[教学]宫东风21篇模板讲解

[教学]宫东风21篇模板讲解 21篇模板——(1) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 中心主旨题型 第2题 审题定位与反推题型 第3题 全文归纳推导题型 第4题 写作手法题型 第5题 例(举)证题型 Roger Rosenblatt’s book Black Fiction, in attempting to apply literary rather than sociopolitical criteria to its subject, successfully alters the approach taken by most previous studies. As Rosenblatt notes, criticism of Black writing has often served as a pretext for expounding on Black history. Addison Gayle’s recent work, for example, judges the value of Black fiction by overtly political standards, rating each work according to the notions of Black identity which it propounds. Although fiction assuredly springs from political circumstances, its authors react to those circumstances in ways other than ideological(意识形态=政治), and talking about novels and stories primarily as instruments of ideology circumvents much of the fictional enterprise(成就). Rosenblatt’s literary analysis discloses affinities and connections among works of Black fiction which solely political studies have overlooked or ignored. Writing acceptable criticism of Black fiction, however, presupposes giving satisfactory answers to a number of questions. First of all, is there a sufficient reason, other than the facial identity of the authors, to group together works by Black authors? Second, how does Black fiction make itself distinct from other modern fiction with which it is largely contemporaneous? Rosenblatt shows that Black fiction constitutes a distinct body of writing that has an identifiable, coherent literary tradition. Looking at novels written by Black over the last eighty years, he discovers recurring concerns and designs independent of chronology. These structures are thematic, and they spring, not surprisingly, from the central fact that the Black characters in these novels exist in a predominantly white culture, whether they try to conform to that culture or rebel against it. Black Fiction does leave some aesthetic questions open. Rosenblatt’s thematic analysis permits considerable objectivity; he even explicitly states that it is not his intention to judge the merit of the various works — yet his reluctance seems misplaced, especially since an attempt to appraise might have led to interesting results. For instance, some of the novels appear to be structurally diffuse. Is this a defect, or are the authors working out of, or trying to forge, a different kind of aesthetic? In addition, the style of some Black novels, like Jean Toomer’s Cane, verges on expressionism or surrealism; does this technique provide a counterpoint to the prevalent theme that portrays the fate against which Black heroes are pitted, a theme usually conveyed by more naturalistic modes of expression? In spite of such omissions, what Rosenblatt does include in his discussion makes for an astute and worthwhile study. Black Fiction surveys a wide variety of novels, bringing to our attention in the process some fascinating and little-known works like James Weldon Johnson’s Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man. Its argument is tightly constructed, and its forthright, lucid style exemplifies levelheaded and penetrating criticism. 1. The author of the text is primarily concerned with [A] evaluating the soundness(合理性) of a work of criticism. [B] comparing various critical approaches to a subject. [C] discussing the limitations of a particular kind of criticism. [D] summarizing the major points made in a work of criticism. 2. The author of the text believes that Black Fiction would have been improved had Rosenblatt [A] evaluated more carefully the ideological and historical aspects of Black fiction. [B] attempted to be more objective in his approach to novels and stories by Black authors. [C] explored in greater detail the recurrent thematic concerns of Black fiction throughout its history. [D] assessed the relative literary merit of the novels he analyzes thematically. 3. The author’s discussion of Black Fiction can be best described as [A] pedantic and contentious. [B] critical but admiring. [C] ironic and deprecating. [D] argumentative but unfocused. 4. The author of the text employs all of the following in the discussion of Rosenblatt’s book EXCEPT: [A] rhetorical questions. [B] specific examples. [C] comparison and contrast. [D] definition of terms. 5. The author of the text refers to James Weldon Johnson’s Autobiography of an ExColored Man most probably in order to [A] point out affinities between Rosenblatt’s method of thematic analysis and earlier criticism. [B] clarify the point about expressionistic style made earlier in the passage. [C] qualify the assessment of Rosenblatt’s book made in the first paragraph of the passage. [D] give a specific example of one of the accomplishments of Rosenblatt’s work. 考研英语作文模板，超强～本人已考上研究生，现有考研英语超强作文万能模板，本套模板含四篇，含盖了四大类不同形式，本套模板句型复杂多变，需填文字极少～而且不论考什么题目都能用～保证大作文16，(满分20)不但能使您做文拿个高分，而且节约了大量时间做别的题目～此万能模板决对不同于辅导班的作文，本人也上过辅导班，而且当时同学也上了很多，基本大的辅导班都上了，相信你们已经上过英语辅导班的也都清楚了，那些老师就是能吹，时不时的说我跟命题的有什么什么关系，再就是讲些笑话说点轶闻什么的，根本就没什么收获，花几百块钱还不说，还浪费了我们大量宝贵时光～～那些辅导班冲刺班提供的作文资料不是一大本很厚的书就是只有一些连接词的所谓的作文模板，你们也可问一下学长什么的就知道辅导班的真实情况了～有需要的加 ，价格50,份，绝对超值了～比花几百上个辅导班却没什么效果不知强多少倍～ [参考译文] 罗杰?罗森布莱特的著作《黑人小说》，试图运用文学的而不是社会政治的来研究黑人小说，这 成功地改变了大多数早先研究的方法。如罗森布莱特所注意到的，黑人著作的评论经常被充当为一种阐述黑人历史的借口。例如，阿狄森?盖尔的最新著作，就用了公开的政治标准来判定黑人小说的价值，按照作品中所提出的黑人个体的各观念对每个作品进行评价。 虽然小说确实是源于政治环境，但作者反映这些环境的方法是非意识形态的，如把小说和故事的讨论作为意识形态的工具，则会忽视了许多小说的成就。罗森?布莱特对黑人文学的分析揭示了黑人小说著作间的密切关系和联系，而纯粹政治研究中忽视了这些联系。 然而写出为人所接受的黑人小说评论的前提是要对许多问题做出令人满意的回答。首先，除了这些作家的种族身份外，是否有充分的理由可将黑人作家的作品归于一类,其次，黑人小说如何将自己和其他现代小说分开,它们大半属于同一时代的作品。罗森布莱特的研究阐明了黑人小说已构成了一个与众不同的作品群体，它们具有可识别的、连贯的文学传统。着眼于最近八十年黑人创作的小说，罗森布莱特揭示了小说中与时代无关而反复出现的侧重点和布局。这些结构与主题相关，并不让人感到惊奇的是，它们源于这样一个中心事实，即小说中的黑人生存在一个白人文化支配的环境中，不管他们试图迎合这一文化还是反叛这一文化。 《黑人小说》确实对一些美学的问题没有给予回答，罗森布莱特的主题分析允许相当的客观性;他甚至直言，对各个作品的优劣判定不是他工作的意图——然而他的犹豫看起来是不合时宜的，尤其是因为尝试评定可能会导致一些有趣的结果。例如，一些小说所显示的结构散漫冗长。这是否是一个缺陷，或者是作者这样做是出于一种美学考虑，还是作者试图创造一种不同类的美学,另外，象金?图莫的《手杖》那样的黑人小说风格，近于表现主义和超现实主义;难道这个技巧只是用更自然主义的表现方式为表达流行的黑人英勇反抗命运的主题提供一个对应物吗, 尽管存在这些遗漏，罗森布莱特所做的包括他的讨论，已包括了足以构成精明而有价值的研究内容。《黑人小说》考察了广泛的小说，在此过程中我们的注意力被吸引到一些引人入胜但鲜为人知的作品上，如詹姆士?威尔顿?约翰逊的《一个曾是有色人的自传》。这本书的主题结构紧密，直率、明晰的风格例示了一种冷静而敏锐的文学评论。 考研英语作文模板，超强～本人已考上研究生，现有考研英语超强作文万能模板，本套模板含四篇，含盖了四大类不同形式，本套模板句型复杂多变，需填文字极少～而且不论考什么题目都能用～保证大作文16，(满分20)不但能使您做文拿个高分，而且节约了大量时间做别的题目～此万能模板决对不同于辅导班的作文，本人也上过辅导班，而且当时同学也上了很多，基本大的辅导班都上了，相信你们已经上过英语辅导班的也都清楚了，那些老师就是能吹，时不时的说我跟命题的有什么什么关系，再就是讲些笑话说点轶闻什么的，根本就没什么收获，花几百块钱还不说，还浪费了我们大量宝贵时光～～那些辅导班冲刺班提供的作文资料不是一大本很厚的书就是只有一些连接词的所谓的作文模板，你们也可问一下学长什么的就知道辅导班的真实情况了～有需要的加 ，价格50,份，绝对超值了～比花几百上个辅导班却没什么效果不知强多少倍～ 21篇模板——(2) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 中心主旨题型 第2题 例(举)证与细节理解题型 第3题 细节理解题型 第4题 审题定位题型 第5题 归纳推导题型 Proponents of different jazz styles have always argued that their predecessor’s musical style did not include essential characteristics that define jazz as jazz. Thus, 1940’s swing was belittled by beboppers of the 1950’s who were themselves attacked by free jazzes of the 1960’s. The neoboppers of the 1980’s and 1990’s attacked almost everybody else. The titanic figure of Black saxophonist John Coltrane has complicated the arguments made by proponents of styles from bebop through neobop because in his own musical journey he drew from all those styles. His influence on all types of jazz was immeasurable. At the height of his popularity, Coltrane largely abandoned playing bebop, the style that had brought him fame, to explore the outer reaches of jazz. Coltrane himself probably believed that the only essential characteristic of jazz was improvisation, the one constant in his journey from bebop to open-ended improvisations on modal, Indian, and African melodies. On the other hand, this dogged student and prodigious technician — who insisted on spending hours each day practicing scales from theory books — was never able to jettison completely the influence of bebop, with its fast and elaborate chains of notes and ornaments on melody. Two stylistic characteristics shaped the way Coltrane played the tenor saxophone: he favored playing fast runs of notes built on a melody and depended on heavy, regularly accented beats. The first led Coltrane to “sheets of sound” where he raced faster and faster, pile-driving notes into each other to suggest stacked harmonies. The second meant that his sense of rhythm was almost as close to rock as to bebop. Three recordings illustrate Coltrane’s energizing explorations. Recording Kind of Blue with Miles Davis, Coltrane found himself outside bop, exploring modal melodies. Here he played surging, lengthy solos built largely around repeated motifs — an organizing principle unlike that of free jazz saxophone player Ornette Coleman, who modulated or altered melodies in his solos. On Giant Steps, Coltrane debuted as leader, introducing his own compositions. Here the sheets of sound, downbeat accents, repetitions, and great speed are part of each solo, and the variety of the shapes of his phrases is unique. Coltrane’s searching explorations produced solid achievement. My Favorite Things was another kind of watershed. Here Coltrane played the soprano saxophone, an instrument seldom used by jazz musicians. Musically, the results were astounding. With the soprano’s piping sound, ideas that had sounded dark and brooding acquired a feeling of giddy fantasy. When Coltrane began recording for the Impulse! Label, he was still searching. His music became raucous, physical. His influence on rockers was enormous, including Jimi Hendrix, the rock guitarist, who, following Coltrane, raised the extended guitar solo using repeated motifs to a kind of rock art form. 1. The primary purpose of the text is to [A] discuss the place of Coltrane in the world of jazz and describe his musical explorations. [B] examine the nature of bebop and contrast it with improvisational jazz. [C] analyze the musical sources of Coltrane’s style and their influence on his work. [D] acknowledge the influence of Coltrane’s music on rock music and rock musicians. 2. Which of the following best describes the organization of the fourth paragraph? [A] A thesis referred to earlier in the text is mentioned and illustrated with three specific examples. [B] A thesis is stated and three examples are given each suggesting that a correction needs to be made to a thesis referred to earlier in the text. [C] A thesis referred to earlier in the text is mentioned, and three examples are presented and ranked in order of their support of the thesis. [D] A thesis is stated, three seemingly opposing examples are presented, and their underlying correspondence is explained. 3. According to the text, John Coltrane did all of the following during his career EXCEPT [A] improvise on melodies from a number of different cultures. [B] perform as leader as well as soloist. [C] spend time improving his technical skills. [D] eliminate the influence of bebop on his own music. 4. According to the text a major difference between Coltrane and other jazz musicians was the [A] degree to which Coltrane’s music encompassed all of jazz. [B] repetition of motifs that Coltrane used in his solos. [C] number of his own compositions that Coltrane recorded. [D] indifference Coltrane maintained to musical technique. 5. In terms of its tone and form, the text can best be characterized as [A] dogmatic explanation. [B] indignant denial. [C] enthusiastic praise. [D] speculative study. [参考译文] 不同的爵士乐风格的支持者一贯认为他们前辈的音乐风格没有包括那些使爵士乐之所以成为爵士乐的本质特征。这样，二十世纪五十年代的比波普派轻视二十世纪四十年代的摇摆音乐派，而他们自己又受到二十世纪六十年代的自由爵士派的抨击。二十世纪八十至九十年代的新比波普派几乎对任何其他人都进行抨击。而黑人萨克斯管巨匠约翰?科尔特兰尼使这些从比波普派到新比波普派的支持者所提出的主张更加复杂化，因为在他自己的音乐例程中，他经历了所有这些风格。他对所有爵士音乐的风格的影响是不可估量的。在他最受欢迎的时期，科尔特兰尼基本上放弃了比波普风格的演奏以便探索爵士乐更深的处延，然而正是比波普风格的演奏使得他成名。 科尔特兰尼自己可能认为爵士乐的唯一本质特征就是即兴创作，这是他从比波普风格到对形式音乐、印度音乐、非洲音乐的自由即兴演奏的历程中一直没有改变的。另一方面，这个顽强的学生和异常的技巧家每天花几个小时用以练习理论书籍上的曲谱，从未能完全抛弃比波普的影响，在他的旋律中可以找到带有比波普特点的快速和精细的音符以及修饰效果。 有两种风格特征影响了科尔特兰尼演奏男高音萨克斯管的方式:他喜欢对建立于一种旋律上的音符进行快速的演奏，同时也依赖于强有力的、有规律的重音节奏。前者引导科尔特兰尼走向“片状声响”的境界，在那里科尔特兰尼的演奏越来越快，将音符成堆互相累放起来以表达一种堆叠起来的和谐感。而后者意味着，他的节奏感之接近于摇滚乐几乎就像其接近于比波普风格一样。 三张唱片为科尔特兰尼富有活力的探索提供了证明。和马尔斯?戴维斯合作录制《有几分忧伤》时，科尔特兰尼发现他已离开了波普风格，对形式音乐进行探索。在这中间，他演奏那些跌宕起伏的冗长的独奏，而这些独奏基本上是围绕着一个重复主题展开的。该种主题是用以组织其音乐的原则，它和自由派爵士乐萨克斯管演奏家奥尼迪?科尔曼采用的组织方式不同。后面这位音乐家在他的独奏中会对其旋律进行调节改变。在《大踏步》中，科尔特兰尼初次以领导者角色出现，对他自己的作品进行了介绍。在这中间，“片状声响”、强拍重音、重复回旋和极快的速度组成了每一段独奏的各个部分，各乐章的形式的多样性是独一无二的。科尔特兰尼深刻的探索获得了稳固的成就。《我的钟爱之物》是另一种意义上的分水岭。在这里，科尔特兰尼演奏了爵士乐演奏家很少使用的女高音萨克斯管，所产生的音乐上的效果是惊人的。伴随着女高音萨克斯管的尖音，那些显得昏暗及带有沉思意味的主题获得了一种令人眼花缭乱的梦幻感觉。 当科尔特兰尼开始为冲动唱片公司进行音乐录制时，他仍然在探索。他的音乐变得沙哑而感性。摇滚乐手受到他的巨大影响，其中包括吉米?亨德瑞克斯这位吉它手。后者仿效科尔特兰尼，使基于重复主题的大段吉他独奏上升成为一种摇滚艺术形式。 21篇模板——(3) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 中心主旨题型 第2题 反推题型 第3题 细节归纳推导题型 第4题 中心主旨题型 第5题 细节推导题型 Many objects in daily use have clearly been influenced by science, but their form and function, their dimensions and appearance, were determined by technologists, artisans, designers, inventors, and engineers — using nonscientific modes of thought. Many features and qualities of the objects that a technologist thinks about cannot be reduced to unambiguous verbal descriptions; they are dealt with in the mind by a visual, nonverbal process. In the development of Western technology, it has been nonverbal thinking, by and large, that has fixed the outlines and filled in the details of our material surroundings. Pyramids, cathedrals, and rockets exist not because of geometry or thermodynamics, but because they were first a picture in the minds of those who built them. The creative shaping process of a technologist’s mind can be seen in nearly every artifact that exists. For example, in designing a diesel engine, a technologist might impress individual ways of nonverbal thinking on the machine by continually using an intuitive sense of rightness and fitness. What would be the shape of the combustion chamber? Where should be valves be placed? Should it have a long or short piston? Such questions ve a range of answers that are supplied by experience, by physical requirements, by limitations of available ha space, and not least by a sense of form. Some decisions such as wall thickness and pin diameter, may depend on scientific calculations, but the nonscientific component of design remains primary. Design courses, then, should be an essential element in engineering curricula. Nonverbal thinking, a central mechanism in engineering design, involves perceptions, the stock-in-trade of the artist, not the scientist. Because perceptive processes are not assumed to entail “hard thinking,” nonverbal thought is sometimes seen as a primitive stage in the development of cognitive processes and inferior to verbal or mathematical thought. But it is paradoxical that when the staff of the Historic American Engineering Record wished to have drawings made of machines and isometric views of industrial processes for its historical record of American engineering, the only college students with the requisite abilities were not engineering students, but rather students attending architectural schools. If courses in design, which in a strongly analytical engineering curriculum provide the background required for practical problem-solving, are not provided, we can expect to encounter silly but costly errors occurring in advanced engineering systems. For example, early models of high-speed railroad cars loaded with sophisticated controls were unable to operate in a snowstorm because a fan sucked snow into the electrical system. Absurd random failures that plague automatic control systems are not merely trivial aberrations; they are a reflection of the chaos that results when design is assumed to be primarily a problem in mathematics. 1. In the text, the author is primarily concerned with [A] identifying the kinds of thinking that are used by technologists. [B] stressing the importance of nonverbal thinking in engineering design. [C] proposing a new role for nonscientific thinking in the development of technology. [D] contrasting the goals of engineers with those of technologists. 2. It can be inferred that the author thinks engineering curricula are [A] strengthened when they include courses in design. [B] weakened by the substitution of physical science courses for courses designed to develop mathematical skills. [C] strong because nonverbal thinking is still emphasized by most of the courses. [D] strong despite the errors that graduates of such curricula have made in the development of automatic control systems. 