。　（好、好浪漫……） 答：会回来的，因为它的押金还在老爷爷这里。　（好、好现实!） 问题：什么动物两只脚，早上太阳公公起来的时候，它会叫你起床？ 小朋友A：鸡，公鸡。（另一个小孩叫道：父鸡） 很好奇地问：什么叫父鸡？ 小朋友：母鸡叫母鸡，公鸡就叫父鸡。（恍然大悟……） 小朋友B：妈妈。 小朋友C：太阳。（汗……太阳它是动物啊） 继续问：太阳长脚吗？ 小朋友C：太阳有五只脚。（另一个小孩反驳：七只，彩虹是七种颜色的） 问题：如果朝鱼塘里扔块石头，会发生什么现象？ 小朋友A：水会变成波波。（……） 小朋友B：鱼会漂上来。（渔民很开心……） 小朋友C：罚款五块。（汗……） 千万别喝水 宝宝不小心，吞下一粒桔子核。邻居小弟弟对他说：“你千万别喝水，我哥哥说’种子得了水分和养料，就会发芽，生长’。你要喝了水，头上就会长出桔子树来！” 3.2 Duality 3.3 Arbitrariness There’s no logical or natural， or inherent， relation  between the speech sounds and the meanings they represent. For example， 3.4 Displacement not limited to time and space Question： Is it possible that two cats talk  about  the bone  they found the  day before  yesterday？ 3.5 Cultural Transmission Language is not  genetically passed down to successive/ following generations. culturally transmitted 3.6 Interchangeability a human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3.7 Reflexivity Human languages can be used to describe themselves. Metalanguage：the language used to talk about languge. A Grammar of the Dog Language 4. Functions of language： Different interpretations The traditional interpretation The functional interpretations 4.1 The traditional interpretation Examples： I went there yesterday. I went there last month. I went there immediately after I was back. 4.2 The functional interpretations Function concerns what we do with language. What functions can we use language to perform？ 4.2.1 The Specific roles （also called speech functions） The phatic function： The directive function： The informative function： The interrogative function： The expressive function： The performative function： The phatic function： Social contact or relations To establish…Or maintain … The directive function： To get the hearer to do something The informative function： To tell what the speaker believes， To give information about facts， or To reason things out The interrogative function： To get information from others The expressive function To reveal the feelings and attitudes of  the speaker The performative function： To do things or to perform actions 4.2.2 The General roles：  The metafunctions The ideational function： identify Example 1： （If you know there are only two children in  the speaker’s （Sam） family.） Sam： I have a brother. Example 2： Sam： I have two brothers. （？？？） The ideational function： To identify things， to think， or to record  information. To represent  the world around us. As a medium that links a person with the world. To conceptualize the world. This function of language brings the world  into our mind. The interpersonal function： We use language as a medium to get along in a community. This function binds individuals together. With this function language is able to glue all members of a speech community. The textual function： “香肠特价，一元五角一根；袜子十元四双。” 5. Types of language 5.1 Natural languages vs. artificial languages 1） Natural languages： Number Different status（offical vs.non-offical） Lingua franca 2） Artificial languages（Esperanto） 5.2 The genetic classification of languages Assumption：Languages diversified from a common ancestor. Language families： e.g. Chinese： Sino-Tibetan  Family; English： Indo-European family，Latin is one of its branch，and it includs French， Italian， Spanish， Romanian，etc. 5.3 The typological classification of languages It is based on a comparison of the formal similarities or differences between languages. Phonologically Morphologically Syntactically Phonologically speech sounds Vowels Consonants Tone e.g. Chinese /mǎ/  and English /h ?：s/ Morphologically 3 types： 1.analytic languages型（Chinese，Vietnamese） 2.synthetic languages综合型（Latin，Greek.English） 3.agglutinating languages黏着型（Turkish， Japanese） examples： 1.