爱因斯坦的成就

爱因斯坦的成就 Einstein In twentieth Century the great physicist Albert Einstein was born in March 14, 1879 in the southwestern German city of Ulm, a year after the family moved to Munich. Einstein was not lively when he was a child, but he could not speak at the age of three, but his speech was not smooth until he was nine years old, and every word he had to speak must be labored and seriously thought. 1905 miracle In 1905, Einstein created an unprecedented miracle in the history of science. This year he wrote six papers in March to September this year, the use of spare time in addition to the patent office to operate eight hours a day, in a field of three made four epoch-making significance of the contribution, he wrote about quantum, molecular size determination, the four movement of Brown important papers on theory and special relativity. In 1921, Einstein won the Nobel prize for physics for the discovery of the discovery of the law of photoelectric effects. The secret of success Once, an American reporter asked Einstein about the secret of his success. "As early as 1901, when I was twenty-two, I found the formula for success," he replied. I can tell you the secret of the formula, that is, A=X+Y+Z! A is success, X is hard work, Y is understanding rest, Z is less talking nonsense! This formula is useful to me, and I think it will be useful for many people as well." Second peaks of scientific achievement In the 3 years from 1915 to 1917, it was the second peak of Einstein's scientific achievements, similar to that of 1905, and he also made historic achievements in three different fields. In addition to the general relativity which was recognized as one of the greatest achievements in the history of human thought in the 1915, the theory of gravitational waves in radiation quantum was introduced in 1916, and modern cosmology was founded in 1917. The style of the greatest scientist Einstein has won many awards and honorary doctor's certificates for his achievements in science. If the average person will take these things up. But Einstein put all of the above, including the Nobel prize certificate, in a box, without looking at it. Infeld said he sometimes felt that Einstein might not even know what the Nobel prize meant. It is said that on the day of his prize, his face is as calm as usual, and he is not particularly happy or excited. Mainly in physics: 1 photoelectric effect In 1905, Einstein proposed the photon hypothesis, successfully interpreted the photoelectric effect, and thus won the 1921 Nobel prize for physics. Light exposure to metals causes changes in the electrical properties of the material. The phenomenon of light calling is referred to as effect (Photoelectric). The photoelectric effect is divided into photoelectron emission, photoconductivity and photovoltaic effect. The former phenomenon occurs on the surface of an object, also known as external photoelectric effect. The latter two phenomena occur in the interior of an object, called the internal photoelectric effect. When Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect in 1887, Einstein was the first to successfully explain the photoelectric effect (the effect of the metal surface emitting electrons under the action of light radiation, the electrons emitted as photoelectrons). When the wavelength of light is less than a critical value, it can emit electrons, that is, the limit wavelength, and the frequency of the corresponding light is called the limit frequency. The critical value depends on the metal material, and the energy of the emitted electrons depends on the wavelength of the light, independent of the intensity of the light, which cannot be explained by the volatility of the light. There is a little fluctuation of light and contradiction, namely the instantaneous volatility of the photoelectric effect, according to the theory, if the incident light is weak, the exposure time is longer, the electron can be metal accumulation in enough energy, flying out of the metal surface. But the fact is that as long as the frequency of the light is higher than the limit frequency of the metal, the brightness of the light, whether it is strong or weak, is almost instantaneous, with no more than ten minus nine second. The correct explanation is that light must be composed of strictly defined energy units (i.e. photons or photons) related to the wavelength. The photoelectric effect, electron emitting direction is not completely oriented, but most are perpendicular to the metal surface, and the light direction is independent of light is an electromagnetic wave, but the light is high frequency orthogonal electromagnetic field oscillation, amplitude is very small, will not affect the direction of electron injection. The general theory of relativity, relativity, in the theory of relativity, Einstein proposed the famous mass energy formula: E=mc^2 (where E represents energy, M represents the number of quality, C represents the speed of light, the approximate value of 3 * 10^8m/s, indicating that energy can be created with the method of reducing the quality!). Published quantum theory, proposed quantum light hypothesis, solved the photoelectric effect problem, summarized the development of quantum theory, and proposed the theory of stimulated radiation. The Compton effect is found and the long-standing contradiction in photon concept is solved. The first quantum effect presumably arises from an overly constrained general relativistic field equation. The independent argument