3. Which of the following statements best illustrates the main point of the first two paragraphs of the text? [A] When a machine like a rotary engine malfunctions, it is the technologist who is best equipped to repair it. [B] Each component of an automobile — for example, the engine or the fuel tank — has a shape that has been scientifically determined to be best suited to that component’s function. [C] A telephone is a complex instrument designed by technologists using only nonverbal thought. [D] The distinctive features of a suspension bridge reflect its designer’s conceptualization as well as the physical requirements of its site. 4. Which of the following statements would best serve as an introduction to the text? [A] The assumption that the knowledge incorporated in technological developments must be derived from science ignores the many nonscientific decisions made by technologists. [B] Analytical thought is no longer a vital component in the success of technological development. [C] As knowledge of technology has increased, the tendency has been to lose sight of the important role played by scientific thought in making decisions about form, arrangement, and texture. [D] A movement in engineering colleges toward a technician’s degree reflects a demand for graduates who have the nonverbal reasoning ability that was once common among engineers. 5. The author calls the predicament faced by the Historic American Engineering Record “paradoxical” (line 6, paragraph 3) most probably because [A] the publication needed drawings that its own staff could not make. [B] architectural schools offered but did not require engineering design courses for their students. [C] college students were qualified to make the drawings while practicing engineers were not. [D] engineering students were not trained to make the type of drawings needed to record the development of their own discipline. [参考译文] 许多日常使用的事物明显受到了科学的影响，但它们的形状和功能，它们的大小和外观，是由工艺人 员、工匠、设计师、发明家和工程师运用非科学思维模式来设计的。工艺人员所考虑物体的很多性质和特 点不能归结到毫不模糊的字面描述;在思维中，它们以一种视觉上的、非言语的方式被加以处理。在西方 科技的发展过程中，大体上是由非言语思维刻画了我们物质环境的轮廓并充实了其中的细节。金字塔、大 教堂、火箭之所以存在，不是因为几何学或热力学的原因，而是因为在它们的制造者的头脑中事先存在了 这样一幅画面。 在几乎每一件现存的人造制品身上都能看出工艺人员思维创造性的制作过程。比如说，在柴油发动机 的设计中，通过不断使用关于合适感和适当感的直观，一个工艺人员得以用他个人的非语言思维来影 响到机器本身。燃烧室的形状应怎样,阀门应该放在哪里,它应该有个长的活塞还是应该有个短的,这样 的问题有着由经验、物理需要、可用空间的局限以及并非微不足道的形状感等因素提供的一系列答案。某 一些决定，比如壁厚和销钉直径，可能需要由科学的计算来定夺，但设计中的非科学成分仍然是主要的。 因此设计课程应该成为工程课程中的基本成份。非语言思维，这一工程设计的核心机制，包括了感受 这一属于艺术家的而非科学家的惯用手段。因为人们认为感受的过程不需要“硬思维”，非语言思维被视为 认知过程发展的一个原始阶段而且比语言和数学思维差。但令人感到自相矛盾的是，当《美国工程历史名 录》的工作人员希望得到为其美国工程历史记录而绘制的机器图和等比例图时，唯一具有所需技能的大学 生不是工程学大学生，而是就读于建筑学院的大学生。 如果不能开设设计课程(它能在一个高度分析性工程学课程体系中提供解决实际问题的背景知识)， 我们就会在先进的工程系统中遇到愚蠢而同时会导致极大损失的错误。比如，装载了精密控制设备的早期 高速铁路车辆模型不能在暴风雪中正常运行，原因是一个风扇将雪吸入到电子系统中。干扰着自动控制系 统的荒唐的随机故障不是轻微的失常;它们是一种混乱的反映，人们认为这种混乱主要在设计数学方面的 问题时就会产生。 21篇模板——(4) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 中心主旨题型 第2题 细节推导题型 第3题 审题定位与中心主旨题型 第4题 归纳推导题型 第5题 写作手法题型 As Gilbert White, Darwin, and others observed long ago, all species appear to have the innate capacity to increase their numbers from generation to generation. The task for ecologists is to untangle the environmental and biological factors that hold this intrinsic capacity for population growth in check over the long run. The great variety of dynamic behaviors exhibited by different population makes this task more difficult: some populations remain roughly constant from year to year; others exhibit regular cycles of abundance and scarcity; still others vary wildly, with outbreaks and crashes that are in some cases plainly correlated with the weather, and in other cases not. To impose some order on this kaleidoscope of patterns, one school of thought proposes dividing populations into two groups. These ecologists posit that the relatively steady populations have “density-dependent” growth parameters; that is, rates of birth, death, and migration which depend strongly on population density. The highly varying populations have “density-independent” growth parameters, with vital rates buffeted by environmental events; these rates fluctuate in a way that is wholly independent of population density. This dichotomy has its uses, but it can cause problems if taken too literally. For one thing, no population can be driven entirely by density-independent factors all the time. No matter how severely or unpredictably birth, death, and migration rates may be fluctuating around their long-term averages, if there were no density-dependent effects, the population would, in the long run, either increase or decrease without bound (barring a miracle by which gains and losses canceled exactly). Put another way, it may be that on average 99 percent of all deaths in a population arise from density-independent causes, and only one percent from factors varying with density. The factors making up the one percent may seem unimportant, and their cause may be correspondingly hard to determine. Yet, whether recognized or not, they will usually determine the long-term average population density. In order to understand the nature of the ecologist’s investigation, we may think of the density-dependent effects on growth parameters as the “signal” ecologists are trying to isolate and interpret, one that tends to make the population increase from relatively low values or decrease from relatively high ones, while the density-independent effects act to produce “noise” in the population dynamics. For populations that remain relatively constant, or that oscillate around repeated cycles, the signal can be fairly easily characterized and its effects described, even though the causative biological mechanism may remain unknown. For irregularly fluctuating populations, we are likely to have too few observations to have any hope of extracting the signal from the overwhelming noise. But it now seems clear that all populations are regulated by a mixture of density-dependent and density-independent effects in varying proportions. 1. The author of the text is primarily concerned with [A] discussing two categories of factors that control population growth and assessing their relative importance. [B] describing how growth rates in natural populations fluctuate over time and explaining why these changes occur. [C] proposing a hypothesis concerning population size and suggesting ways to test it. [D] posing a fundamental question about environmental factors in population growth and presenting some currently accepted answer. 2. It can be inferred from the text that the author considers the dichotomy discussed to be [A] applicable only to erratically fluctuating populations. [B] instrumental, but only if its limitations are recognized. [C] dangerously misleading in most circumstances. [D] a complete and sufficient way to account for observed phenomena. 3. According to the text, all of the following behaviors have been exhibited by different populations EXCEPT [A] roughly constant population levels from year to year. [B] regular cycles of increases and decreases in numbers. [C] erratic increases in numbers correlated with the weather. [D] unchecked increases in numbers over many generations. 4.The discussion concerning population in the third paragraph serves primarily to [A] demonstrate the difficulties ecologists face in studying density-dependent factors limiting population growth. [B] advocate more rigorous study of density-dependent factors in population growth. [C] prove that the death rates of any population are never entirely density-independent. [D] underline the importance of even small density-dependent factors in regulating long-term population densities. 4. In the text, the author does all of the following EXCEPT [A] cite the views of other biologists. [B] define a basic problem that the text addresses. [C] present conceptual categories used by other biologists. [D] describe the results of a particular study. [参考译文] 正如吉尔伯特?怀特、达尔文以及其它科学家很久以前观察的那样，所有的物种都具有一种天生的能力来一代一代地增加它们种群的数量。生态学家的使命就是调查清楚环境和生态因素长期以来是如何控制这种致使种群增长的内在能力的。由于不同种群所表现出来的动态行为是如此多样化，致使这项任务显得非常困难:有些种群长期以来大致保持不变;有些表现出周期性的繁荣和稀少;而还有些变化非常大，时而暴增，时而锐减，这种增减有时显然与气候有关，而有时又与气候无关。 为了赋予这些千变万化的模式一种规律，科学家中的一种流派提出将所有种群划分为两类。这部分生态学家假设:那些相对稳定的种群具有和“种群密度相关”的增长参数;也就是说，这些种群的出生率、死亡率以及迁徙规律都大大地依赖于种群的密度。那些变化很大的种群具有“种群密度无关”的增长参数，其生存率随环境因素的变化而变化，并且以一种完全独立于种群密度的方式进行波动。 这种二分法有它的用途，但如果死板地应用也会引发一些问题。一方面，没有任何种群在所有的时间里完全只受“种群密度无关”因素的影响。无论出生、死亡率以及迁徙规律相对于长期的平均值的变化是如何的剧烈和不可预测，如果没有种群密度无关因素，从长远来看，这个种群的数量将无限地增加或减少(从而阻碍了得失正好相消的奇迹的发生)。换一句话讲，也许种群内平均99%的死亡都由“种群密度无关”因素导致的，只有1%由随种群密度变化而变化的因素所导致。导致这1%的因素也许看起来并不重要，而且它们的影响也相应地很难确定。但是，无论认识到或没有认识到，它们都将对该种群密度长期的平均值起决定作用。 为了能够理解生态学家们研究的性质，我们可以把种群密度相关对增长参数的影响视为一种“信号”，生态学家试图分离并解释这些“信号”，这种“信号”将使种群中个体数量从相对低的数值增长或从相对高的数值减少，同时，密度无关因素将作为一种“噪音”来影响种群的动态变化。对于那些数量保持相对不变，或者以一种循环周期进行摆动的种群而言，这种“信号”将会相当容易提取特征并描述它的影响，即使我们仍不知道作为原因的生物机制。对那些变化不规则的种群，我们可能因为观察太小而无法从繁多的“噪音”中提取那一信号。但是，现在显得很清楚的是，所有种群都受“种群密度相关”和“种群密度无关”两类因素在不同程度上的共同制约。 考研英语作文模板，超强～本人已考上研究生，现有考研英语超强作文万能模板，本套模板含四篇，含盖了四大类不同形式，本套模板句型复杂多变，需填文字极少～而且不论考什么题目都能用～保证大作文16，(满分20)不但能使您做文拿个高分，而且节约了大量时间做别的题目～此万能模板决对不同于辅导班的作文，本人也上过辅导班，而且当时同学也上了很多，基本大的辅导班都上了，相信你们已经上过英语辅导班的也都清楚了，那些老师就是能吹，时不时的说我跟命题的有什么什么关系，再就是讲些笑话说点轶闻什么的，根本就没什么收获，花几百块钱还不说，还浪费了我们大量宝贵时光～～那些辅导班冲刺班提供的作文资料不是一大本很厚的书就是只有一些连接词的所谓的作文模板，你们也可问一下学长什么的就知道辅导班的真实情况了～有需要的加 ，价格50,份，绝对超值了～比花几百上个辅导班却没什么效果不知强多少倍～ 21篇模板——(5) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 归纳推导题型 第2题 句间关系题型 第3题 审题定位题型 第4题 审题定位题型 第5题 段落结构题型 The majority of successful senior managers do not closely follow the classical rational model of first clarifying goals, assessing the problem, formulating options, estimating likelihoods of success, making a decision, and only then taking action to implement the decision. Rather, in their day-by-day tactical maneuvers, these senior executives rely on what is vaguely termed “intuition” to manage a network of interrelated problems that require them to deal with ambiguity, inconsistency, novelty, and surprise; and to integrate action into the process of thinking. Generations of writers on management have recognized that some practicing managers rely heavily on intuition. In general, however, such writers display a poor grasp of what intuition is. Some see it as the opposite of rationality; others view it as an excuse for capriciousness. Isenberg’s recent research on the cognitive processes of senior managers reveals that managers’ intuition is neither of these. Rather, senior managers use intuition in at least five distinct ways. First, they intuitively sense when a problem exists. Second, managers rely on intuition to perform well-learned behavior patterns rapidly. This intuition is not arbitrary or irrational, but is based on years of painstaking practice and hands-on experience that build skills. A third function of intuition is to synthesize isolated bits of data and practice into an integrated picture, en in an “Aha!” experience. Fourth, some managers use intuition as a check on the results of more rational oft analysis. Most senior executives are familiar with the formal decision analysis models and tools, and those who use such systematic methods for reaching decisions are occasionally leery of solutions suggested by these methods which run counter to their sense of the correct course of action. Finally, managers can use intuition to bypass in-depth analysis and move rapidly to engender a plausible solution. Used in this way, intuition is an almost instantaneous cognitive process in which a manager recognizes familiar patterns. One of the implications of the intuitive style of executive management is that “thinking” is inseparable from acting. Since managers often “know” what is right before they can analyze and explain it, they frequently act first and explain later. Analysis is inextricably tied to action in thinking/acting cycles, in which managers develop thoughts about their companies and organizations not by analyzing a problematic situation and then acting, but by acting and analyzing in close concert. Given the great uncertainty of many of the management issues that they face, senior managers often instigate a course of action simply to learn more about an issue. They then use the results of the action to develop a more complete understanding of the issue. One implication of thinking/acting cycles is that action is often part of defining the problem, not just of implementing the solution. 1. According to the text, senior managers use intuition in all of the following ways EXCEPT to [A] speed up of the creation of a solution to a problem. [B] identify a problem. [C] bring together disparate facts. [D] stipulate clear goals. 2. The text suggests which of the following about the “writers on management” mentioned in line 1, paragraph 2? [A] They have criticized managers for not following the classical rational model of decision analysis. [B] They have not based their analyses on a sufficiently large sample of actual managers. [C] They have relied in drawing their conclusions on what managers say rather than on what managers do. [D] They have misunderstood how managers use intuition in making business decisions. 3. It can be inferred from the text that which of the following would most probably be one major difference in behavior between Manager X, who uses intuition to reach decisions, and Manager Y, who uses only formal decision analysis? [A] Manager X analyzes first and then acts; Manager Y does not. [B] Manager X checks possible solutions to a problem by systematic analysis; Manager Y does not. [C] Manager X takes action in order to arrive at the solution to a problem; Manager Y does not. [D] Manager Y draws on years of hands-on experience in creating a solution to a problem; Manager X does not. 4. The text provides support for which of the following statements? [A] Managers who rely on intuition are more successful than those who rely on formal decision analysis. [B] Managers cannot justify their intuitive decisions. [C] Managers’ intuition works contrary to their rational and analytical skills. [D] Intuition enables managers to employ their practical experience more efficiently. 5. Which of the following best describes the organization of the first paragraph of the text? [A] An assertion is made and a specific supporting example is given. [B] A conventional model is dismissed and an alternative introduced. [C] The results of recent research are introduced and summarized. [D] Two opposing points of view are presented and evaluated. [参考译文] 大部分成功的高层管理人员并不拘泥于传统的推理模式，即:首先确定目标，然后估定问题，摆出各 种可能性，估计成功率，再做决定，最后才付诸行动去实施。相反，在这些人的日常决策过程中，他们靠 一种定义模糊的“直觉”应付大量相关问题，这些问题使他们必须在一堆含糊不清，自相矛盾，奇特无比 或者令人惊异的事物中做抉择，而且在考虑过程中就要有相应的行动。 管理学作品的写作者早就注意到了实践当中一些管理者对直觉依赖很强。不过总的来说，这些写作者 未曾表达出什么叫做直觉。有些人将其视作理性的对立面，还有人认为它是反复无常的(做法、性格)的 一个借口。 Isenberg最近对高层管理人员认知过程的研究揭示了管理者的直觉并不是上述的任何一种情况。高层 管理者是在五个不同的方面使用直觉。首先，他们直觉地感到有问题存在。第二，依靠直觉，管理者们能 很快表现出有教养的行为方式。这种直觉并不是任意，非理性的，而是在多年实践磨练，和亲身体验培养 出的技能的基础上形成。第三，直觉把一些零散的数据和实际情况组合为一个完整画面，这经常表现为一 声“Aha”式的体验。第四，有些管理者也应用直觉来检验更理性化分析的结果。大部分高层管理人员熟 知传统的决策分析模式和工具，那些使用这些正式的系统化方法做出决定的人经常会对一种情况保持警惕， 那就是有时此方法得出的结论和他们对正确行为的感觉不符。最后，管理者可通过直觉绕开深奥的分析而 快速产生一个可能的解决办法。这么使用时，直觉几乎是一个瞬间的思维过程，这一模式为管理者所熟悉。 这些管理者用直觉方式的一个特点是“思考”和行动不能分开。由于(在这种方式中)管理者在分析 和解释问题之前就已经“明白”应该怎么去做，他们经常是先行动，后解释。在思考—行动的循环中，分 析是必不可少的。在这其中管理者们不是靠分析他们面对的形势来思考其公司、组织的情况，而是行动和 分析在高度一致地进行。 由于管理者们经常面对许多不确定的情况，他们鼓励采取各种行动来对问题作一番深入了解。他们藉 此对问题做出更深的体会。这种思考行为循环的一个特点即:行动是确定问题的一部分，而不只是解决问 题的步骤。 