胜，盛，国，周，水 2. He is a ____ （boy）  He ___（work）here everyday. They are____（boy）  He ___（work）here in 1999. Latin：amo ‘I love’ ３.Japanese：あなたはおうさんですか。 わたしはおういです。 わたしはおういではありません。 Turkish： evlerimin （my house）： ev ‘house’， -ler ‘singular’， -im ‘my’， -in          ‘genitive’ Morphologically To sum up： Analytic/ isolating languages： no inflections or formal changes （Chinese and Vietnamese） Synthetic/ inflecting languages： changes of the internal structure of words， typically the inflectional endings. （Latin， Greek and Arabic） Agglutinating languages： words being built out of a long sequence of units In Syntax Word order Most frequent word orders： Concluding remarks Languages are diversified; They are also remarkably similar in many ways. The similarities provide essential data for the study of the universality of language. 6. Language origin 6. Language origin Scientific interpretations： human invention The Bow-wow theory： imitation of natural sound The Pooh-pooh theory： instinctive emotional cries The Yo-he-ho theory： joint labour or effort The evolution theory： product of evolutionary development of the human species; language originating in the process of labour. 7. Linguistics： the scientific study of language Why linguistics a scientific study？ Scientists generally work through a process  similar to the following： A conceptual framework of science as a process 7.2 Branches of linguistics Intra-disciplinary divisions Language as a system --- Three levels ： 1.Sound level：          Phonetics        phonology 2.structure level：      morphology      syntax 3.Meaning  level：    semantics      pragmatics Inter-disciplinary divisions Psycholinguistics Sociolinguistics Applied linguistics Computational linguistics，  Stylistics， Anthropological linguistics， Philosophical linguistics， Historical linguistics 7.3 Features of modern linguistics Chapter Two  Phonetics： The Study of Speech Sounds 1. Phonetics： an introduction 1.2The primary concern in linguistics： --- Articulatory Phonetics How speech sounds are produced; Studied from the part of the Speaker; From a physiological perspective. 2. The sound-producing mechanism 3.中国式英语的发音 1. 平翘舌不分：如this读成Dis， orange读成oranZe，English：读成［s］ 。人：ren/yin.农：nong/neng    四是四，十是十，十四是十四，四十是四十. 2. 清辅音浊化并拉长：Stop/Stoper，I think I have come to the point that 变成了“I ThinKER I haDER coMMMe to the poinTER thaTER…”。 3.［ t∫ ］与［ ］ 加［u］音：如China读成Chuainer。Change读成Chuenjü。 4.［r］与［?］；有些人发不出［r］音，所以把［r］都读成［l］，如three就变成了thlui；而Little前面的L读［l］，后面的L读［?］，而这个［?］在发音时只要把舌尖轻轻顶上去就行了，而许多人总是把舌尖向后卷起，就产生littOU。 5.双元音发音不到位：典型的就是I ［ai］ 读成［e］， time读成［tem］。 6.乱发美音，使元音儿化： ［ir］、［ r］、［ur］、［ r］、［ɑr］、［er］、 because， put， 4. Phonetic transcription of speech  sounds 4.1 The Phonetic symbols International Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）：  --- the widely used symbols for phonetic  transcription of speech sounds. 4.2 Speech sounds： a classification Speech sounds 4.3Phonetic symbols 一、consonants： ［p］、［b］、 ［t］、［d］、［k］、［g］、 ［f］、［v］、［s］、［z］、［ ］、［ ］、［ ］、［ ］、［t ］、 ［ ］  ［tr］、［dr］、［ts］、［dz］、［m］、［n］、［η］、［h］、［l］、［r］、［j］、［w］ 二、vowels： 1）monophthongs：［i：］、［i］、 ［ ：］  ［ ］、［u：］、［u］、［ ：］、［ ］、［ɑ：］、［  ］、［e］、［?