that a wave is associated with matter is obtained from the analysis of statistical fluctuations. At this time, also found a Bose Einstein condensate. The general theory of relativity, relativity, in the theory of relativity, Einstein proposed the famous mass energy formula: E=mc^2 (where E represents energy, M represents the number of quality, C represents the speed of light, the approximate value of 3 * 10^8m/s, indicating that energy can be created with the method of reducing the quality!). Published quantum theory, proposed quantum light hypothesis, solved the photoelectric effect problem, summarized the development of quantum theory, and proposed the theory of stimulated radiation. The Compton effect is found and the long-standing contradiction in photon concept is solved. The first quantum effect presumably arises from an overly constrained general relativistic field equation. The independent argument that a wave is associated with matter is obtained from the analysis of statistical fluctuations. At this time, also found a Bose Einstein condensate. Einstein's achievements; In 1905, Einstein created an unprecedented wonder in the history of science. This year, he wrote 6 papers, from March to September in the six months, using the patent office in 8 hours a day outside the work time, in three areas made four epoch-making contributions. Namely: (1) quantum theory of light, and put forward the hypothesis of quantum light. (2) the theory of molecular motion, April 1905, May, December, he published three articles on Brown sports paper, made outstanding contributions to solve more than half a century of science and philosophy of the debate of the problems of the existence of atoms. (3) the establishment of special relativity theory Einstein wrote a long paper on the physics epoch, "electrodynamics of the body", and put forward the theory of special relativity. This is the result of his 10 years' deliberation and exploration. It has largely solved the crisis of classical physics which appeared in the late nineteenth Century, and promoted the revolution of the whole physics theory. (4) mass energy equivalence; In September 1905, Einstein wrote a short essay about the inertia of an object in relation to the energy it contains ", as a corollary of relativity, reveals the equivalence of mass (m) and energy (E): E=mc2, and thus explains why radioactive elements (such as radium) are capable of releasing large amounts of energy. Mass equivalence is the theoretical basis of nuclear physics and particle physics, and opens the way for the release and use of nuclear energy for 40 years. Life of Einstein; 100 years ago, the 26 year old genius physicist Einstein, a complete 6 landmark papers, including three great achievements in modern physics: kinetic theory, special relativity and quantum hypothesis, affect the physical development of hundreds of years. This year is called the "miracle year"". In this "miracle year" 100th anniversary approaching, the global physics community unanimously called for 2005 "World Physics year"". The initiative was first proposed by the European Society of physics and was unanimously approved by the International Union of pure and applied physics. In June 2004, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the resolution at its fifty-eighth meeting to establish 2005 as the International Year of physics". In 2005, the global physics community will organize a series of activities to commemorate the birth of relativity 100th anniversary and commemorate the death of Einstein 50th anniversary. "Miracle" seems to be a phenomenon or an event of supernatural power, which should be opposed to the science based on empirical evidence. But in the history of science, there was an age when it was called "Wonder Years" because it focused on the fruits of a series of astonishing intellectual talents". This is 1905. In this year, in the Swiss patent office in Bern 26 year old genius physicist Einstein, in less than 1 years of breath wrote 6 physics papers has epoch-making significance, including 5 articles in the same year, another article published in the following year at the time of the international physics community's most prestigious "Journal of physics" on. These 6 papers have made 4 epoch-making great contributions in 3 different fields of modern physics. They have created a scientific history and a miracle in human history, which has influenced the development of physics in the past hundred years. The year was called the "miracle year"". 5 papers published in 1905 are: 1, "on the production and transformation of light. A heuristic view", light quantum and photoelectric effect discussion; 2, "the new" determination of molecular size, mathematical formula to calculate the diffusion velocity is derived; 3, "on the thermal motion of molecules the required static liquid suspension of small particle movement", provided that atoms exist; 4, "on the electrodynamics of moving, put forward a new theory of the relationship between time and space, known as the" theory of relativity "; 5," the inertia of the object to decide whether the internal energy ", built in the special theory of relativity on the basis of, It showed that mass and energy were interchangeable, and later introduced the most famous scientific equation: E=mc2. The physics of the past was based on Newton's theory that time and space are absolute and that there is no direct relation between the two. It seems that there is a big clock moving around in the universe. In