21篇模板——(6) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 审题定位题型 第2题 细节理解题型 第3题 归纳推导题型 第4题 细节理解题型 第5题 审题定位题型 Bernard Bailyn has recently reinterpreted the early history of the United States by applying new social research findings on the experiences of European migrants. In his reinterpretation, migration becomes the organizing principle for rewriting the history of preindustrial North America. His approach rests on four separate propositions. The first of these asserts that residents of early modern England moved regularly about their countryside; migrating to the New World was simply a “natural spillover”. Although at first the colonies held little positive attraction for the English — they would rather have stayed home — by the eighteenth century people increasingly migrated to America because they regarded it as the land of opportunity. Secondly, Bailyn holds that, contrary to the notion that used to flourish in America history textbooks, there was never a typical New World community. For example, the economic and demographic character of early New England towns varied considerably. Bailyn’s third proposition suggest two general patterns prevailing among the many thousands of migrants: one group came as indentured servants, another came to acquire land. Surprisingly, Bailyn suggests that those who recruited indentured servants were the driving forces of transatlantic migration. These colonial entrepreneurs helped determine the social character of people who came to preindustrial North America. At first, thousands of unskilled laborers were recruited; by the 1730’s, however, American employers demanded skilled artisans. Finally, Bailyn argues that the colonies were a half-civilized hinterland of the European culture system. He is undoubtedly correct to insist that the colonies were part of an Anglo-American empire. But to divide the empire into English core and colonial periphery, as Bailyn does, devalues the achievements of colonial culture. It is true, as Bailyn claims, that high culture in the colonies never matched that in England. But what of seventeenth-century New England, where the settlers created effective laws, built a distinguished university, and published books? Bailyn might respond that New England was exceptional. However, the ideas and institutions developed by New England Puritans had powerful effects on North American culture. Although Bailyn goes on to apply his approach to some thousands of indentured servants who migrated just prior to the revolution, he fails to link their experience with the political development of the United States. Evidence presented in his work suggests how we might make such a connection. These indentured servants were treated as slaves for the period during which they had sold their time to American employers. It is not surprising that as soon as they served their time they passed up good wages in the cities and headed west to ensure their personal independence by acquiring land. Thus, it is in the west that a peculiarly American political culture began, among colonists who were suspicious of authority and intensely anti-aristocratic. 1. Which of the following statements about migrants to colonial North America is supported by information in the text? [A] A larger percentage of migrants to colonial North America came as indentured servants than as free agents interested in acquiring land. [B] Migrants who came to the colonies as indentured servants were more successful at making a livelihood than were farmers and artisans. [C] Migrants to colonial North America were more successful at acquiring their own land during the eighteenth century than during the seventeenth century. [D] By the 1730’s, migrants already skilled in a trade were in more demand by American employers than were unskilled laborers. 2. The author of the text states that Bailyn failed to [A] give sufficient emphasis to the cultural and political interdependence of the colonies and England. [B] describe carefully how migrants of different ethnic backgrounds preserved their culture in the United States. [C] take advantage of social research on the experiences of colonists who migrated to colonial North America specifically to acquire land. [D] relate the experience of the migrants to the political values that eventually shaped the character of the United States. 3. Which of the following best summarizes the author’s evaluation of Bailyn’s fourth proposition? [A] It is totally implausible. [B] It is partially acceptable. [C] It is highly admirable. [D] It is controversial though persuasive. 4. According to the text, Bailyn and the author agree on which of the following statements about the culture of colonial New England? [A] High culture in New England never equaled the high culture of England. [B] The cultural achievements of colonial New England have generally been unrecognized by historians. [C] The colonists imitated the high culture of England, and did not develop a culture that was uniquely their own. [D] The southern colonies were greatly influenced by the high culture of New England. 5. The author of the text would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements about Bailyn’s work? [A] Bailyn underestimates the effects of Puritan thought on North American culture. [B] Bailyn overemphasizes the economic dependence of the colonies on Great Britain. [C] Bailyn’s description of the colonies as part of an Anglo-American empire is misleading and incorrect. [D] Bailyn failed to test his propositions on a specific group of migrants to colonial North America. [参考译文] Bernard Bailyn最近通过运用关于欧洲移民经历的新的社会研究成果重新解释了美国的早期历史。在他的重新解释中，迁徙成了重写北美前工业化历史的重要依据。其主张可分为四个独立的观点。 第一点断言，近代早期的英国居民经常在乡下流动，因此后来他们迁移到新大陆仅仅是一种“自然外流”。虽然最初时殖民地对英国人没有多少正面的诱惑力——他们宁愿留在本土。到18世纪时，移往美洲的人数却增加了，因为他们将那儿看作是充满机遇的地方。第二，Bailyn认为，和以往美国历史教材中惯用的观念相反，从来就没有过一个典型的新大陆社会，例如，早期新英格兰城镇中的经济和人口特点就很不相同。 Bailyn的第三个观点是，成千上万的移民中最常见的是两种普遍类型:一组是签约的仆人，另一组是为土地而来。令人惊异的是:Bailyn认为那些征召签约仆人的人是这种跨越大西洋移民迁徙的推动力。这些殖民地的企业主帮助那些来到前工业化北美社会的人确定其社会属性。起初，成千上万未受过培训的劳动力被征召，然而到了18世纪30年代，美洲雇主开始需求技术熟练的技工。 第四，Bailyn提出，殖民地是欧洲文化体系的半开化内地。在坚持殖民地是盎格鲁—美利坚帝国的一部分这一点上，他无疑是正确的。但是像Bailyn这样，把帝国划分为英国核心和殖民地外围，就贬低了殖民地文化的成就。确实，如Bailyn所说，殖民地的高雅文化不能和英国本土的相比。但是如何看待17世纪的新英格兰呢,移民者在这儿制定了有效的法律，创建了著名的大学，出版了书籍。Bailyn可能会说，新英格兰是个特例。不过，新英格兰清教徒的思想和组织机构对北美文化有着深远的影响。 尽管Bailyn不断关注着数万名刚好在革命前夕迁移过来的签约仆人，但他没能把这些人的经历与美国的政治发展结合起来。他的书中有证据表明，我们本来可以建立这样一种联系。在出卖给美洲雇主的时间里，这些签约仆人被看作是奴隶。毫不奇怪，一旦他们服役期满，就会放弃城市里的高薪而走向西部，通过获得土地来保障个人独立。因此，一种特殊的美国政治文化开始于西部，那些怀疑权威和强烈反对贵族统治的移民者之中。 21篇模板——(7) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 例(举)证题型 第2题 细节推导题型 第3题 细节推导题型 第4题 写作手法题型 第5题 审题定位与关键词理解题型 Historians have only recently begun to note the increase in demand for luxury goods and services that took place in eighteenth-century England. McKendrick has explored the Wedgwood firm’s remarkable success in marketing luxury pottery; Plumb has written about the proliferation of provincial theater, musical festivals, and children’s toys and books. While the fact of this consumer revolution is hardly in doubt, three key questions remain: Who were the consumers? What were their motives? And what were the effects of the new demand for luxuries? An answer to the first of these has been difficult to obtain. Although it has been possible to infer from the goods and services actually produced what manufacturers and servicing trades thought their customers wanted, only a study of relevant personal documents written by actual consumers will provide a precise picture of who wanted what. We still need to know how large this consumer market was and how far down the social scale the consumer demand for luxury goods penetrated. With regard to this last question, we might note in passing that Thompson, while rightly restoring laboring people to the stage of eighteenth-century English history, has probably exaggerated the opposition of these people to the inroads of capitalist consumerism in general; for example, laboring people in eighteenth-century England readily shifted from home-brewed beer to standardized beer produced by huge, heavily capitalized urban breweries. To answer the question of why consumers became so eager to buy, some historians have pointed to the ability of manufacturers to advertise in a relatively uncensored press. This, however, hardly seems a sufficient answer. Mckendrick favors a Veblem model of conspicuous consumption stimulated by competition for status. The “middling sort” bought goods and services because they wanted to follow fashions set by the rich. Again, we may wonder whether this explanation is sufficient. Do not people enjoy buying things as a form of self-gratification? If so, consumerism could be seen as a product of the rise of new concepts of individualism and materialism, but not necessarily of the frenzy for conspicuous competition. Finally, what were the consequences of this consumer demand for luxuries? McKendrick claims that it goes a long way toward explaining the coming of the Industrial Revolution. But does it? What, for example, does the production of high-quality pottery and toys have to do with the development of iron manufacture or textile mills? It is perfectly possible to have the psychology and reality of a consumer society without a heavy industrial sector. That future exploration of these key questions is undoubtedly necessary should not, however, diminish the force of the conclusion of recent studies: the insatiable demand in eighteenth-century England for frivolous as well as useful goods and services foreshadows our own world. 1. In the first paragraph, the author mentions McKendrick and Plumb most probably in order to [A] contrast their views on the subject of luxury consumerism in eighteenth-century England. [B] indicate the inadequacy of historiographical approaches to eighteenth-century English history. [C] give examples of historians who have helped to establish the fact of growing consumerism in eighteenth-century England. [D] support the contention that key questions about eighteenth-century consumerism remain to be answered. 2. Which of the following items, if preserved from eighteenth-century England, would provide an example of the kind of documents mentioned in lines 3-4, paragraph 2? [A] A written agreement between a supplier of raw materials and a supplier of luxury goods. [B] A diary that mentions luxury goods and services purchased by its author. [C] A theater ticket stamped with the date and name of a particular play. [D] A payroll record from a company that produced luxury goods such as pottery. 3. According to the text, Thompson attributes to laboring people in eighteenth-century England which of the following attitudes toward capitalist consumerism? [A] Enthusiasm. [B] Curiosity. [C] Ambivalence. [D] Hostility. In the third paragraph, the author is primarily concerned with 4. [A] contrasting two theses and offering a compromise. [B] questioning two explanations and proposing a possible alternative to them. [C] paraphrasing the work of two historians and questioning their assumptions. [D] examining two theories and endorsing one over the other. 5. According to the text, eighteenth-century England and the contemporary world of the text readers are [A] dissimilar in the extent to which luxury consumerism could be said to be widespread among the social classes. [B] dissimilar in their definitions of luxury goods and services. [C] dissimilar in the extent to which luxury goods could be said to be stimulant of industrial development. [D] similar in their strong demand for a variety of goods and services. [参考译文] 直到最近，史学家们才发现在十八世纪的英国，对豪华奢侈商品和服务的需求出现增长的现象。麦克德瑞克研究了韦奇伍德公司在营销豪华陶制品方面的极大成功;而普拉姆也著文论述了地方剧院、音乐节目以及儿童玩具和书籍激增的情形。尽管这场消费者革命的事实几乎毋庸置疑，但仍有三个关键的问题尚待解决:消费者是些什么人,他们的动机是什么,以及这种对奢侈品的新需求的社会影响是什么, 关于第一问题的答案是很难获得的。尽管它可能从制造商和服务行业认为消费者想要什么而实际制造的商品和提供的服务中推知，但只有对实际消费者的相关私人资料的研究才能提供一种“谁想要什么”的精确状况。我们仍然需要知道这种消费市场到底有多大，以及消费者对奢侈商品的需求向下渗透到社会的什么层次。对最后一个问题而言，我们应当注意到，在过去，汤姆逊虽然正确恢复了劳动人民在十八世纪英国历史舞台上的地位，但整体而言可能夸大了他们对资本主义消费方式侵蚀的抵抗情绪。例如，十八世纪英国的劳动人民迅速从家酿的啤酒转而饮用由那些大规模、高度资本化的城市酿酒厂生产的标准化啤酒。 为了回答消费者为什么变得那么急于购物这一问题，一些史学家指出，这是因为制造商们可以在无需审查的报刊上刊登广告。然而，这似乎并不是个理由充分的答案。麦克德瑞克赞成维布伦模型，即由社会地位的竞争而引起的一种引人注目的消费。“中产阶级”购买优质商品和服务，是因为他们想追随由富人建立的消费时尚。我们可能再次怀疑这种解释是否充足。难道人们喜爱购物不是一种自我满足的形式吗,如果是这样，那么上述消费主义可以被看做是一种个人主义和物质主义新兴概念的产物，而不一定是疯狂进行引人注目的竞争的结果。 最后，这种消费者对奢侈品的需求所导致的后果又是什么呢,麦克德瑞克声称，这将极为有助于解释工业革命的到来。但事实果真如此吗,例如，高质量的陶制品和玩具与钢铁制造和纺织工厂的发展有什么关系呢,即使没有重工业的存在，消费社会在心理上和现实上都是完全可能存在的。 然而，对这些关键问题的进一步探究毫无疑问是需要的，而且不应当减弱近期研究所得结论的说服力:十八世纪英国对那些有用和琐碎商品及服务的不知足的需求预示了我们目前的这个世界的特征。 21篇模板——(8) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 中心主旨题型 第2题 段落关系题型 第3题 审题定位题型 第4题 句间关系与反推题型 第5题 审题定位题型 One of the simplest and best known kinds of crystal is the ionic salt, of which a typical example is sodium chloride, or ordinary table salt. The fundamental components of an ionic salt are ions: atoms or molecules that have become electrically charged by gaining or losing one more electrons. In forming sodium chloride, for example, sodium atoms give up an electron (thereby becoming positively charged) and chlorine atoms gain an electron (thereby becoming negatively charged). The ions are attracted to one another by their opposite charges, and they stack together compactly, like tightly packed spheres. Recently, scientists at Michigan State University created a new kind of crystal called an electride. In electrides, the anions (negative ions) are completely replaced by electrons, which are trapped in naturally formed cavities within a framework of regularly stacked cations (positive ions). Electrides are the first examples of ionic salts in which all these anionic sites are occupied solely by electrons. Unlike other types of anions, anionic electrons do not behave as if they were simple charged spheres. In particular, because of their low mass and their tendency to interact with one another over great distances, they cannot be “pinned down” to any one location. Instead, they wander close to and among the atoms lining the cavity and interact with electrons in nearby cavities, perhaps changing places with them. The properties of an electride depend largely on the distance between the cavities that hold trapped electrons. When the trapped electrons are far apart, they do not interact strongly, and so behave somewhat like an array of isolated negative charges. When they are closer together, they begin to display properties associated with large ensembles of identical particles. When they are still closer, the ensemble properties dominate and the electrons “delocalize”: they are no longer tightly bound within individual cavities but are more or less free to pass through the spaces within the framework of positive ions. By synthesizing electrides from a variety of materials, one can vary the geometry of the anionic cavities and their relation to the surrounding cations. The resulting properties may make it possible for electrides to become a basis for economically useful new materials and devices. For instance, because the electrons in some electrides are very weakly bound, these crystals could be effective as photosensitive detectors, in which an impinging photon liberates an electron, resulting in a small electric current. The same weak binding could also make electrides useful in solar energy converters and as cathodes in batteries. One obstacle is the tendency of electrides to decompose through reaction with air and water. Researchers are seeking ways to increase their stability. 1. The text is primarily concerned with discussing [A] a way to isolate electrons. [B] the characteristics of a new kind of crystal. [C] the structure of an ionic salt. [D] commercial uses for electrides. 2. In the first paragraph, the author is primarily concerned with [A] introducing a variant on the standard atomic theory. [B] describing how chlorine atoms can become negatively charged. [C] describing some early research at Michigan State University. [D] providing background for the technical discussion to follow. 3. According to the text, the defining characteristic of an electride is which of the following? [A] Its positive are of particularly low mass. [B] Its ions possess identical electrical charges. [C] It contains a framework of regularly stacked ions. [D] Its negative ions consist solely of electrons. 4. It can be inferred from the text that anions behaving as “simple charged spheres” (line 2, paragraph 3) could be expected to [A] readily lose electrons and become positively charged. [B] move freely in and out of their cavities. [C] respond to photons by liberating electrons. [D] remain fixed relative to their cations. 5. With which of the following statements regarding electrides would the author most likely agree? [A] They have proven themselves to be of great commercial value. [B] Their future commercial value is promising but uncertain. [C] They are interesting but of no practical value. [D] They have commercial value mainly in solar energy applications. [参考译文] 在各种最简单和最常见的晶体中，离子盐是其中一例，它典型的实例就是氯化钠，或普通的食盐。