小宝agu讲义

ARGUMENT ARGUMENT 开头段具体写法： *Merely based on unfounded assumption and dubious/suspicious evidence, the statement/demo/author draws the conclusion that _________. To substantiate/support this conclusion, the arguer points out the evidence that __________. In addition, he indicates that__________. Furthermore, he cites the result of a recent survey in support of this recommendation. At first glance/Admittedly/ Concedely, this argument appears to be somewhat convincing/reasonable, but further reflection reveals that it omits/neglects some substantial concerns that should be addressed in the argument. From the logical perspective, this argument suffers from ___ logical flaws. *In this argument, the author concludes that __________.To support his conclusion, the author points out that __________. In addition, he infers that __________. Furthermore, the arguer cites __________ as a typical example in support of this recommends. However, these alone do not constitute a logical argument in favor of its conclusion and fail to provide convincing support making this argument sound and invulnerable. 正文段首句： *The threshold problem with this argument is that__________ *Another problem that weakens logic of this argument is that__________ *Before I come to my conclusion, it is necessary to points out the last flaw involved in the argument that__________ 结尾段具体写法： *To sum up, the arguer fails to substantiate his claim that __________ because the evidences cited in the analysis does not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains. To make the argument more convincing, the author would have to provide more information with regard to __________.Additionally, he would have to demonstrate that __________.Therefore, if the argument had included the given factors discussed above, it would have been more thorough and logically accepted. 中间段十大逻辑错误： 1.调查类错误SURVEY/STUDY: 1.1. Procedure 1.1.1. 片面性样本（修饰限制词） 1.1.2. 样本数量错误（注意基数和百分比） 1.1.3. 样本数据真实性（是否匿名）115 1.1.4. 调查者是否暗含假设（有利益关系等） 1.2. Result 1.2.1. 数据是否有意义（背景？来源？与结论是否有关？）14 1.2.2. 数据是否有误导性的含糊102 1.2.3. 回应者错误（可能只有很少人回应） 1.3. 调查者156 cross-bencher/ non-aligned 第三方机构 1.4. 时间类错误36 攻击体系： *Unless the surveyor sampled a sufficient number of ______ and did so randomly across the entire spectrum, the survey results are not reliable to gauge ______ generally. The number of respondents, in itself, does not ensure representativeness. For example, if the samples included only ______, then the results would no doubt suggest______. Or if the grosses are considerable, ____would account for only a little percentage, which would render the result of the survey meaningless. *We are not informed whether the survey responses are anonymous, even confidential. If they were not,__________ 调查类错误词汇归纳： 名词类：survey questionnaire statistic study sample specimen sampling ,accidental sampling, class sampling, randomicity, randomness, quantity, quality, poll, absolute, value, percentage, validity, statistical, validity, range, spectrum, scope, 动词类：select，choose， sample，indegate，investigate，examine，scrutinize，comprise 形容词副词类：valid，authentic，random，quantitative，statistical，representative，characteristic，typical，far-ranging，comprehensive，extensive，generally，universally，rifely 2.充分证据和必要条件 2.1. 充分证据：（未发生） 标志词：once 170 will表预测 191 A不是D发生的充分条件，由A直接不能推出D，还有其它原因 2.2. 必要条件： 标志词：only necessarily without A不发生，D仍然发生175&195 必要条件错误攻击系统： The editor recommendation depends on the assumption that no factors other than A caused B. However,common sense informs me that this assumption is a poor one. A myriad of other factors, including C or D ,might be the cause of B. To be specific, __________. Without ruling out these and other possible causes, the editor can not justifiably conclude that only by A- can B-. 充要条件条件词汇： 名词类：condition，requirement，necessity，sufficient，sufficiency ，outcome， aftermath 动词类：constitute，establish，suffice充分以至于，results in，induce ，render，exclude 形容词&副词 ：sufficient，necessary，perforce，required，necessarily 3.原因结果错误 3.1. 无因果 212&142 标志词：for，cause，reason, since, link. Correlation, connection, therefore, and 3.2.时序性错误2&102 标志词：because, after this, since then, therefore, consequence, consequently, 攻击体系： Based on the fact B occured after A, the editor infers that A should be responsible for B. however, the sequence of these events, in itself, does not suffice to prove that the earlier development caused the later one. It might have resulted from some other events instead C.D.E.------to just a few possibilities. Without ruling out scenario such as these, the editor can not establish a cause-and-effect relationship between B and A upon which the editor's recommendation depends. 3.3. 同时性因果（隐逻辑）（同时发生不代表有因果关系153&85） 标志词：meanwhile，also，with，during，under，over，parallel 3.5. 混淆因果（若题为A-》B，则先说AB之间无逻辑，即使有，也是B-》A） 因果类写作词汇归纳： 名词类：relation，causation，relevancy，conjunction，connection，legal nexus，association，linkage 动词类：associate，link，connect，relate to，ignore，neglect，lose sight of， 形容词&副词：relational，relevant，causal，related，sequent，traceable 4.范围变化类167.8.206.240 词汇归纳：名词类：scope，localization，diversity，variety，individual，unit，whole 动词类：extend，expand，broaden，enlarge，shrink，spread，differentiate，distinguish 形容词&副词：overall，generally，extensive，entire，diverse，dissimilar，multiplex 5.考虑不完整：206.170.180 Profit攻击体系： The author's conclusion that__________ is unwarranted. Profit is a factor relating to not only revenue, but also cost. Its entirely possible that the cost of A ,or other costs associated with B.C. will offset even outweight the revenue. Besides, a myriad of other unexpected occurrences, such as unfavorable economic depression, might prevent ________from being as profitable as the argument predicts. 词汇归纳： 名词类：disadvantage，drawback，demerit，advantage，merit，value，worthiness，pros and cons，revenue，income，income gap，proceeds，profit，margin，gain，cost，feasibility。 动词类：consider，balance，weigh，compare 形容词&副词：all-round，all-sided，one-sided，unilateral 6：时间外推2&240 标志词：时间表达，trend，tendency，continue，remain，stay The author claims that ____future___,because__past____. this assumption is unwarranted because things rarely remain the same over extended period of time. There are likely all kinds of difference between pass and future. For example, past. Any of these scenarios, if true, would serve to undermine the claim that __________. 名词：trend，tendency，direction，fixedness，diversification 动词：forecast，anticipate，expect，continue，remain，alter，inflect，shift，transfer 形容词&副词：bypast，forepassed，current，present，intending，continued，changeless，unaltered，variable 7模糊证据： 标志词：vague，invalid，void，ill-defined，indistinct，unclear 8类比类错误： Similar，same，nearby，neighboring，两个行业/两个公司/两个城市。。。。。。 攻击体系： The arguer's recommendation relies on what might be a poor analogy between ______and______. The analogy faisely depends on the assumption that ______in both A and Bare similar.However, it is entirely possible that _______.In short, without accounting for such possible differences between A and B. The arguer cannot prove that B will reap the similar benefits from the proposed method. 名词类： Analogy，comparison, similarity, comparability, parallelism, 动词类：resemble, differ, vary, distinguish, discriminate, secern 形容词&副词：analogically homologous analogous distinct dissimilar disparate