any case, its speed is always the same. All the movements in the world are measured by time. In 1905 Einstein proposed the special theory of relativity is that the movement of the objects, the quality will increase, with the increase of the velocity of the object at the same time, space and time will vary with the velocity of the object, which will happen scale effect and time dilation effect. The theory of special relativity and the principle of constancy of the speed of light breaks the traditional absolute space-time view, pointing out that the quality of time, space and objects is not absolute but changes with the motion of objects. Einstein's special theory of relativity, in our daily life is very difficult to understand, because our daily contacts are far less than the speed of light movement, cannot perceive relativistic effects on Einstein's theory of relativity is described: shorter length, slow clock. But if motion near the speed of light can become a reality, a person moving at such speed may appear to be only a line at the sight of another stationary observer. There will also be a scene where a person sits on a photon rocket to do interstellar travel at a speed close to the speed of light. A year later, when he returned, he found that his son was a grey haired old man, and he was still so young. In ancient Chinese legends, "heaven is a day and the earth has been a year" can be explained by relativity. The theory of relativity has fundamentally changed the face of physics. It denies the absolute space of classical mechanics theory, a basic proposition over Newtonian mass conservation, energy conservation, energy, time and space quality unrelated eternal, essentially fixed time established by the narrow experience view, profoundly reveals the nature of time and space, which reveals the relation the variability of the spatial and temporal variations of time and space, establish a new concept of time and space, sports concept, material concept. This theory has been hailed as one of the greatest achievements in the history of human thought in the twentieth Century. This is a real scientific revolution Einstein's theory of relativity; The most important contribution of Einstein's life is relativity. In 1905, he published an essay entitled "electrodynamic force of a body." The thesis puts forward the principle of special relativity and the principle of invariance of light speed, and establishes the theory of special relativity. This theory treats Newton Mechanics as a special case of low velocity motion theory is included. It reveals the existence of space and time as a form of material existence The unity of quality profoundly reveals the unity of kinematics and electromagnetic motion in kinematics, and further reveals The unity of matter and motion (the quality and energy equivalence), the development of the indivisible principle of matter and motion, and the origin of The theoretical basis for the utilization of quantum energy is established. Then, after many years of hard work, in 1915 he established a broad relative On the other hand, it further reveals the unified relation between the four-dimensional space-time and the matter, and points out that space time can not exist independently from the material, space The structure and properties depend on the distribution of matter; it is not a flat Euclidean space, but a curved Riemann space. root According to general relativity's theory of gravity, he deduced that light travels along a curve in a gravitational field not along a straight line. This theory is beforehand See, in 1919, the British astronomer observed the eclipse, which was a sensation all over the world. One hundred and ninety-three For 8 years, he made significant progress in the movement of general relativity, namely, deriving equations of motion from field equations Further reveals the unity of space-time, matter, motion and gravity. General relativity and the study of gravity theory, 6 Since 0s, attention has been paid to the enormous development of experimental techniques and astronomy. Introduction of Special Relativity All the special theories of relativity are mainly based on Einstein's two hypotheses about the nature of the universe. The first one can state that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference. The only place that is somewhat difficult to understand here is the so-called inertial frame of reference". A few examples can explain clearly: Suppose you're on a plane, and the plane is flying at a constant speed of hundreds of miles per hour, without any turbulence. A man came up from the cabin and said, "throw your bag of peanuts, will you?"" You start with peanut bags, but suddenly stopped, thought: "I was sitting in a plane to a few hundred miles per hour speed on the flight, I used much strength to throw the bag of peanuts, it can at the hands?" No, you don't have to think about it at all. You just need to throw it at the same way (and strength) you did at the airport. The movement of peanuts is the same as when the plane is parked on the ground. You see, if the plane flies in a straight line at a constant speed, the natural law governing the motion of the object is the same as that of the plane at rest. We refer to the interior of the aircraft as an inertial frame of reference. (inertial) originally refers to Newton's first law of motion. Inertia is the property of each object that remains stationary or uniform linear motion when there is no external force. The inertial frame