离子盐的基本组成成份便是离子，也就是那些由于得到或失去一个或多个电子而带有电荷的原子或分子。例如，在形成氯化钠的过程中，钠原子释放一个电子(从而带有正电荷)而氯电子得到一个电子(从而带有负电荷)。这些离子由于带有相反的电荷而相互吸引，它们紧密地堆砌在一起就象紧密挤压在一起的球体。 最近，密西根州立大学的科学家们研制出一种新的被称为电子晶体的晶体。在电子晶体中，阴离子(即带负电荷的离子)全部被电子替代，这些电子被困在自然形成的空穴中，而空穴位于规则堆砌的阳离子(即带正电荷的离子)的框架内。电子晶体是第一种阴离子空间全被电子占据的离子盐。 和其它类型的阴离子不同，作为阴离子的电子不像那些简单的带电球体。特别地，由于它们的质量很小而且有与远距离的离子进行相互作用的倾向，它们不会被固定在任何一个位置。相反，它们会到处游离，或者紧靠那些在空穴边上的原子，或者在这些原子之间游离，并且还和附近空中的电子发生相互作用，甚至于可能与它们交换位置。 电子晶体的特征很大程度上依赖于空穴间的距离，而这些空穴便是容纳被捕获电子的地方。当这些被捕获的电子相距很远时，它们之间的相互作用不强，因而在某种程度上表现为一组相互孤立的负电荷。但当它们间的距离很近时，它们便表现出一些特征来，很像大量相同离子的集合。当它们间的距离更近时，群体集合属性更占主导地位，而且电子也出现“离位”现象:它们不再被束缚于单个的空穴之上，而是或多或少地可以在正离子的构架之间穿越。 通过从不同的材料来合成电子晶体，科学家们可以改变阴离子空穴的几何结构，以及改变它们同周围阴离子之间的关系。这些随之而来的特征使得电子晶体可能成为经济实用的新材料和新设备的基础。例如，由于在某些电子晶体中，电子结合得非常微弱，从而使得这些晶体可以有效地用作光敏探测器。在这种探测器中，一束光子可以释放一个电子，从而形成一股小电流。这种结合微弱的特性同样可使电子晶体对太 阳能转换器和电池的阴极很有用。可电子晶体的一个缺陷在于它易于与空气和水发生反应而分解。目前， 研究人员正设法寻找提高电子晶体稳定性的方法。 21篇模板——(9) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 审题定位题型 第2题 句间关系题型 第3题 审题定位题型 第4题 归纳推导题型 第5题 段落结构题型 The fossil remains of the first flying vertebrates, the pterosaurs, have intrigued paleontologists for more than two centuries. How such large creatures, which weighed in some cases as much as a piloted hang-glider and had wingspans from 8 to 12 meters, solved the problems of powered flight, and exactly what these creatures were — reptiles or birds — are among the questions scientists have puzzled over. Perhaps the least controversial assertion about the pterosaurs is that they were reptiles. Their skulls, pelvises, and hind feet are reptilian. The anatomy of their wings suggests that they did not evolve into the class of birds. In pterosaurs a greatly elongated fourth finger of each forelimb supported a winglike membrane. The other fingers were short and reptilian, with sharpclaws. In birds the second finger is the principal strut of the wing, which consists primarily of feathers. If the pterosaurs walked on all fours, the three short fingers may have been employed for grasping. When a pterosaur walked or remained stationary, the fourth finger, and with it the wing, could only turn upward in an extended inverted V shape along each side of the animal’s body. The pterosaurs resembled both birds and bats in their overall structure and proportions. This is not surprising because the design of any flying vertebrate is subject to aerodynamic constraints. Both the pterosaurs and the birds have hollow bones, a feature that represents a savings in weight. In the birds, however, these bones are reinforced more massively by internal struts. Although scales typically cover reptiles, the pterosaurs probably had hairy coats. T. H. Huxley reasoned that flying vertebrates must have been warm-blooded because flying implies a high rate of metabolism, which in turn implies a high internal temperature. Huxley speculated that a coat of hair would insulate against loss of body heat and might streamline the body to reduce drag in flight. The recent discovery of a pterosaur specimen covered in long, dense, and relatively thick hairlike fossil material was the first clear evidence that his reasoning was correct. Efforts to explain how the pterosaurs became airborne have led to suggestions that they launched themselves by jumping from cliffs, by dropping from trees, or even by rising into light winds from the crests of waves. Each hypothesis has its difficulties. The first wrongly assumes that the pterosaurs’ hind feet resembled a bat’s and could serve as hooks by which the animal could hang in preparation for flight. The second hypothesis seems unlikely because large pterosaurs could not have landed in trees without damaging their wings. The third calls for high waves to channel updrafts. The wind that made such waves however, might have been too strong for the pterosaurs to control their flight once airborne. 1. It can be inferred from the text that scientist now generally agree that the [A] enormous wingspan of the pterosaurs enabled them to fly great distances. [B] structure of the skeleton of the pterosaurs suggests a close evolutionary relationship to bats. [C] fossil remains of the pterosaurs reveal how they solved the problem of powered flight. [D] pterosaurs were reptiles. 2. The author views the idea that the pterosaurs became airborne by rising into light winds created by waves as [A] revolutionary. [B] unlikely. [C] unassailable. [D] probable. 3. According to the text, the skeleton of a pterosaur can be distinguished from that of a bird by the [A] size of its wingspan. [B] presence of hollow spaces in its bones. [C] anatomic origin of its wing strut. [D] presence of hooklike projections on its hind feet. 4. The ideas attributed to T. H. Huxley in the text suggest that he would most likely agree with which of the following statements? [A] An animal’s brain size has little bearing on its ability to master complex behaviors. [B] An animal’s appearance is often influenced by environmental requirements and physical capabilities. [C] Animals within a given family group are unlikely to change their appearance dramatically over a period of time. [D] The origin of flight in vertebrates was an accidental development rather than the outcome of specialization or adaptation. 5. Which of the following best describes the organization of the last paragraph of the text? [A] New evidence is introduced to support a traditional point of view. [B] Three explanations for a phenomenon are presented and each is disputed by means of specific information. [C] Three hypotheses are outlined and evidence supporting each is given. [D] Recent discoveries are described and their implications for future study are projected. [参考译文] 第一批会飞的脊椎动物——翼龙的化石，已经让古生物学家感兴趣达两个多世纪了。这种有时和大型 滑翔机一样重，而且翅膀展开达8—12米宽的庞然大物是如何克服飞行时的重力，以及这种生物到底是属 于鸟类还是爬行动物，对科学家们来讲仍旧是个谜。 可能，最少引起争论的意见就是翼龙是爬行动物。它们的头盖骨、骨盆以及后腿都是爬行动物类型。 对它们翅膀的解剖学研究证明它们尚未进化为鸟。翼龙每个前肢的大大延长的第四指支撑一个翅膀状的薄 膜，其它指头小，而且是典型的爬行动物式，有尖爪。而鸟类的第二指进化成为翅膀的主要支架，翅膀也 主要是羽毛构成的。当翼龙四肢爬行时，其它指可以用来抓取。而当它行走或不动时，第四指，连同翅膀， 只能向上伸展，在身体两侧呈倒转的V字型。 翼龙和鸟类以及蝙蝠在总体结构及比例上很相似。这并不奇怪，因为任何飞翔脊椎动物都要受空气动 力的约束。翼龙和鸟都有中空的骨头，这是为了节省重量。不过在鸟类中，这种骨头受内部支柱影响，重 量大大增加。 尽管爬行动物通常全身鳞片，翼龙却可能拥有毛发。赫胥黎对此解释说，飞翔脊椎动物肯定已经是热 血动物，因为飞翔要求一个高新陈代谢率，后者要求一个较高的体温。赫氏设想一层毛发覆盖物可以隔绝 身体热量的损失，从而使身体在减轻飞行重量方面更为有效。最近一些有又长又密且厚的毛发的翼龙化石 的发现，终于明白无误地证明赫氏的观点是对的。 解释翼龙怎样起飞的努力产生以下设想:它们从悬崖上起跳，或从树上起跳或者甚至从浪尖上伴轻风 飞起。每种假设都有缺陷。第一种错误地设想翼龙的后爪象蝙蝠一样，钩子似的挂着为飞行做准备。第二 种看来也不可能，因为大型翼龙不可能降在树上而不伤害它们的翅膀。第三种假设必须要有高浪来形成上 升气流才能实现。然而，能产生此种大浪的风可能对翼龙来说过于猛烈，以至于它一旦升空，就无法控制 自己。 21篇模板——(10) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 中心主旨题型 第2题 细节推导题型 第3题 句间关系题型 第4题 审题定位题型 第5题 细节推导题型 Archaeology as a profession faces two major problems. First, it is the poorest of the poor. Only paltry sums are available for excavating and even less is available for publishing the results and preserving the sites once excavated. Yet archaeologists deal with priceless objects every day. Second, there is the problem of illegal excavation, resulting in museum-quality pieces being sold to the highest bidder. I would like to make an outrageous suggestion that would at one stroke provide funds for archaeology and reduce the amount of illegal digging. I would propose that scientific archeological expeditions and governmental authorities sell excavated artifacts on the open market. Such sales would provide substantial funds for the excavation and preservation of archaeological sites and the publication of results. At the same time, they would break the illegal excavator’s grip on the market, thereby decreasing the inducement to engage in illegal activities. You might object that professionals excavate to acquire knowledge, not money. Moreover, ancient artifacts are part of our global cultural heritage, which should be available for all to appreciate, not sold to the highest bidder. I agree. Sell nothing that has unique artistic merit or scientific value. But, you might reply, everything that comes out of the ground has scientific value. Here we part company. Theoretically, you may be correct in claiming that every artifact has potential scientific value. Practically, you are wrong. I refer to the thousands of pottery vessels and ancient lamps that are essentially duplicates of one another. In one small excavation in Cyprus, archaeologists recently uncovered 2,000 virtually indistinguishable small jugs in a single courtyard. Even precious royal seal impressions known as melekh handles have been found in abundance — more than 4,000 examples so far. The basements of museums are simply not large enough to store the artifacts that are likely to be discovered in the future. There is not enough money even to catalogue the finds; as a result, they cannot be found again and become as inaccessible as if they had never been discovered. Indeed, with the help of a computer, sold artifacts could be more accessible than are the pieces stored in bulging museum basements. Prior to sale, each could be photographed and the list of the purchasers could be maintained on the computer. A purchaser could even be required to agree to return the piece if it should become needed for scientific purposes. It would be unrealistic to suggest that illegal digging would stop if artifacts were sold on the open market. But the demand for the clandestine product would be substantially reduced. Who would want an unmarked pot when another was available whose provenance was known, and that was dated stratigraphically by the professional archaeologist who excavated it? 1. The primary purpose of the text is to propose [A] an alternative to museum display of artifacts. [B] a way to curb illegal digging while benefiting the archaeological profession. [C] a way to distinguish artifacts with scientific value from those that have no such value. [D] the governmental regulation of archaeological sites. 2. Which of the following is mentioned in the text as a disadvantage of storing artifacts in museum basements? [A] Museum officials rarely allow scholars access to such artifacts. [B] Space that could be better used for display is taken up for storage. [C] Artifacts discovered in one excavation often become separated from each other. [D] Such artifacts’ often remain uncatalogued and thus cannot be located once they are put in storage. 3. The author mentions the excavation in Cyprus (line 2, paragraph 4) to emphasize which of the following points? [A] Ancient lamps and pottery vessels are less valuable, although more rare, than royal seal impressions. [B] Artifacts that are very similar to each other present cataloguing difficulties to archaeologists. [C] Artifacts that are not uniquely valuable, and therefore could be sold, are available in large quantities. [D] Cyprus is the most important location for unearthing large quantities of salable artifacts. 4. The author’s argument concerning the effect of the official sale of duplicate artifacts on illegal excavation is based on which of the following assumptions? [A] Prospective purchasers would prefer to buy authenticated artifacts. [B] The price of illegally excavated artifacts would rise. [C] Computers could be used to trace sold artifacts. [D] Illegal excavators would be forced to sell only duplicate artifacts. 5. The author anticipates which of the following initial denials of his proposal? [A] Museum officials will become unwilling to store artifacts. [B] An oversupply of salable artifacts will result and the demand for them will fall. [C] Artifacts that would have been displayed in public places will be sold to private collectors. [D] Illegal excavators will have an even larger supply of artifacts for resale. [参考译文] 考古学作为一门专业面临两个主要问题。首先，它是穷穷行业中最穷的。只有微不足道的一些资金用 来发掘，而可供出版研究成果和保护已发掘遗址的资金就更为可怜。可是考古学家们每天是在和无价之宝 打交道。第二，有非法盗掘现象，造成了有收藏价值的文物流入出高价者手中。 我的一个或许不合道德的想法，却可以一举为考古发现提供资金和减少非法盗掘现象，我建议，科学 考古队或政府部门可以公开出售发掘的文物。这种出售将为考古发掘、文物保存以及成果出版提供充足的 资金。同时，还能斩断非法挖掘者对市场的垄断，从而消减这一非法行当对人们的诱惑力。 你或许会提出反对:职业考古是为了求知，而不是赚钱。而且，古代文物是全人类文化遗产的一部分， 应该留给所有的人来欣赏，而不是要给出高价的人。这我同意。应该卖那些没有独特的艺术、科学价值的 文物。不过，你可能会回应说，所有从地里出土的文物都是有科学价值的。这就是我们的不合之处了。理 论上说，你认为所有文物都有潜在的科学价值是正确的，实际上，你是错的。 我这么说指的是成千上万的古代陶器、灯具之类，它们基本上是同一个模子的复制品。塞浦路斯的一 次小型发掘中，考古学家新近发现了一个庭院中有2000件实际上无法区分的小水罐。就是很珍贵的王室御 玺的护柄也很多见——多于4000件。 博物馆储存室绝对不够放置那些将来还会发现的大量文物。甚至没有足够的钱把它们分门别类;结果， 它们常会不易查找，难以再让人接触，好像从不曾被发掘出来。实际上，在计算机的帮助下，已售出的文 物比藏在博物馆拥挤不堪的储存室中的反而更容易查找到。出售之前，每样文物可被拍照，买主的资料输 入计算机。如果已被卖的文物需要用于科学目的，还可以要求买主将它们归还。 如果设想公开出售文物后，非法开掘会停止，那是不切实际。但是，对来历不明的产品的需求将下降。 如果有一件来源清晰，并被发现它的专业考古学家用地层分析法确定年代的文物存在，谁还会去买一个毫 无标志的水罐呢, 21篇模板——(11) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 中心主旨题型 第2题 审题定位题型 第3题 审题定位题型 第4题 标点符号题型 第5题 写作手法题型 Traditionally, the study of history has had fixed boundaries and focal points — periods, countries, dramatic events, and great leaders. It also has had clear and firm notions of scholarly procedure: how one inquires into a historical problem, how one presents and documents one’s findings, what constitutes admissible and adequate proof. Anyone who has followed recent historical literature can testify to the revolution that is taking place in historical studies. The currently fashionable subjects come directly from the sociology catalog: childhood, work, leisure. The new subjects are accompanied by new methods. Where history once was primarily narrative, it is now entirely analytic. The old questions “What happened?” and “How did it happen?” have given way to the question “Why did it happen?” Prominent among the methods used to answer the question “Why” is psychoanalysis, and its use has given rise to psychohistory. Psychohistory does not merely use psychological explanations in historical contexts. Historians have always used such explanations when they were appropriate and when there was sufficient evidence for them. But this pragmatic use of psychology is not what psychohistorians intend. They are committed, not just to psychology in general, but to Freudian psychoanalysis. This commitment precludes a commitment to history as historians have always understood it. Psychohistory derives its “facts” not from history, the detailed records of events and their consequences, but from psychoanalysis of the individuals who made history, and deduces its theories not from this or that instance in their lives, but from a view of human nature that transcends history. It denies the basic criterion of historical evidence: that evidence be publicly accessible to, and therefore assessable by, all historians. And it violates the basic tenet of historical method: that historians be alert to the negative instances that would refute their theses. Psychohistorians, convinced of the absolute rightness of their own theories, are also convinced that theirs is the “deepest” explanation of any event, that other explanations fall short of the truth. Psychohistory is not content to violate the discipline of history (in the sense of the proper mode of studying and writing about the past); it also violates the past itself. It denies to the past an integrity and will of its own, in which people acted out of a variety of motives and in which events had a multiplicity of causes and effects. It imposes upon the past the same determinism that it imposes upon the present, thus robbing people and events of their individuality and of their complexity. Instead of respecting the particularity of the past, it assimilates all events, past and present, into a single deterministic schema that is presumed to be true at all times and in all circumstances. 1. Which of the following best states the main point of the text? [A] The approach of psychohistorians to historical study is currently in vogue even though it lacks the rigor and verifiability of traditional historical method. [B] Traditional historians can benefit from studying the techniques and findings of psychohistorians. [C] Areas of sociological study such as childhood and work are of little interest to traditional historians. [D] The psychological assessment of an individual’s behavior and attitudes is more informative than the details of his or her daily life. 2. The author mentions which of the following as a characteristic of the practice of psychohistorians? [A] The lives of historical figures are presented in episodic rather than narrative form. [B] Archives used by psychohistorians to gather material are not accessible to other scholars. [C] Past and current events are all placed within the same deterministic diagram. [D] Events in the adult life of a historical figure are seen to be more consequential than are those in the childhood of the figure. 