］ 2）diphthongs：［ei］， ［ai］， ［ i］， ［ ］，  ［ ］ ， ［ ］ ， ［ ］，［au］，［ u］  5. Description of the English consonants 5.1 Characteristics： obstruction of the air-stream 5.2 Parameters： Place， manner and voicing 5.3Place of articulation： The different （parts of the） vocal organs involved in the production of  consonants 5.4Manners of articulation： The degree of obstructions （complete，  partial， or merely a narrowing） 5.5 Voicing： Whether or not the vocal cords vibrate 5.5 Classification in terms of voicing Voiceless：The vocal cords do not vibrate. Voiced：The vocal cords vibrate. Some exercises Describe the following sounds： a bilabial nasal a voiced interdental fricative a voiceless palatal affricate 6. Description of the English Vowels 6.1 Characteristics： No obstruction of the air-stream 6.2 Parameters： Whether the jaw moves and whether the tongue  position is changed What part of the tongue is raised and how high it is raised Whether the vocal tract is constricted， i.e. whether the muscles are tense Whether the lips are rounded 6.3 Classification of the English Vowels-General Whether the jaw moves and whether the  tongue position is changed monophthongs： sound quality not change diphthongs：sound quality change; movement from one vowel to the other Centering diphthongs： Closing diphthongs： 6.3 Classification of the English Vowels- Monophthongs What part of the tongue is raised and how high it is raised 6.3 Classification of the English Vowels- Monophthongs Whether the vocal tract is constricted， i.e. whether the muscles are tense 6.3 Classification of the English Vowels- Monophthongs Whether the lips are rounded practice Exercise One： Word Comparison Listen to the following words and repeat. Boat /both， sink /think， frilled/ thrilled， moss /moth， sin /thin practice1 ［ ］， ［ ］，［w］ Knife， five， very， white， wear， wife practice ［ ］ ，［s］， ［t ］ should/sold， sick/shake， sip/ship， chair/share practice ［m］、［n］、［η］ mum/nod/monkey      kind/thank  practice ［e］、［?］ 、 ［ai］ Bed/bad/bide      Ted/tide  practice ［θ］ ，［ ］： think /bathroom /teeth this/ that/them Read these setences loud to practice the sound ［θ］ ，［ ］： 1. Nothing is worth thousands of deaths. 2. Thank the other three brothers of their father’s mother’s brother’s side. practice Tongue twister 1.A big black bug bit a big black bear， made the big black bear bleed blood. 大黑虫咬大黑熊，大黑熊流血了！ 2.noisy noise annoys an oyster. 嘈吵的噪音惹恼牡蛎。 3.Freshly fried fresh flesh. 鲜炸鲜肉。 4.Sam’s shop stocks short spotted socks. 森姆的店子备有圆点短袜。 5.The soldier’s shoulder surely hurts! 英语字母发音表 Chapter 3  Phonology： the Study of Sound Systems and Patterns 1. Phonology ： an introduction 1.2 Phonetics vs Phonology Similarity： Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with the same aspect of language --- They are different in that phonetics， focuses on --- how speech sounds are produced， --- what phonetic features they have and  how to transcribe them. --- In phonetics， sound segments are assumed to be invariable; variations are overlooked. Phonology focuses on --- what sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language --- what sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language 2 Phonemes and allophones 2.1 Phonemes A phoneme is a sound that is capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language. e.g. pin – bin – pen    /p/， /b/， /i/， /e/， /n/ are all  phonemes The characteristic of a phoneme is distinctive. In other words，  phonemes have distinctive features. 2 Phonemes and allophones 2.2 Allophones Look at the following examples： /spin/， /pin/ In contrast to phonemes， some sounds are not distinctive， that is， they cannot serve to  distinguish words. e.g. ［ph］ （aspirated）  and ［p］ （unaspirated）， substitution of one for the  other would not make a different word but sound strange. 2 Phonemes and allophones These two non-distinctive sounds （［ph］ and ［p］）  are derived from  the same phoneme /p/. So we say that the  sounds which are members of the same phoneme are called allophones. 3 Discovering phonemes： phonological analysis