of reference is a series of reference frames established by this law. Another example. Let us examine the earth itself. The circumference of the earth is about 40000 kilometers. Since the earth rotates every 24 hours, a point on the equator of the earth is actually moving eastward at 1600 kilometers per hour. However, I bet Steve Young is going to Jerry Rice (two of them are rugby players). Never worried about the touchdown pass. This is because the earth is moving in approximately uniform linear motion, and the surface of the earth is almost an inertial frame of reference. So its motion has little effect on other objects, and all objects behave as if the earth were at rest. In fact, some phenomena can be very difficult to understand unless we realize the earth is turning. (that is, the earth does not move in a straight line, but in a large circle around the earth's axis) For example, many aspects of the weather appear to be completely against the laws of physics unless we think about it. Another example. The long-range shells do not move in a straight line as they do in the inertial system, But slightly to the right (in the northern hemisphere) or to the left (in the southern hemisphere). (outdoor golfers can not explain your edge ball). For most purposes, we can refer to the earth as an inertial frame of reference. Occasionally, however, its non inertial representation will be very serious (I want to speak a little more closely). Here is a minimum: the inertial system is a system of stationary or linear motion at uniform speed. Einstein's first hypothesis kept all the laws of physics in this line unchanged. Examples of sports planes and the earth's surface are just to explain to you that this is a reasonable assumption that people on average do not want to think about. Who says Einstein is a genius? General relativity Before we begin to read the passage and understand the key features of general relativity, we must assume one thing: special relativity is correct. That is to say, general relativity is based on special relativity. If the latter proved to be wrong, the edifice of the whole theory would collapse. In order to understand general relativity, we must make clear how mass is defined in classical mechanics. Two different expressions of quality: First of all, let's consider what quality represents in daily life. "Is it weight?" In fact, we think quality is something that can be weighed, just as we measure it: we put objects that need to be measured on a scale. What kind of quality do we use in this way? It is the fact that the earth and the object are attracted to each other. This mass is called gravitational mass". What we call gravity is because it determines the operation of all stars and stars in the universe: the gravitational mass of the earth and the sun causes the earth to circle almost round around the latter. Now, try pushing your car on a flat surface. You can't deny that your car is strongly against the acceleration you're going to give it. This is because your car has a very large mass. Moving light objects is easier than moving heavy objects. Quality can also be defined in another way: "it defies acceleration."". This mass is called inertial mass". So we come to the conclusion that we can measure quality in two ways. Or we call it the weight (very simple), or we measure its resistance to acceleration (using Newton's law). Many experiments have been done to measure the mass and gravitational mass of the same body. All the experimental results have come to the same conclusion that the mass of inertia is equal to the mass of gravity. Newton himself realized that the equivalence of this quality was caused by some theory that could not be explained by his theory. But he thinks the result is a simple coincidence. By contrast, Einstein found a path in which Newton theory was replaced by such equality. Daily experience has verified the equivalence of the two objects (a light weight) will fall at the same speed "". Heavy objects, however, are less strongly attracted by the earth than light. So why doesn't it fall faster? Because it is more resistant to acceleration. The conclusion is that the acceleration of an object in a gravitational field has nothing to do with its mass. Galileo was the first to pay attention to this phenomenon. It is important that you understand that all objects in the gravitational field "fall at the same speed" are the result of equal mass of inertia mass and mass of gravity in classical mechanics. Now let's focus on the expression "whereabouts.". The object "falling" is due to the gravitational mass of the earth, which creates the gravitational field of the earth. Two bodies have the same velocity in all the same gravitational field. Whether it is the moon or the sun, they are accelerated at the same rate. That is to say, their speed is the same as in increments per second. (acceleration is an increase in speed per second) The equivalence between gravitational mass and inertial mass is the third hypothesis in Einstein's argument Einstein has been looking for an explanation for the fact that gravitational mass is equal to mass of inertia. To that end, he made the third hypothesis, called the equivalence principle. It states that if an inertial frame is uniformly accelerated relative to a Galilean system, then we can assume that it is stationary by introducing a homogeneous gravitational field relative to it. Let's examine an inertial system, K', which has a uniformly accelerated motion relative to