3. The author of the text suggests that psychohistorians view history primarily as [A] a report of events, causes, and effects that is generally accepted by historians but which is, for the most part, unverifiable. [B] an episodic account that lacks cohesion because records of the role of childhood, work, and leisure in the lives of historical figures are rare. [C] an uncharted sea of seemingly unexplainable events that have meaning only when examined as discrete units. [D] a record the way in which a closed set of immutable psychological laws seems to have shaped events. 4. The author of the text puts the word “deepest” (line 14, paragraph 3) in quotation marks most probably in order to [A] signal her reservations about the accuracy of psychohistorians’ claims for their work. [B] draw attention to a contradiction in the psychohistorians’ method. [C] emphasize the major difference between the traditional historians’ method and that of psychohistorians. [D] disassociate her opinion of the psychohistorians’ claims from her opinion of their method. 5. In presenting her analysis, the author does all of the following EXCEPT. [A] Make general statements without reference to specific examples. [B] Describe some of the criteria employed by traditional historians. [C] Question the adequacy of the psychohistorians’ interpretation of events. [D] Point out inconsistencies in the psychohistorians’ application of their methods. [参考译文] 传统上，历史研究具有固定的界限和焦点——时期、国家、引人注目的事件，和伟大的领袖。在学术 过程上的观念也非常清晰和坚定:研究者是如何探究历史问题的，他们是如何展示他们的发现并归纳成文 档的，有什么令人信服的足够的证据。 凡是注意最近的历史文献的人都能证明在历史研究上正在发生一场革命。目前最流行的题材直接来源 于社会学领域:儿童时代，工作，休闲。伴随着新的题材的是新的研究方法。过去的历史主要是叙述性的， 现在则完全变成分析性的了。过去的问题是“发生了什么,”和“怎么发生的,”，现在它们则让位给了“为 什么会发生,”。在用来回答“为什么”这一问题的方法中，最突出的是心理分析，而对这种方法的使用则 导致了心理历史学的兴起。 心理历史学并不仅仅在历史环境下使用心理解释。过去，历史学家也总是在适当并有足够证据支持的 时候使用这样的解释。但这种对心理学的实用主义的应用并不是心理历史学家所希望的。他们通常不只局 限于心理学，而是要使用弗洛伊德的心理分析。这样，就同过去历史学家所理解的历史大相径庭了。心理 历史学不是从历史，从事件的详细记录和它们的前因后果中来获取“事实”，而是对造成历史的个人进行心 理分析，从中获取“事实”;不是从这些创造历史的人物一生的这个或那个实例中演绎出理论，而是从超越 历史的人类本性的角度来推导理论。它否定关于历史证据的基本标准，即:这些证据应该是公众能够了解 的，因此，也就是所有历史学家都能够了解的。它还违反了历史学方法的基本原则:历史学家要警惕能够 驳倒他们的论题的反面事例。心理历史学家，则相信他们的理论绝对正确，而且确信他们的理论是对任何 事件的“最深刻”的解释，而其它的解释都远离真实。 心理历史学家并不满足于破坏历史学的规范(在正确研究和书写过去的意义上);它还要破坏过去本 身。它否定过去是一个整体并有自身的发展规律，人们在这个整体中出于各种不同的动机行事，事件的发 生是由多种原因和影响共同造成的。它把决定当前情况的决定论强加给过去，这就剥夺了人和事件的独特 性和复杂性。它不是尊重过去的特殊性，而是把过去和现在的所有事件都吸收到一个单一的决定论模式中， 假设这个模式在任意时间和任意环境中都是正确的。 21篇模板——(12) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 审题定位题型 第2题 细节推导题型 第3题 句间关系题型 第4题 细节推导题型 第5题 题型 The complications frequently accompanying diabetes, such as impairment of vision and of kidney function, are now thought to result from the lack of continuous control of blood glucose concentrations. The healthy pancreas, in response to increases in blood glucose concentration, releases small quantities of insulin throughout the day and thereby maintains the concentration within physiological limits (nomoglycemia). But the diabetic generally receives only one large dose daily. The diabetic’s blood glucose concentration can thus fluctuate greatly during the interval between doses, and it has been suggested that the complication result from the periods of high concentrations of blood glucose (hyperglycemia). Many investigators thus believe that restoration of normoglycemia might halt the progression of such complications and perhaps even reverse them. There are three primary techniques that have been investigated for restoration of normoglycemia. They are: transplantation of whole, healthy pancreases; transplantation of islets of Langerthan, that portion of the pancreas that actually secretes insulin, and implantation of artificial pancreases. There has, in fact been a great deal of success in the development of these techniques and each seems, on the whole, promising. Nonetheless, it will undoubtedly be many years before any one of them is accepted as a treatment for diabetes. To many people, the obvious approach would seem to be simply to transplant pancreases from cadavers in the same manner that kidneys and other organs are routinely transplanted. That was the rationale in 1966 when the first recorded pancreas was performed. Between 1960 and 1975, there were forty-six pancreas transplants in forty-five other patients in the United States and five other countries. But only one of these patients is still alive with a functioning graft and surgeons have found that the procedure is not simple as they once thought. The surviving patient has required no insulin since the operation. Another patient survived 638 days without requiring insulin. And one patient survived a transplantation for more than a year, but died when he chose not to take immunosuppressive drugs. These results, though meager, suggest that the procedure has the potential for success. The rest of the patients, however, either rejected the transplant or died within a short period. There does not appear to be any technical problem with the procedure. Rather, most of the patients were already so severely debilitated by the complications of diabetes that they could not withstand the surgery and the immunosuppressive regimen required to prevent rejection. More than half of the patients, furthermore, also required a kidney transplant. Most investigators now agree that the simultaneous transplantation of both organs is too great a shock to the patient and greatly increases the total risk. 1. Which of the following best states one of the main conclusions of the text? [A] Although the techniques for pancreas transplants appear to be theoretically correct, there are problems that must be solved before the operation can be used as a treatment for diabetes. [B] Although the techniques for pancreas transplants are still being developed, the experimental results show that the operation will be a successful treatment for diabetes in the near future. [C] Although pancreas transplants are reliable, many diabetics are reluctant to undergo the operation because of the side effects of immunosuppressive drugs. [D] Although pancreas transplants alone are not generally successful, the operation can be used in conjunction with other procedures to treat diabetes. 2. According to the text, widely spaced doses of insulin can cause [A] reversal of normal kidney function. [B] delay in the onset of diabetes. [C] radical changes in the concentration of blood glucose. [D] restoration of normoglycemia. 3. According to the text, a periodic high concentration of blood glucose in diabetics is a possible cause of [A] deterioration of the pancreas. [B] damage to the eyes and kidneys. [C] rejection of transplanted organs. [D] inadequate secretion of insulin. 4. It can be inferred from the text that one of the important contributing causes of the failure of most pancreas transplants has been the [A] reluctance of patients to cooperate with physicians. [B] imperfect techniques used in the operation. [C] scarcity of immunosuppressive drugs. [D] weakened condition of the patients. 5. The text suggests that the author considers the data concerning the success of pancreas transplants to be [A] invalid. [B] indirect. [C] inaccurate. [D] insufficient. [参考译文] 通常与糖尿病相伴的并发症，如视力和肾功能的损害，现在被认为是由于无法连续控制血液中的葡萄糖浓度所导致的。健康的胰脏，在血糖浓度增加时，会在整个白天不断地释放出少量的胰岛素，从而使血糖浓度维持在生理限度之内(正常血糖量)。但是糖尿病患者一般是每天得到一次大剂量胰岛素的注射。这样在两次注射之间，糖尿病患者的血糖浓度会发生很大波动，而且目前已被指出，并发症可能就是源于这些高血糖浓度时期(高血糖)。因此，许多研究人员相信，恢复正常的血糖浓度或许能阻止这些并发症的发展，并进而可能减轻并发症。 为了恢复正常的血糖浓度，已对三种主要的技术进行了研究。它们分别是:健康胰脏的整个移植;胰岛部分的移植，胰岛是胰腺中实际分泌胰岛素的部分;以及人造腺的移植。事实上，这些技术的发展都获得了成功，而且从整体上讲，每种技术都大有希望。然而，毫无疑问地，在任何一种技术被接受用作糖尿病患者的治疗手段之前，还会有很多年的时间。 对多数人而言，显而易见的方法看来可能是从尸体中移植胰腺，就象移植肾脏和其它器官那样。这便是1966年第一例胰腺移植手术的理论基础。在1966年至1975年间，在美国和另外五个国家，共有45名其它病人进行了46例胰腺移植手术。但目前，只有其中一个病人尚在人世，而且移植的胰腺功能健全。因此，手术医生们发现，手术过程并不像他们先前想象的那么简单。 幸存的病人从那次手术之后不再需要注射胰岛素。另一个病人在不需要注射胰岛素的情况下活了638天。还有一名病人在移植之后存活了一年，但他决定不服用免疫药物之后就死去了。这些结果，尽管为数不多，可也表明了手术过程有潜在成功的可能。 然而，其余的病人或者出现排异反应，或者在很短一段时期后死去。在手术过程中，看起来是不存在任何技术问题的。不过，大多数的病人都由于糖尿病的并发病已经很衰弱，以至于无法经受手术和为防止排异反应所需的免疫抑制疗程。另外，一大半病人还需要进行肾脏移植。目前，多数研究人员都认为同时移植两个器官对病人自身系统影响太大，而且极大地增加了整体的风险。 21篇模板——(13) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 中心主旨题型 第2题 反推题型 第3题 关键词语题型 第4题 反论题型 第5题 关键词语题型 Recent years have brought minority-owned businesses in the United States unprecedented opportunities — as well as new and significant risks. Civil rights activists have long argued that one of the principal reasons why Blacks, Hispanics, and other minority groups have difficulty establishing themselves in business is that they lack access to the sizable orders and subcontracts that are generated by large companies. Now Congress, in apparent agreement, has required by law that businesses awarded federal contracts of more than $500,000 do their best to find minority subcontractors and record their efforts to do so on forms filed with the government. Indeed, some federal and local agencies have gone so far as to set specific percentage goals for apportioning parts of public works contracts to minority enterprises. Corporate response appears to have been substantial. According to figures collected in 1977, the total of corporate contracts with minority businesses rose from $77 million in 1972 to $1.1 billion in 1977. The projected total of corporate contracts with minority businesses for the early 1980’s is estimated to be over 53 billion per year with no letup anticipated in the next decade. Promising as it is for minority businesses, this increased patronage poses dangers for them, too. First, minority firms risk expanding too fast and overextending themselves financially, since most are small concerns and, unlike large businesses, they often need to make substantial investments in new plants, staff, equipment, and the like in order to perform work subcontracted to them. If, thereafter, their subcontracts are for some reason reduced, such firms can face potentially crippling fixed expenses. The world of corporate purchasing can be frustrating for small entrepreneurs who get requests for elaborate formal estimates and bids. Both consume valuable time and resources, and a small company’s efforts must soon result in orders, or both the morale and the financial health of the business will suffer. A second risk is that White-owned companies may seek to cash in on the increasing apportionments through formation of joint ventures with minority-owned concerns. Of course, in many instances there are legitimate reasons for joint ventures; clearly, White and minority enterprises can team up to acquire business that neither could acquire alone. But civil rights groups and minority business owners have complained to Congress about minorities being set up as “fronts” with White backing, rather than being accepted as full partners in legitimate joint ventures. Third, a minority enterprise that secures the business of one large corporate customer often run the danger of becoming- and remaining-dependent. Even in the best of circumstances, fierce competition from larger, more established companies makes it difficult for small concerns to broaden their customer bases: when such firms have nearly guaranteed orders from a single corporate benefactor, they may truly have to struggle against complacency arising from their current success. 1. The primary purpose of the text is to [A] present a commonplace idea and its inaccuracies. [B] describe a situation and its potential drawbacks. [C] propose a temporary solution to a problem. [D] analyze a frequent source of disagreement. 2. The text suggests that the failure of a large business to have its bids for subcontracts result quickly in orders might causes it to [A] experience frustration but not serious financial harm. [B] face potentially crippling fixed expenses. [C] have to record its efforts on forms filed with the government. [D] increase its spending with minority subcontractors. 3. It can be inferred from the text that, compared with the requirements of law, the percentage goals set by “some federal and local agencies” (line 9, paragraph 1) are [A] more popular with large corporations. [B] more concrete. [C] less controversial. [D] less expensive to enforce. 4. Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the author’s assertion that, in the 1970’s, corporate response to federal requirements (line 1, paragraph 2) was substantial? [A] Corporate contracts with minority-owned businesses totaled $2 billion in 1979. [B] Between 1970 and 1972, corporate contracts with minority-owned businesses declined by 25 percent. [C] The figures collected in 1977 underrepresented the extent of corporate contracts with minority-owned businesses. [D] The $1.1 billion represented the same percentage of total corporate spending in 1977 as did $77 million in 1972. 5. The author would most likely agree with which of the following statements about corporate response to working with minority subcontractors? [A] Annoyed by the proliferation of “front” organizations, corporations are likely to reduce their efforts to work with minority-owned subcontractors in the near future. [B] Although corporations showed considerable interest in working with minority businesses in the 1970’s, their aversion to government paperwork made them reluctant to pursue many government contracts. [C] The significant response of corporations in the 1970’s is likely to be sustained and conceivably be increased throughout the 1980’s. [D] Although corporations are eager to cooperate with minority-owned businesses, a shortage of capital in the 1970’s made substantial response impossible. [参考译文] 最近几年美国少数民族所有的企业可以说是空前的机会和重大风险并存。人权活动家早就指出过:黑 人，拉美裔美国人，以及其他少数民族难以在生意场中立足的主要原因是他们缺少能得到有规模的订货或 与大公司分合同的机会。现在议会以一致意见通过法律，要求企业获得价值50万美元以上的联邦合同后要 尽最大可能来寻找少数民族合作者，并且需将他们在此点上的成效如何在政府中存档立案。实际上，一些 联邦和地方机构走得更远，它们甚至规定了公共合同有多少比例要分给少数民族公司。 企业对此的反应是强烈的。从1977年统计的数据看，与少数民族企业签订的合同金额由1972年的7700 万美元升至1977年的11亿美元。预计此金额要在80年代前期达到每年30亿美元以上，在下一个10年中 看来也不会停止。 尽管这对少数民族企业来说前途光明，这种增加的财源也给它们带来了危险。首先，少数民族企业冒 着过快膨胀和财政上力不从心的危险，因为它们大部分是小企业，和大企业不同之外在于它们为履行合同 常需要在厂房、人员、设备(以及诸如此类)等上做一大笔投资。如果其后由于某种原因其合同量减少， 它们将会遇到潜在的财政危机。对于被要求做正式评估和投标的小企业来说，市场供求情况有可能令人非 常沮丧。评估和投标都消耗时间、资源，而且一个小企业的投资要马上在定货中反映出效果，否则其士气 和财政前景都将深受影响。 第二个危险是有些白人企业想通过和少数民族企业合资也能享受更好的待遇。当然，在许多时候，合 资是有正当理由的;显然，白人和少数民族企业可以联合起来做成任何一方都无法单独完成的事业。但是 人权组织和少数民族企业主已经向议会报怨:少数民族企业常在合资中成为白人操纵者的前台傀儡，而不 是平等的合作伙伴。 第三，已获得一个大客户的生意的少数民族企业常会有陷入依赖性的危险。即使在最好的环境下，来 自更大、更完备的对手的竞争常使一个小企业很难扩展自己的客户;当这样的企业已拥有来自一个客户的 近乎稳定的定货时，它们确实需要和眼前的胜利所滋生出的自满做斗争。 考研英语作文模板，超强～本人已考上研究生，现有考研英语超强作文万能模 板，本套模板含四篇，含盖了四大类不同形式，本套模板句型复杂多变，需 填文字极少～而且不论考什么题目都能用～保证大作文16，(满分20)不但 能使您做文拿个高分，而且节约了大量时间做别的题目～此万能模板决对不 同于辅导班的作文，本人也上过辅导班，而且当时同学也上了很多，基本大 的辅导班都上了，相信你们已经上过英语辅导班的也都清楚了，那些老师就 是能吹，时不时的说我跟命题的有什么什么关系，再就是讲些笑话说点轶闻 什么的，根本就没什么收获，花几百块钱还不说，还浪费了我们大量宝贵时 光～～那些辅导班冲刺班提供的作文资料不是一大本很厚的书就是只有一些 连接词的所谓的作文模板，你们也可问一下学长什么的就知道辅导班的真实 情况了～有需要的加 ，价格50,份，绝对超值了～比花几 百上个辅导班却没什么效果不知强多少倍～ 21篇模板——(14) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 中心主旨题型 第2题 指代词题型 第3题 审题定位与中心主旨题型 第4题 类比题型 第5题 细节推导题型 Although recent years have seen substantial reductions in noxious pollutants from individual motor vehicles, the number of such vehicles has been steadily increasing. Consequently, more than 100 cities in the United States still have levels of carbon monoxide, particulate matter, and ozone (generated by photochemical reactions with hydrocarbons from vehicle exhaust) that exceed legally established limits. There is a growing realization that the only effective way to achieve further reductions in vehicle emissions — short of a massive shift away from the private automobile — is to replace conventional diesel fuel and gasoline with cleaner-burning fuels such as compressed natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, ethanol, or methanol. All of these alternatives are carbon-based fuels whose molecules are smaller and simpler than those of gasoline. These molecules burn more cleanly than gasoline, in part because they have fewer, if any, carbon-carbon bonds and the hydrocarbons they do emit are less likely to generate ozone. The combustion of larger molecules, which have multiple carbon-carbon bonds involves a more complex series of reactions. These reactions increase the probability of incomplete combustion and are more likely to release uncombusted and photochemically active hydrocarbon compounds into the atmosphere. On the other hand, alternative fuels do have drawbacks. Compressed natural gas would require that vehicles have set of heavy fuel tanks — a serious liability in terms of performance and fuel efficiency — and liquefied petroleum gas faces fundamental limits on supply. Ethanol and methanol, on the other hand, have important advantages over other carbon-based alternative fuels: they have higher energy content per volume and would require minimal changes in the existing network for distributing motor fuel. Ethanol is commonly used as a gasoline supplement, but it is currently about twice as expensive as methanol, the low cost of which is one of its attractive features. Methanol’s most attractive feature, however, is that it can reduce by about 90 percent the vehicle emissions that form ozone, the most serious urban air pollutant. Like any alternative fuel, methanol has its critics. Yet much of the criticism is based on the use of “gasoline clone” vehicles that do not incorporate even the simplest design improvements that are made possible with the use of methanol. It is true, for example, that a given volume of methanol provides only about one-half of the energy that gasoline and diesel fuel do; other things being equal, the fuel tank would have to be somewhat larger and heavier. However, since methanol-fueled vehicles could be designed to be much more efficient than “gasoline clone” vehicles fueled with methanol they would need comparatively less fuel. Vehicles incorporating only the simplest of the engine improvements that methanol makes feasible would still contribute to an immediate lessening of urban air pollution. 1. The author of the text is primarily concerned with [A] countering a flawed argument that dismisses a possible solution to a problem. [B] reconciling contradictory points of view about the nature of a problem. [C] identifying the strengths of possible solutions to a problem. [D] discussing a problem and arguing in favor of one solution to it. 2. According to the text, incomplete combustion is more likely to occur with gasoline than with an alternative fuel because [A] the combustion of gasoline releases photochemically active hydrocarbons. [B] the combustion of gasoline embraces an intricate set of reactions. [C] gasoline molecules have a simple molecular structure. [D] gasoline is composed of small molecules. 3. The text suggests which of the following about air pollution? [A] Further attempts to reduce emissions from gasoline-fueled vehicles will not help lower urban air-pollution levels. [B] Attempts to reduce the pollutants that an individual gasoline-fueled vehicle emits have been largely unsuccessful. [C] Few serious attempts have been made to reduce the amount of pollutants emitted by gasoline-fueled vehicles. [D] Pollutants emitted by gasoline-fueled vehicles are not the most critical source of urban air pollution. Which of the following most closely parallels the situation described in the first sentence of the text?4. [A] Although a town reduces its public services in order to avoid a tax increase, the town’s tax rate exceeds that of other towns in the surrounding area. [B] Although a state passes strict laws to limit the type of toxic material that can be disposed of in public landfills, illegal dumping continues to increase. [C] Although a town’s citizens reduce their individual use of water, the town’s water supplies continue to dwindle because of a steady increase in the total populating of the town. [D] Although a country attempts to increase the sale of domestic goods by adding a tax to the price of imported goods, the sale of imported goods within the country continues to increase. 5. It can be inferred that the author of the text most likely regards the criticism of methanol as [A] flawed because of the assumptions on which it is based. [B] inapplicable because of an inconsistency in the critics’ arguments. [C] misguided because of its exclusively technological focus. [D] inaccurate because it ignores consumers’ concerns. [参考译文] 近年来，尽管单个机动车辆排放的有毒污染物已大幅减少，但这些机动车辆的数量一直在持续增长， 结果是，在美国有100多个城市的大气中一氧化碳、灰尘和臭氧(由车辆尾气中的碳氢化合物经光化反应 产生)的含量已超出了法定的限度。人们愈来愈认识到，实现车辆废气进一步减少而又不必大规模减少私 家轿车的唯一有效途径是用清洁燃料来代替传统的柴油和汽油燃料。这些清洁燃料包括压缩天然气、液化 石油气、乙醇和甲醇。 所有这些替代产品都是碳基燃料，不过它们的分子要比汽油的分子小且简单。它们可以比汽油燃烧得 更彻底，部分原因在于，即使它们含有碳—碳化学键，含量也较少，而且它们释放的碳氢化合物也不大可 能产生臭氧。那些具有多重碳——碳化学键的大分子在燃烧时包含了一系列复杂的反应。这些反应增大了 不完全燃烧的可能，并且更容易释放未燃烧的碳氢化合物，而这些化合物又对光化学反应很活跃。另一方 面，这些替代燃料也有自己的缺点。压缩天然气可能需要车辆配备一个笨重的油箱，这对车辆性能和燃料 效率又极为不利，并且液化石油气还面临着供应上的根本限制。 从另一方面来看，甲醇和乙醇与其它的碳基替代燃料相比有重要的益处:它们具有单位体积更高的能 量含量，而且对现存的燃料销售网络只需很小地改变。乙醇通常作为汽油的替代品，但目前它比甲醇要贵 两倍，因此甲醇的低廉价格便成为引人注目的特点。然而，甲醇最吸引人的特点还在于它可以减少90%形 成臭氧的废气，而臭氧又是城市中最严重的污染物。 和其它的替代燃料一样，甲醇也遭到了非难。可大多数批评都建立在使用“汽油系列”的车辆不进行 最简单的设计改进以可能使用甲醇燃料的基础上。例如，事实上一定体积的甲醇和同体积的汽油和柴油相 比，只能提供相当于它们大约一半的能量。在其它因素相同的条件下，油箱可能要大一点和重一点，然而， 由于甲醇燃料的车辆可以设计得比使用甲醇的“汽油系列”车辆还要高效，它们可能需要更少的燃料。同 时，对发动机进行最简单的改进便可使用甲醇的车辆，这将对城市大气污染的迅速减轻做出贡献。 21篇模板——(15) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 指代词题型 第2题 标点符号题型 第3题 归纳推导题型 第4题 细节推导题型 第5题 细节推导题型 Defenders of special protective labor legislation for women often maintain that eliminating such laws would destroy the fruits of a century-long struggle for the protection of women workers. Even a brief examination of the historic practice of courts and employers would show that the fruit of such laws has been bitter: they are, in practice, more of a curse than a blessing. Sex-defined protective laws have often been based on stereotypical assumptions concerning women’s needs and abilities and employers have frequently used them as legal excuses for discriminating against women. After the Second World War, for example, businesses and government sought to persuade women to vacate jobs in factories, thus making room in the labor force for returning veterans. The revival or passage of state laws limiting the daily or weekly work hours of women conveniently accomplished this. Employers had only to declare that overtime hours were a necessary condition of employment or promotion in their factory, and women could be quite legally fired, refused jobs, or kept at low wage levels, all in the name of “protecting” their health. By validating such laws when they are challenged by lawsuits, the courts have colluded over the years in establishing different, less advantageous employment terms for women than for men, thus reducing women’s competitiveness on the job market. At the same time, even the most well-intentioned lawmakers, courts, and employers have often been blind to the real needs of women. The lawmakers and the courts continue to permit employers to offer employee health insurance plans that cover all known human medical disabilities except those relating to pregnancy and childbirth. Finally, labor laws protecting only special groups are often ineffective at protecting the workers who are actually in the workplace. Some chemicals, for example, pose reproductive risks for women of childbearing years: manufacturers using the chemicals comply with laws protecting women against these hazards by refusing to hire them. Thus the sex-defined legislation protects the hypothetical female worker, but has no effect whatever on the safety of any actual employee. The health risks to male employees in such industries cannot be negligible, since chemicals toxic enough to cause birth defects in fetuses or sterility in women are presumably harmful to the human metabolism. Protective laws aimed at changing production materials or techniques in order to reduce such hazards would benefit all employees without discriminating against any. In sum, protective labor laws for women are discriminatory and do not meet their intended purpose. Legislators should recognize that women are in the work force to stay and that their needs — good health care, a decent wage, and a safe workplace — are the needs of all workers. Laws that ignore these facts violate women’s rights for equal protection in employment. 1. According to the author, which of the following resulted from the passage or revival of state laws limiting the work hours of women workers? [A] Women workers were compelled to leave their jobs in factories. [B] Many employers had difficulty in providing jobs for returning veterans. [C] Many employers found it hard to attract women workers. [D] The health of most women factory workers improved. 2. The author places the word “protecting” in quotation marks in line 9, paragraph 2 most likely in order to suggest that [A] she is quoting the actual wording of the laws in question. [B] the protective nature of the laws in question should not be overlooked. [C] protecting the health of workers is important to those who support protective labor laws. [D] the laws in question were really used to the detriment of women workers, despite being overtly protective in intent. 3. The text suggests that which of the following is a shortcoming of protective labor laws that single out a particular group of workers for protection? [A] Such laws are often too weak to be effective at protecting the group in question. [B] Such laws are usually drafted by legislators who do not have the best interests of workers at heart. [C] Such laws exert no pressure on employers to eliminate hazards in the workplace. [D] Compliance with such laws is often costly for employers and provokes lawsuits by employees claiming discrimination. 4. According to the first paragraph of the text, the author considers which of the following to be most helpful in determining the value of special protective labor legislation for women? [A] A comparative study of patterns of work-related illnesses in states that had such laws and in states that did not. [B] An estimate of how many women workers are in favor of such laws. [C] An analysis of the cost to employers of complying with such laws. [D] A study of the actual effects that such laws have had in the past on women workers. 5. The author implies that which of the following is characteristic of many employee health insurance plans? [A] They cover all the common medical conditions affecting men, but only some of those affecting women. [B] They lack the special provisions for women workers that proposed special labor laws for women would provide. [C] They pay the medical costs associated with pregnancy and childbirth only for the spouses of male employees, not for female employees. [D] They meet minimum legal requirements, but do not adequately safeguard the health of either male or female employees. [参考译文] 妇女劳动特别保护法的辩护者经常坚持认为，废除这种法律就会破坏一个世纪以来为保护妇女工人而斗争的成果。但是，只要对法庭案例和雇主的历史作短暂回顾，就能够发现这些法律的成果是多么的令人不愉快:实际上，这种法律与其说是一件好事，不如说是一种灾祸。 以性别为界限的保护性法律通常是根据有关妇女的需要和能力的陈腐性假想为基础的，而且雇主也经常使用这些法律作为他们歧视妇女的合法借口。例如，第二次世界大战之后，企业和政府都企图说服妇女离开她们的工厂中的工作，从而为回国的老兵们在劳动力市场中空出位子。恢复或通过限制妇女每天或每周工作时间的州法律，很容易地就实现了上述的目标。雇主只需声称超时加班是在他们的工厂进行工作或提升的必要条件，这样妇女就被合法地解雇，被拒绝给予工作或者保持一种较低的工资水平，所有这些都以“保护”妇女健康的名义得以实现。当受到法律诉讼时，法庭在过去数年中一直与雇主合谋共同建立一种男女不同的，对妇女更为不利的雇佣条件，从而降低了妇女在就业市场上的竞争力。同时，即使那些最善意的立法者、法庭和雇主也经常对妇女的真实需求视而不见。法律制定者和法庭都继续允许雇主向雇员提供这样的健康保险，它包含了所有已知的人类疾病，但却未包括那些与怀孕和生育相关的医疗内容。 最后，那些只保护特殊群体的劳动法在保护实际工作中的工人方面经常是无效的。例如，某些化学物质会对怀孕期间的妇女造成生育上的危险。使用这些化学物品的制造商们就会遵守保护妇女避免这些危险的法律而拒绝雇佣她们。因此这种特别界定的法律保护了假设中的妇女工人，但对工人实际的任何安全问题都没有作用。在这些工厂中，对男性工人健康的危险也不能被忽略，既然那些化学毒素能导致胎儿的生育缺陷或使妇女不育，那么推而广之，其必然会对人类的新陈代谢有害。目的在于减少这种危险的保护性法律，会改变生产原料或生产技术，从而给所有雇员带来好处，而又不歧视任何一类雇员。 总而言之，为妇女制定的劳动保护法是带有歧视性的，而且并没达到它们预期的目的。立法者应该认识到，妇女是劳动力的一部分，而且她们的需求(如良好的健康保健，体面的工资收入，以及安全的工作环境)同时也是所有工人的需求。那些忽略这些事实的法律就会破坏妇女在就业中享受平等保护的权利。 21篇模板——(16) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 中心主旨题型 第2题 审题定位与细节推导题型 第3题 指代词与并列平行结构题型 第4题 例(举)证题型 第5题 归纳推导题型 It is possible for students to obtain advanced degrees in English while knowing little or nothing about traditional scholarly methods. The consequences of this neglect of traditional scholarship are particularly unfortunate for the study of women writers. If the canon — the list of authors whose works are most widely taught — is ever to include more women, scholars must be well trained in historical scholarship and textual editing. Scholars who do not know how to read early manuscripts, locate rare books, establish a sequence of editions, and so on are bereft of crucial tools for revising the canon. To address such concerns, an experimental version of the traditional scholarly methods course was designed to raise students’ consciousness about the usefulness of traditional learning for any modern critic or theorist. To minimize the artificial aspects of the conventional course, the usual procedure of assigning a large number of small problems drawn from the entire range of historical periods was abandoned, though this procedure has the obvious advantage of at least superficially familiarizing students with a wide range of reference sources. Instead students were engaged in a collective effort to do original work on a neglected eighteenth-century writer, Elizabeth Griffith, to give them an authentic experience of literary scholarship and to inspire them to take responsibility for the quality of their own work. Griffith’s work presented a number of advantages for this particular pedagogical purpose. First, the body of extant scholarship on Griffith was so tiny that it could all be read in a day; thus students spent little time and effort mastering the literature and had a clear field for their own discoveries. Griffith’s play The platonic Wife exists in three versions, enough to provide illustrations of editorial issues but not too many for beginning students to manage. In addition, because Griffith was successful in the eighteenth century, as her continued productivity and favorable reviews demonstrate, her exclusion from the canon and virtual disappearance from literary history also helped raise issues concerning the current canon. The range of Griffith’s work meant that each student could become the world’s leading authority on a particular Griffith text. For example, a student studying Griffith’s Wife in the Right obtained a first edition of the play and studied it for some weeks. This student was suitably shocked and outraged to find its title transformed into A wife in the Night in Watt’s Bibliotheca Britannica. Such experiences, inevitable and common in working on a writer to whom so little attention has been paid, serve to vaccinate the student — I hope for a lifetime — against credulous use of reference sources. 1. The author of the text is primarily concerned with [A] revealing a commonly ignored deficiency. [B] proposing a return to traditional terminology. [C] describing an attempt to correct a shortcoming. [D] assessing the success of a new pedagogical approach. 2. It can be inferred that the author of the text expects that the experience of the student mentioned as having studied Wife in the Right would have which of the following effects? [A] It would lead the student to disregard information found in the Bibliotheca Britannica. [B] It would teach the student to question the accuracy of certain kinds of information sources when studying neglected authors. [C] It would teach the student to avoid the use of reference sources in studying neglected authors. [D] It would help the student to understand the importance of first editions in establishing the authorship of plays. 3. Which of the following best states the “particular pedagogical purpose” mentioned in lines 1-2, paragraph 3? [A] To assist scholars in revising the canon of authors. [B] To minimize the trivial aspects of the traditional scholarly methods course. [C] To provide students with information about Griffith’s work. [D] To encourage scholarly rigor in students’ own research. 