the Galilean system. There are many objects around K and K'. This object is stationary relative to K. So these objects have the same accelerating motion relative to the K'. This acceleration is the same for all objects, and in opposition to the acceleration of the K'relative to the K. We said that in a gravitational field all objects have the same acceleration size, so the effect is equivalent to the fact that K'is stationary and there is a uniform gravitational field. So if we establish the equivalence principle, the mass of the two objects is equal, just a simple corollary of it. This is why quality equivalence is an important argument to support the equivalence principle. By assuming that the K'is stationary and the gravitational field exists, we interpret K' as a Galilean system (so that we can) study the laws of mechanics in it. Thus Einstein established his fourth principles. Einstein fourth hypothesis Einstein's fourth hypothesis is the generalization of his first hypothesis. It can be stated that the laws of nature are the same in all systems. It is undeniable that the laws of nature in all systems are the same. It sounds more natural than that of the laws of nature in the Galilean system". But we do not know (external) whether there is a Galilean system. This principle is called the principle of general relativity" Death elevator Let's imagine an elevator that falls free inside a skyscraper. There's a fool in it. The man let his watch and handkerchief fall at the same time. What will happen? For people outside the elevator, who are on the earth, tables, handkerchiefs, people and elevators are falling at the same rate. Let's go over it: according to the principle of equivalence, the motion of an object in a gravitational field does not depend on its mass So the watch and the floor, the handkerchief and the floor, the man and the table, the distance between the man and the handkerchief, fixed. So for the people in the elevator, the watch and handkerchief will stay where he just threw them. If this person gives his watch or his handkerchief a specific speed, they will move in a straight line at a constant speed. The elevator acts like a Galilean system. However, It won't last forever. Sooner or later the elevator will lift crashed, international observers will attend a funeral accident. Now, let's do second idealized experiments: our elevator was originally from any large mass object. For example, in the depths of the universe. Our last accident escape from the big dumbass. After several years in hospital, he decided to return to the elevator. Suddenly, a creature began dragging the elevator. Classical mechanics tells us that constant force produces constant acceleration. The law is not applicable to very high speed situations. Because the mass of an object increases with the speed. In our experiment, we assume that it is correct As a result, the elevator will have an accelerated motion in the Galileo system. Our genius fool stayed in the elevator and let his handkerchief and watch fall. Outside the elevator, people in the Galileo department thought watches and handkerchiefs would hit the floor. This is because the floor is hit by them (handkerchiefs and watches) because of their acceleration. In fact, people outside the elevator will find that the distance between the watch and the floor and between the handkerchief and the floor is decreasing at the same rate. On the other hand, the elevator man will notice that his watch has the same acceleration as the handkerchief, and he will attribute it to the gravitational field. The two explanations seem to be the same: one is an accelerated motion, the other is a consistent motion and gravitational field. Let's do another experiment to prove the existence of the gravitational field. A beam of light shot through the window on the opposite wall. Our two observers explained this: People outside the elevator tell us: light travels at a constant speed through the window (of course!) Shoot straight into the elevator along a straight line, across the wall. But as the elevator is moving up, the light should be at a slightly lower spot. The man in the elevator said, "we are in the gravitational field.". Since light has no mass, it will not be affected by the gravitational field, and it will fall right at the point at which the incident point is facing. Oh! The problem arises. The observations of the two observers were inconsistent. However, someone in the elevator made a mistake. He said that light has no mass, but the light energy, and energy has a quality (quality that joule energy is: M=E/C2) so the light will have a curved track towards the floor, as an external observer said. Since the mass of the energy is very small (C2 = 300000000 * 300000000), this phenomenon can only be observed near the very strong gravitational field. It has been proved that the light will bend near the sun because of the great mass of the sun. The experiment is the first demonstration of Einstein's Theory (general relativity). From all these experiments, we conclude that by introducing a gravitational field, we can think of an acceleration system as a Galilean system. The extension, we think it is suitable for all sports, whether they are rotating (the centripetal force is interpreted as a gravitational field) or not uniformly accelerated motion (for Riemann (Riemann) does not meet the conditions of gravitational field by mathematical methods to transform). You see, general relativity is consistent with practice.