4. Which of the following best describes the function of the last paragraph in relation to the text as a whole? [A] It summarizes the benefits that students can derive from the experimental scholarly methods course. [B] It provides additional reasons why Griffith’s work raises issues having to do with the cannot of authors. [C] It provides an illustration of the immediate nature of the experiences students can derive from the experimental scholarly methods course. [D] It contrasts the experience of a student in the experimental scholarly methods course with the experience of a student in the traditional course. 5. It can be inferred that the author of the text considers traditional scholarly methods courses to be [A] irrelevant to the work of most students. [B] inconsequential because of their narrow focus. [C] unconcerned about the accuracy of reference sources. [D] too wide-ranging to approximate genuine scholarly activity. [参考译文] 学生们即使在对传统学术方法知之甚少或根本不懂的情况下也可能获得英语方面的高级学位。这种对传统学识的忽略造成的后果对有关女性作家的研究尤其不利。如果经典作品(那些作品被极广泛地用于授课的作家的名单)中想要包括更多的女性的话，学者们必须在历史研究及文章的编辑方面接受过良好的训练。学者们如果不懂得如何阅读早期手本，寻找出稀有书籍，建立版本间的次序等等，就丧失了修订经典作品的重要手段。 出于以上的考虑，一种实验性的关于学习传统学术方法的课程被设计出来，以便使学生们更加意识到传统学识对于任何现代批评家及理论家的实用性。为了使传统课程中的人为因素减到最小，通常的方法，即指派完成从整个历史时段中摘出来的大量细小问题的方法，已被放弃使用，尽管这一做法具有一个明显的优点:至少在浅层次上能使学生熟悉大范围的参考资料。相反的，学生们通过集体的努力来完成一项有关十八世纪作家伊丽莎白?格里费斯的创造性任务，以获得文学研究的真实经验并激发他们对自己工作的质量负责任的态度。 格里费斯的作品用于此次特殊的教学目的时显示了不少优点。首先，现存的关于格里费斯的学术研究内容是如此之少以至于能在一天之内被全部读完;这样学生们只要花很少的时间和力气来掌握文献，并为他们自己的发现保留了空白领域。格里费斯的剧作《柏拉图式的妻子》现存三个版本，足以提供代表编辑方面事务的例子，但又不多到使初学的学生不能应能。另外，正如她持续的创作力和受到的好评所显示的，格里费斯在十八世纪是成功的，因此她被排除在经典作品之外(事实上是在文学史上消失)这一现象也能帮助我们对现时的经典作品提出问题。 格里费斯的作品的范围意味着每一个学生都可以成为格里费斯某一篇作品的世界级领导权威。比如，一个研究格里费斯的《合法的妻子》的学生得到了该剧的第一版并对其研究了几个星期。当该学生发现在瓦特的《大英百科书目》中该标题变成了《夜晚的妻子》，他有理由感到震惊和愤怒。这样的经历，在研究一位仅被给予极少关注的作家时，是常见和不可避免的，它能为防止这一学生轻率使用参考文献起到一种如防疫疫苗般的作用，我希望它能终生有效。 21篇模板——(17) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 中心主旨题型 第2题 归纳推导题型 第3题 审题定位题型 第4题 主题句理解题型 第5题 句间关系题型 Investigators of monkey’s social behavior have always been struck by monkeys’ aggressive potential and the consequent need for social control of their aggressive behavior. Studies directed at describing aggressive behavior and the situations that elicit it, as well as the social mechanisms that control it, were therefore among the first investigations of monkeys’ social behavior. Investigators initially believed that monkeys would compete for any resource in the environment: hungry monkeys would fight over food, thirsty monkeys would fight over water, and, in general, at time more than one monkey in a group sought the same incentive simultaneously, a dispute would result and would be resolved through some form of aggression. However, the motivating force of competition for incentives began to be doubted when experiments like Southwick’s on the reduction of space or the withholding of food failed to produce more than temporary increases in intragroup aggression. Indeed, food deprivation not only failed to increase aggression but in some cases actually resulted in decreased frequencies of aggression. Studies of animals in the wild under conditions of extreme food deprivation likewise revealed that starving monkeys devoted almost all available energy to foraging, with little energy remaining for aggressive interaction. Furthermore, accumulating evidence from later studies of a variety of primate groups, for example, the study conducted by Bernstein, indicates that one of the most potent stimuli for eliciting aggression is the introduction of an intruder into an organized group. Such introductions result in far more serious aggression than that produced in any other types of experiments contrived to produce competition. These studies of intruders suggest that adult members of the same species introduced to one another for the first time show considerable hostility because, in the absence of a social order, one must be established to control interanimal relationships. When a single new animal is introduced into an existing social organization, the newcomer meets even more serious aggression. Whereas in the first case aggression establishes a social order, in the second case resident animals mob the intruder, thereby initially excluding the new animal from the existing social unit. The simultaneous introduction of several animals lessens the effect, if only because the group divides its attention among the multiple targets. If, however, the several animals introduced a group constitute their own social unit, each group may fight the opposing group as a unit; but, again, no individual is subjected to mass attack, and the very cohesion of the groups precludes prolonged individual combat. The submission of the defeated group, rather than unleashing unchecked aggression on the part of the victorious group, reduces both the intensity and frequency of further attack. Monkey groups therefore seem to be organized primarily to maintain their established social order rather than to engage in hostilities per se. 1. The author of the text is primarily concerned with [A] advancing a new methodology for changing a monkey’s social behavior. [B] comparing the methods of several research studies on aggression among monkeys. [C] explaining the reasons for researcher’s interest in monkey’s social behavior. [D] discussing the development of investigators’ theories about aggression among monkeys. 2. Which of the following best summarizes the findings reported in the text about the effects of food deprivation on monkeys’ behavior? [A] Food deprivation has no effect on aggression among monkeys. [B] Food deprivation increases aggression among monkeys because one of the most potent stimuli for eliciting aggression is the competition for incentives. [C] Food deprivation may increase long-term aggression among monkeys in a laboratory setting, but it produces only temporary increase among monkeys in the wild. [D] Food deprivation may temporarily increase aggression among monkeys, but it also leads to a decrease in conflict. 3. The text suggests that investigators of monkeys’ social behavior have been especially interested in aggressive behavior among monkeys because [A] aggression is the most common social behavior among monkeys. [B] successful competition for incentives determines the social order in a monkey group. [C] situation that elicit aggressive behavior can be studied in a laboratory. [D] most monkeys are potentially aggressive, yet they live in social units that could not function without control of their aggressive impulses. 4. The text supplies information to answer which of the following questions? [A] How does the reduction of space affect intragroup aggression among monkeys in an experimental setting? [B] Do family units within a monkey social group compete with other family units for food? [C] What are the mechanisms by which the social order of an established group of monkeys controls aggression within that group? [D] How do monkeys engaged in aggression with other monkeys signal submission? 5. Which of the following best describes the organization of the second paragraph? [A] A hypothesis is explained and counter evidence is described. [B] A theory is advanced and specific evidence supporting it is cited. [C] Field observations are described and a conclusion about their significance is drawn. [D] Two theories are explained and evidence supporting each of them is detailed. [参考译文] 研究猴子社会行为的研究人员总是对猴子好斗性的潜能，以及随之而来的对它们好斗性行为所需要的 社会控制而产生兴趣。因此，以描述好斗性行为和引发这种行为的情景以及控制这种行为的社会机制为目 的进行的研究，就成为最初对猴子社会行为研究的内容。 研究人员们起初相信，猴子们会为了环境中的任何资源而进行竞争;饥饿的猴子会为了食物而争夺， 干渴的猴子会为了饮水而打架，并且，总的说来，每当多于一只猴子同时为了同样的刺激物争夺时，争执 便会发生，并最终以某种形式的斗争而解决。然而，猴子对刺激物展开竞争的动机开始受到怀疑，这是由 于像索思维克那样的实验表明，减少空间或不给猴子喂食仅仅只能暂时增加猴子社会群体内部的争斗。事 实上，食物缺乏不但不能加剧好斗性，反而在某些情况下实际导致了冲突行为频率的下降。 研究在野生状态中在极端食物缺乏条件下的动物表明，饥饿的猴子将所能获得的几乎全部精力都用于 寻找食物，而几乎没有任何剩余的精力来进行相互争斗。此外，后来对一系列灵长目动物群研究的不断积 累的证据证明(比如由本斯坦所指导的研究)，引发好斗性行为的最强有力的刺激因素之一，就是在一个有 组织的群体内引入一个入侵者。这样的引入所导致的好斗性行为，比在任何其他为了制造竞争的实验中所 产生的好斗性行为严重很多。 这些对入侵者的研究表明，同一物种的成年成员首次被相互引见给对方时，会展示出相当大的敌意， 这是因为在缺乏某种社会秩序的情况下，为了能控制动物之间的关系，一只猴子必须确立自己的地位。当 单独一只新动物被引入到一个已经存在的社会组织中来时，新来者会遭受到更加严重的攻击。尽管在第一 种情形中，好斗有利于确立某种社会秩序，然而，在第二种情形中，已经在群体中居住的动物则会对新来 者进行围攻，从而在开始便将新动物驱逐出现存的社会单元。同时引入几只动物，将会减轻这种影响;如 果是这样，那么仅仅是因为整个群体在多种目标之间分散了其注意力。但是，如果被引入到某一群体中的 那几只动物能构成自己的社会单元，则每一个群体可能会作为一个单元向敌对的群体发起攻击。但是，还 是没有单独一只动物会遭到集体的攻击，而正是团体的这种凝聚力，排除了持久的单独作战。是失败的那 个群体的投降，而不是获胜群体这一方无节制的攻击，这将会进一步减弱攻击的强度和频率。因此，猴群 看上去主要是为了维持它们既已确立的社会秩序而并不是为了参加本质上是敌对的攻击而组织起来的。 21篇模板——(18) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 中心主旨题型 第2题 审题定位题型 第3题 细节推导题型 第4题 细节推导题型 第5题 引申推导题型 The intensive work of materials scientists and solid-state physicists has given rise to a class of solids known as amorphous metallic alloys or glassy metals. There is a growing interest among theoretical and applied researchers alike in the structural properties of these materials. When a molten metal or metallic alloy is cooled to a solid, a crystalline structure is formed that depends on the particular alloy composition. In contrast, molten nonmetallic glass-forming materials when cooled do not assume a crystalline structure, but instead retain a structure somewhat like that of the liquid — an amorphous structure. At room temperature the natural long-term tendency for both types of materials is to assume the crystalline structure. The difference between the two is in the kinetics or rate of formation of the crystalline structure which is controlled by factors such as the nature of the chemical bonding and the ease with which atoms move relative to each other. Thus, in metals, the kinetics favors rapid formation of a crystallines structure whereas in nonmetallic glasses the rate of formation is so slow that almost any cooling rate is sufficient to result in an amorphous structure. For glassy metals to be formed, the molten metal must be cooled extremely rapidly so that crystallization is suppressed. The structure of glassy metals is thought to be similar to that of liquid metals. One of the first attempts to model the structure of a liquid was that by the late J. D. Bernal of the University of London, who packed hard spheres into a rubber vessel in such a way as to obtain the maximum possible density. The resulting dense, random-packed structure was the basis for many attempts to model the structure of glassy metals. Calculations of the density of alloys based on Bernal-type models of the alloys metal component agree fairly well with the experimentally determined values from measurements on alloys consisting of a noble metal together with a metalloid such as alloys of palladium and silicon or alloys consisting of iron phosphors, and carbon, although small discrepancies remained. One difference between real alloys and the hard spheres area in Bernal models is that the components of an alloy have different size, so that models based on two sizes of spheres are more appropriate for a binary alloy for example. The smaller metalloid atoms of the alloys might fit into holes in the dense random-packed structure of the larger metal atoms. One of the most promising properties of glassy metals is their high strength combined with high malleability. In usual materials, one finds an inverse relation between the two properties, whereas for many practical applications simultaneous presence of both properties is desirable. One residual obstacle to practical applications that is likely to be overcome is the fact that glassy metals will crystallize at relatively low temperatures when heated slightly. 1. The author is primarily concerned with discussing [A] crystalline solids and their behavior at different temperatures. [B] molten materials and the kinetics of the formation of their crystalline structure. [C] glassy metals and their structural characteristics. [D] metallic alloys and problems in determining their density. 2. The author’s attitude toward the prospects for the economic utilization of glassy metals is one of [A] disinterest. [B] impatience. [C] optimism. [D] apprehension. 3. According to the text, which of the following determines the crystalline structure of a metallic alloy? [A] At what rate the molten alloy is cooled. [B] How rapid the rate of formation of the crystalline phase is. [C] How the different-sized atoms fit into a dense random-packed structure. [D] What the alloy consists of and in what ratios. 4. Which of the following best describes the relationship between the structure of liquid metals and the structure of glassy metals, as it is presented in the text? [A] The latter is an illustrative example of the former. [B] The latter is a large-scale version of the former. [C] The former is a structural elaboration of the latter. [D] The former is a fair approximation of the latter. 5. It can be inferred from the text that, theoretically, molten nonmetallic glasses assume a crystalline structure rather than an amorphous structure only if they are cooled [A] very evenly, regardless of the rate. [B] rapidly, followed by gentle heating. [C] very slowly. [D] to room temperature. [参考译文] 材料科学家和固体物理学家的深入研究已促进了一种固体物质的出现，这类固体被称为非晶体金属合金，也就是玻璃金属。理论和应用研究者对这些材料的结构特性的兴趣正与日俱增。 当一种熔化的金属和金属合金冷却成固体时，依赖于特定的合金成份将形成各种晶体结构。相比之下，熔化的非金属、玻璃类材料在冷却后将不会形成晶体结构，而是保留一点类似于液体的非晶体结构，在室温条件下，两类材料的自然的长期倾向都形成了晶体结构。它们之间的不同在于动态性，即形成晶体结构的速度。这种动态性受下述两种因素控制:化学结合的性质和分子之间相互运动的自由程度。由此，对金属而言，动态历程有利于晶体结构的快速形成;而对非金属来说，这种形成速度非常慢，以至于任何自然冷却速度都足以形成一种非晶体结构。要想形成玻璃金属，熔化的金属必须以极快的速度冷却，以抑制晶体的形成。 人们认为玻璃金属的结构与液态金属的结构类似。创建这种液体结构模型的第一次尝试是已故的伦敦 大学的J. D.鲍纳尔进行的，他将坚硬的球体尽可能多地填塞进一个橡胶容器中，以便得到一种最大可能的 密度。这个密度结果以及随机填塞结构以后便成为试图建立玻璃金属结构模型的基础。 基于鲍纳尔模型，由合成金属的成份组成对合金密度的计算结果与实验测得的结果相当地吻合，当然 一些细微的差异仍然存在。实验结果是通过测量由一种重金属和类金属组成的合金得到的，如钯和硅的合 金，或铁磷和碳组成的合金。实际的合金和鲍纳尔模型所用的球体之间的差别在于合金的成份有不同的体 积大小，因此，基于两种大小的球体的模型更适合于两类物质的合金。合金中非金属的小原子可能填进由 大原子随机填塞形成的紧密结构中。 玻璃金属最有前景的一个特征是高强度与高延伸性的结合。在常见的晶体材料中，这两种特性一般是 成反比的，但人们渴望它们同时存在。在实际用途中可能还有一个问题急待解决，即当玻璃金属在相对的 低温下慢慢加热时，它会逐渐变为晶体结构。 21篇模板——(19) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 中心主旨题型 第2题 细节推导题型 第3题 段落间关系题型 第4题 审题定位题型 第5题 段落间关系与指代词题型 Between the eighth and eleventh centuries A. D., the Byzantine Empire staged an almost unparalleled economic and cultural revival, a recovery that is all the more striking because it followed a long period of severe internal decline. By the early eighth century, the empire had lost roughly two-thirds of the territory it had possessed in the year 600, and its remaining area was being raided by Arabs and Bulgarians, who at times threatened to take Constantinople and extinguished the empire altogether. The wealth of the state and its subjects was greatly diminished, and artistic and literary production had virtually ceased. By the early eleventh century, however, the empire had regained almost half of its lost possessions, its new frontiers were secure, and its influence extended far beyond its borders. The economy had recovered, the treasury was full, and art and scholarship had advanced. To consider the Byzantine military, cultural, and economic advances as differentiated aspects of a single phenomenon is reasonable. After all, these three forms of progress have gone together in a number of states and civilizations. Rome under Augustus and fifth-century Athens provide the most obvious examples in antiquity. Moreover, an examination of the apparent sequential connections among military, economic, and cultural forms of progress might help explain the dynamics of historical change. The common explanation of these apparent connections in the case of Byzantium would run like this: when the empire had turned back enemy raids on its own territory and had begun to raid and conquer enemy territory, Byzantine resources naturally expanded and more money became available to patronize art and literature. Therefore, Byzantine military achievements led to economic advances, which in turn led to cultural revival. No doubt this hypothetical pattern did apply at times during the course of the recovery. Yet it is not clear that military advances invariably came first. Economic advances second, and intellectual advances third. In the 860’s the Byzantine Empire began to recover from Arab incursions so that by 872 the military balance with the Abbasid Caliphate had been permanently altered in the empire’s favor. The beginning of the empire’s economic revival, however, can be placed between 810 and 830. Finally, the Byzantine revival of learning appears to have begun even earlier. A number of notable scholars and writers appeared by 788 and, by the last decade of the eighth century, a cultural revival was in full bloom, a revival that lasted until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Thus the commonly expected order of military revival followed by economic and then by cultural recovery was reversed in Byzantium. In fact, the revival of Byzantine learning may itself have influenced the subsequent economic and military expansion. 1. Which of the following best states the central idea of the text? [A] The Byzantine Empire was a unique case in which the usual order of military and economic revival preceding cultural revival was reversed. [B] The economic, cultural, and military revival in the Byzantine Empire between the eighth and eleventh centuries was similar in its order to the sequence of revival in Augustan Rome and fifth-century Athens. [C] After 810 Byzantine economic recovery spurred a military and, later, cultural expansion that lasted until 1453. [D] The revival of the Byzantine Empire between the eighth and eleventh centuries shows cultural rebirth preceding economic and military revival, the reverse of the generally accepted sequence of progress. 2. It can be inferred from the text that the Byzantine Empire sustained significant territorial losses [A] in 600. [B] during the seventh century. [C] a century after the cultural achievements of the Byzantine Empire had been lost. [D] soon after the revival of Byzantine learning. 3. In the third paragraph, the author most probably provides an explanation of the apparent connections among economic, military, and cultural development in order to [A] suggest that the process of revival in Byzantium accords with this model. [B] set up an order of events that is then shown to be not generally applicable to the case of Byzantium. [C] cast aspersions on traditional historical scholarship about Byzantium. [D] suggest that Byzantium represents a case for which no historical precedent exists. 4. Which of the following does the author mention as crucial evidence concerning the manner in which the Byzantine revival began? [A] The Byzantine military revival of the 860’s led to economic and cultural advances. [B] The Byzantine cultural revival lasted until 1453. [C] The Byzantine economic recovery began in the 900’s. [D] The revival of Byzantine learning began toward the end of the eighth century. 5. According to the author, “The common explanation” (line 1, paragraph 3) of connections between economic, military, and cultural development is [A] revolutionary and too new to have been applied to the history of the Byzantine Empire. [B] reasonable, but an antiquated theory of the nature of progress. [C] not applicable to the Byzantine revival as a whole, but does perhaps accurately describe limited periods during the revival. [D] equally applicable to the Byzantine case as a whole and to the history of military, economic, and cultural advances in ancient Greece and Rome. [参考译文] 在8—11世纪之间，拜占庭帝国出现了一次无与伦比的经济和文化复兴，这次复兴之所以引人注目是 因为它出现在一次严重的内部衰落之后。8世纪时，帝国失去了它600年时所拥有领土的大约2/3。仅存的 部分也受到阿拉伯人和保加利亚人的侵袭，这些国家经常威胁说要攻占首都君士坦丁堡，把拜占庭彻底消 灭掉。帝国的财富和臣民大幅减少，文学艺术也实际上陷于停顿。不过，到了11世纪初期，帝国重新收回 了沦陷领土的几乎一半，新的边界是安定的，其影响远及疆土之外。经济也恢复了，国库充实，文学艺术 也向前发展。 把拜占庭军事、文艺以及经济上的复兴理解为同一现象的不同表现是合理的。毕竟，这三者在相当多 的同家中是一同出现的。奥古斯都统治下的罗马和公元前五世纪的雅典就是古代社会最好的例证。而且， 对三者之间次第出现的联系做一番考察也有助于解释历史变化的原因。 通常，对于拜占庭帝国中三者复兴的联系会这样解释:当帝国已击退敌人的进攻并反攻到敌国疆土之 时，拜占庭的财富自然就会增长，从而有更多的金钱可用来投资于文化艺术事业。因此，帝国军事成就促 进经济昌盛，后者又引起了文化繁荣。 毫无疑问，这种假设能够解释复兴中的一些现象。但是我们不能明确地认为军事成就一定最先出现， 经济其次，文化最后。(事实上)860年左右拜占庭帝国开始收复阿拉伯人占领的失地，直到872年，和哈 里发阿拉伯国家的军事对比才有利于帝国。而经济的复兴在810—830年间就已开始。文化的复兴更早，早 在788年，一批有名的学者、作家就出现了，8世纪最后十年，文化复兴已达极盛，并一直延续到1453年 君士坦丁堡的陷落。因此，通常所认为的军事、经济、文化复兴三者次第出现的顺序在拜占庭是完全颠倒 的。实际上，拜占庭文化的复兴可能反而影响了后来的经济、军事进步。 21篇模板——(20) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 细节推导题型 第2题 写作手法题型 第3题 审题定位与中心主旨题型 第4题 词汇题型 第5题 审题定位题型 Flatfish, such as the flounder, are among the few vertebrates that lack approximate bilateral symmetry (symmetry in which structures to the left and right of the body’s midline are mirror images). Most striking among the many asymmetries evident in an adult flatfish is eye placement: before maturity one eye migrates, so that in an adult flatfish both eyes are on the same side of the head. While in most species with asymmetries virtually all adults share the same asymmetry, members of the starry flounder species can be either left-eyed (both eyes on the left side of head) or right-eyed. In the waters between the United States and Japan, the starry flounder populations vary from about 50 percent left-eyed off the United States West Coast, through about 70 percent left-eyed halfway between the United States and Japan, to nearly 100 percent left-eyed off the Japanese coast. Biologists call this kind of gradual variation over a certain geographic range a “cline” and interpret clines as strong indications that the variation is adaptive, a response to environmental differences. For the starry flounder this interpretation implies that a geometric difference (between fish that are mirror images of one another) is adaptive, that left-eyedness in the Japanese starry flounder has been selected for, which provokes a perplexing question: what is the selective advantage in having both eyes on one side rather than on the other? The ease with which a fish can reverse the effect of the sidedness of its eye asymmetry simply by turning around has caused biologists to study internal anatomy, especially the optic nerves, for the answer. In all flatfish the optic nerves cross, so that the right optic nerve is joined to the brain’s left side and vice versa. This crossing introduces an asymmetry, as one optic nerve must cross above or below the other. G. H. Parker reasoned that if, for example, a flatfish’s left eye migrated when the right optic nerve was on top, there would be a twisting of nerves, which might be mechanically disadvantageous. For starry flounders, then, the left-eyed variety would be selected against, since in a starry flounder the left optic nerve is uppermost. The problem with the above explanation is that the Japanese starry flounder population is almost exclusively left-eyed, and natural selection never promotes a purely less advantageous variation. As other explanations proved equally untenable, biologists concluded that there is no important adaptive difference between left-eyedness and right-eyedness, and that the two characteristics are genetically associated with some other adaptively significant characteristic. This situation is one commonly encountered by evolutionary biologists, who must often decide whether a characteristic is adaptive or selectively neutral. As for the left-eyed and right-eyed flatfish, their difference, however striking, appears to be an evolutionary red herring. 1. According to the text, starry flounder differ form most other species of flatfish in that starry flounder [A] are not basically bilaterally symmetric. [B] do not become asymmetric until adulthood. [C] do not all share the same asymmetry. [D] have both eyes on the same side of the head. 2. Which of the following best describes the organization of the text as a whole? [A] A phenomenon is described and an interpretation presented and rejected. [B] A generalization is made and supporting evidence is supplied and weighed. [C] A contradiction is noted and a resolution is suggested and then modified. [D] A series of observations is presented and explained in terms of the dominant theory. 3. The text supplies information for answering which of the following questions? [A] Why are Japanese starry flounder mostly left-eyed? [B] Why should the eye-sidedness in starry flounder be considered selectively neutral? [C] Why have biologists recently become interested in whether a characteristic is adaptive or selectively neutral? [D] How do the eyes in flatfish migrate? 4. Which of the following is most clearly similar to a cline as it is described in the second paragraph of the text? [A] A vegetable market in which the various items are grouped according to place of origin. [B] A wheat field in which different varieties of wheat are planted to yield a crop that will bring the maximum profit. [C] A flower stall in which the various species of flowers are arranged according to their price. [D] A housing development in which the length of the front struts supporting the porch of each house increases as houses are built up the hill. 5. Which of the following phrases from the text best expresses the author’s conclusion about the meaning of the difference between left-eyed and right-eyed flatfish? [A] “Most striking” (line 3, paragraph 1) [B] “variation is adaptive” (line 2, paragraph 2) [C] “mechanically disadvantageous” (line 7, paragraph 3) [D] “evolutionary red herring” (line 9, paragraph 4) [参考译文] 鲆鱼，例如比目鱼，是少数左右两侧不太对称的脊椎动物之一(左右两侧对称指的是身体中线左右两 边的结构为镜象反射)。在成年的比目鱼所具有的众多明显的不对称现象中，最令人震惊的是它的眼睛的位 置:在成熟以前，一只眼睛会移动，结果是成年比目鱼的两只眼睛都移动到头部的同一侧。在大多数非对 称的物种中，成年个体的非对称性看起来都是相同的，但星形比目鱼种的成员则既可以是眼在左侧的(两 只眼都在头部的左侧)，也可以是眼在右侧的。在美国和日本之间的水域中，星形比目鱼的群体组成不断变 化，在美国西海岸附近，50%是眼在左侧的，在美国和日本之间的中间位置，70%是眼在左侧的，而到了 靠近日本海岸的地方，则几乎百分之百都是眼在左侧的了。 生物学家将这种在特定地理区域范围内的逐渐变化称为“渐变群”，并针对渐变群解释说，它强烈地 表明这种变化是适应性的，是对环境差异所作出的反应。对于星形比目鱼来说，这种说法暗示形状上的差 异(同左右两侧对称的鱼相比)是适应性的，日本的星形比目鱼之所以眼在左侧，是选择的结果，但这又 引起了一个令人困惑的问题:两只眼睛都在一侧比两只眼睛分在两侧具有什么选择性的优势呢, 鱼只要简单地转个身，就可以使它的眼睛在一侧的不对称性所带来的影响逆转，这是非常容易的，所 以生物学家只好去研究内部解剖学，特别是研究视觉神经，以寻求答案。在所有的比目鱼中，视觉神经都 是交叉的，右边的视觉神经连接到大脑的左半部，左边的视觉神经连接到大脑的右半部。这种交叉会引起 不对称性，因为一条视觉神经必须会在另一条视觉神经的上面，要不就在下面。G?H?帕克对此解释说， 举例来说，如果一条比目鱼的右视觉神经在上面而左眼发生了移动，那么两条视觉神经就会扭曲纠缠在一 起，这在结构上可能是不利的。于是对于星形比目鱼来说，就不应该选择眼在左侧，因为在星形比目鱼中， 左侧的视觉神经是在上面的。 上面这种解释的问题是日本的星形比目鱼种群几乎全是眼在左侧的，而大自然的选择则从不推动完全 没有有利条件的种属发展。由于其它的解释被证明同样也是站不住脚的，所以生物学家得出了结论，认为 眼是在左侧还是在右侧并没有什么重要的适应性差异，这两种特征在遗传上与别的一些有意义的适应性特 征相关。研究进化的生物学家经常会遇到这样的情况，他们经常必须判断一个特征究竟是适应性的，还是 在选择上中性的。对于眼在左侧的比目鱼和眼在右侧的比目鱼来说，它们的差异虽然很惊人，但这似乎是 进化过程中的一个分散人们注意力的不相干的现象。 21篇模板——(21) 题目序号 题型归类 第1题 标点符号题型 第2题 细节推导题型 第3题 归纳推导题型 第4题 审题定位题型 第5题 反推题型 Students of United States history, seeking to identify the circumstances that encouraged the emergence of feminist movements, have thoroughly investigated the mid-nineteenth-century American economic and social condition that affected the status of women. These historians, however, have analyzed less fully the development of specifically feminist ideas and activities during the same period. Furthermore, the ideological origins of feminism in the United State have been obscured because, even when historians did take into account those feminist ideas and activities occurring within the United States, they failed to recognize that feminism was then a truly international movement actually centered in Europe. American feminist activists who have been described as “solitary” and “individual theorists” were in reality connected to a movement — utopian socialism — which was already popularizing feminist ideas in Europe during the two decades that culminated in the first women’s rights conference held at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. Thus, a complete understanding of the origins and development of nineteenth-century feminism in the United States requires that the geographical focus be widened to include Europe and that the detailed study already made of social conditions be expanded to include the ideological development of feminism. The earliest and most popular of the utopian socialists were the Saint-Simonians. The specifically feminist part of Saint-Simonianism has, however, been less studied than the group’s contribution to early socialism. This is regrettable on two counts. By 1832 feminism was the central concern of Saint-Simonianism and entirely absorbed its adherents’ energy; hence, by ignoring its feminism, European historians have misunderstood Saint-Simonianism. Moreover, since many feminist ideas can be traced to saint-simonianism European historians’ appreciation of later feminism in France and the United States remained limited. Saint-Simon’s followers, many of whom were women, based their feminism on an interpretation of his project to reorganize the globe by replacing brute force with the rule of spiritual powers. The new world order would be ruled together by a male, to represent reflection, and a female, to represent sentiment. This complementarity reflects the fact that, while the Saint-Simonians did not reject the belief that there were innate differences between men and women, they nevertheless foresaw an equally important social and political role for both sexes in their utopia. Only a few Saint-Simonians opposed a definition of sexual equality based on gender distinction. This minority believe that individuals of both sexes were born similar in capacity and character, and they ascribed male-female differences to socialization and education. The envisioned result of both currents of thought, however, was that women would enter public life in the new age and that sexual equality would reward men as well as women with an improved way of life. 1. It can be inferred that the author consider those historians who describe early feminists in the United States as “solitary” to be [A] insufficiently familiar with the international origins of nineteenth-century American feminist thought. [B] overly concerned with the regional diversity of feminist ideas in the period before 1848. [C] not focused narrowly enough in their geographical scope. [D] insufficiently aware of the ideological consequences of the Seneca Falls conference. 2. The author’s attitude toward European historians who have studied the Saint-Simonians is primarily one of [A] approval of the specific focus of their research. [B] disapproval of their lack of attention to the issue that absorbed most of the Saint-Simonians’ energy after 1832. [C] approval of their general focus on social conditions. [D] disapproval of their lack of attention to links between the Saint-Simonians and their American counterparts. 3. The author mentions all of the following as characteristic of the Saint-Simonians EXCEPT [A] The group included many women among its members. [B] The group believed in a world that would be characterized by sexual equality. [C] The group was among the earliest European socialist groups. [D] Most members believed that women and men were inherently similar in ability and character. 4. It can be inferred from the text that the Saint-Simonians envisioned a utopian society having which of the following characteristics? [A] It would be worldwide. [B] It would emphasize dogmatic religious principles. [C] It would most influence the United States. [D] It would have armies composed of women rather than of men. 5. According to the text, which of the following would be the most accurate description of the society envisioned by most Saint-Simonians? [A] A society in which women were highly regarded for their extensive education. [B] A society in which the two genders played complementary roles and had equal status. [C] A society in which women did not enter public life. [D] A social order in which a body of men and women would rule together on the basis of their spiritual power. [参考译文] 研究美国历史的学者，在试图辨别那些促进了女权主义运动崛起的环境时全面地调查了美国在十九世纪中叶影响着妇女地位的经济和社会状况。然而这些史学家没能充分地分析同一时期具体的女权主义思想和活动的发展。除此以外，美国女权主义在意识形态上的起源一直被掩盖着。这是因为，即使史学家考虑到了美国国内的女权主义思潮和运动的发展，他们却没能认识到女权主义在当时是一场真正的国际运动，而其中心在欧洲。有的美国女权主义活动家被描述成“孤寂的”和“各自为营的”理论家，而实际上她们与某个运动——乌托邦社会主义运动联系密切，而该项运动早就在此二十年里在欧洲普及女权社会主义思想，1848年在纽约塞尼卡瀑布召开的第一届女权大会使这一运动到达了顶点。因此，为了更加全面地理解十九世纪美国女权主义的起源和发展，就必须把研究的地域范围拓宽到包括欧洲;而且在对社会状况进行了细致的研究的基础上，把研究范围拓宽到包括女权主义运动的意识形态发展状况。 最早的和最盛行的乌托邦社会主义者是圣一西门主义者。然而，圣一西门主义中特定的女权主义部分，较之该团体对早期社会主义的贡献，没有得到充分的研究。这一遗憾体现在两个方面:到1832年，女权主义已经成为圣一西门学说的焦点，并完全吸引了其追随者的全部精力，因此，欧洲史学家忽略了其女权主义内容，便误解了圣一西门主义。除此以外，由于许多女权主义思想可上溯到圣一西门主义;故而欧洲史学家对后起的法国美国女权主义的褒扬就显得十分偏狭了。 圣一西门的追随者，他们中有许多人都是女性，将女权主义思想建立在对圣一西门以精神力量的统治代替野蛮力量，从而改组全球这一的解释上。世界新秩序将由代表理性反思的男性和代表情感的女性共同统治。这种互补性反映了这样一个事实:虽然圣一西门主义者不否认男女之间存在先天差异这一信条，但他们仍为两种性别在乌托邦中预先安排下了同等重要的社会及政治地位。 只有少数的圣一西门主义者反对在承认性别差异的前提下对男女平等加以的定义。这些少数派相信，不同性别的个体生来具有相同的能力和性格，因此他们将男女差异归因于社会分工和教育。但是，这两股思潮所预想的共同结果是，在新时代中，女性会涉足到公共生活中来，而男女平等将改善人们的生活方式，从而同时造福于所有的男人和女人。