答案ch17

348 ( Chapter 17/Monopolistic Competition Chapter 17/Monopolistic Competition ( 347 Chapter 17 Monopolistic Competition WHAT’S NEW IN THE THIRD EDITION: A new summary table has been added that compares monopolistic competition to monopoly and perfect competition. LEARNING OBJECTIVES: By the end of this chapter, students should understand: · competition among firms that sell differentiated products. · how the outcomes under monopolistic competition and under perfect competition compare. · the desirability of outcomes in monopolistically competitive markets. · the debate over the effects of advertising. · the debate over the role of brand names. CONTEXT AND PURPOSE: Chapter 17 is the final chapter in a five-chapter sequence dealing with firm behavior and the organization of industry. Chapters 14 and 15 developed the two extreme forms of market structure—competition and monopoly. The market structure that lies between competition and monopoly is known as imperfect competition. There are two types of imperfect competition—oligopoly, which was addressed in the previous chapter, and monopolistic competition, which is the topic of the current chapter. The analysis in this chapter is again based on the cost curves developed in Chapter 13. The purpose of Chapter 17 is to address monopolistic competition—a market structure in which many firms sell products that are similar but not identical. Recall, oligopoly differs from perfect competition because there are only a few sellers in the market. Monopolistic competition differs from perfect competition because each of the many sellers offers a somewhat different product. As a result, monopolistically competitive firms face a downward-sloping demand curve while competitive firms face a horizontal demand curve at the market price. Monopolistic competition is extremely common. KEY POINTS: 1. A monopolistically competitive market is characterized by three attributes: many firms, differentiated products, and free entry. 2. The equilibrium in a monopolistically competitive market differs from that in a perfectly competitive market in two related ways. First, each firm has excess capacity. That is, it operates on the downward-sloping portion of the average-total-cost curve. Second, each firm charges a price above marginal cost. 3. Monopolistic competition does not have all of the desirable properties of perfect competition. There is the standard deadweight loss of monopoly caused by the markup of price over marginal cost. In addition, the number of firms (and thus the variety of products) can be too large or too small. In practice, the ability of policymakers to correct these inefficiencies is limited. 4. The product differentiation inherent in monopolistic competition leads to the use of advertising and brand names. Critics of advertising and brand names argue that firms use them to take advantage of consumer irrationality and to reduce competition. Defenders of advertising and brand names argue that firms use them to inform consumers and to compete more vigorously on price and product quality. CHAPTER OUTLINE: I. Definition of monopolistic competition: a market structure in which many firms sell products that are similar but not identical. II. Characteristics of Monopolistic Competition A. Many Sellers B. Product Differentiation C. Free Entry III. Competition with Differentiated Products A. The Monopolistically Competitive Firm in the Short Run 1. Each firm in monopolistic competition faces a downward-sloping demand curve because its product is different from those offered by other firms. 2. The monopolistically competitive firm follows the monopolist's rule for maximizing profit. a. It chooses the output level where marginal revenue is equal to marginal cost. b. It sets the price using the demand curve to ensure that consumers will buy the amount produced. 3. We can determine whether or not the monopolistically competitive firm is earning a profit or loss by comparing price and average total cost. a. If P > ATC, the firm is earning a profit. b. If P < ATC, the firm is earning a loss. c. If P = ATC, the firm is earning zero economic profit. B. The Long-Run Equilibrium 1. When firms in monopolistic competition are making profit, new firms have an incentive to enter the market. a. This increases the number of products from which consumers can choose. b. Thus, the demand curve faced by each firm shifts to the left. c. As the demand falls, these firms experience declining profit. 2. When firms in monopolistic competition are incurring losses, firms in the market will have an incentive to exit. a. Consumers will have fewer products from which to choose. b. Thus, the demand curve for each firm shifts to the right. c. The losses of the remaining firms will fall. 3. The process of exit and entry continues until firms are earning zero profit. a. This means that the demand curve and the average total cost curve are tangent to each other. b. At this point, price is equal to average total cost and the firm is earning zero economic profit. 4. There are two characteristics that describe the long-run equilibrium in a monopolistically competitive market. a. Price exceeds marginal cost (due to the fact that each firm faces a downward-sloping demand curve). b. Price equals average total cost (due to the freedom of entry and exit). C. Monopolistic Versus Perfect Competition 1. Excess Capacity a. The quantity of output produced by a monopolistically competitive firm is smaller than the quantity that minimizes average total cost (the efficient scale). b. This implies that firms in monopolistic competition have excess capacity, because the firm could increase its output and lower its average total cost of production. c. Because firms in perfect competition produce where price is equal to the minimum average total cost, firms in perfect competition produce at their efficient scale. 2. Markup over Marginal Cost a. In monopolistic competition, price is greater than marginal cost because the firm has some market power. b. In perfect competition, price is equal to marginal cost. D. Monopolistic Competition and the Welfare of Society 1. One source of inefficiency is the markup over marginal cost. This implies a deadweight loss (similar to that caused by monopolies). 2. Because there are so many firms in this type of market structure, regulating these firms would be difficult. 3. Also, forcing these firms to set price equal to marginal cost would force them out of business (since they are already earning zero economic profit). 4. There are also externalities associated with entry. a. The product-variety externality occurs because as new firms enter, consumers get some consumer surplus from the introduction of a new product. Note that this is a positive externality. b. The business-stealing externality occurs because as new firms enter, other firms lose customers and profit. Note that this is a negative externality. c. Depending on which externality is larger, a monopolistically competitive market could have too few or too many products. 5. FYI: Is Excess Capacity a Social Problem? a. Monopolistically competitive firms produce at an output level that is lower than the level that minimizes average total cost. b. In the past, economists argued that this excess capacity was a source of inefficiency. c. However, economists today believe that the excess capacity of these firms is not directly relevant for evaluating economic welfare. d. There is no economic reason why society should want all firms to produce the level of output that minimizes average total cost. IV. Advertising A. The Debate over Advertising 1. The Critique of Advertising a. Firms advertise to manipulate people's tastes. b. Advertising impedes competition because it increases the perception of product differentiation and fosters brand loyalty. This means that consumers will be less concerned with price differences among similar goods. 2. The Defense of Advertising a. Firms use advertising to provide information to consumers. b. Advertising fosters competition because it allows consumers to be better informed about all of the firms in the market. 3. Case Study: Advertising and the Price of Eyeglasses a. In the United States during the 1960s, states differed on whether or not they allowed advertising for optometrists. b. In the states that prohibited advertising, the average price paid for a pair of eyeglasses in 1963 was $33; in states that allowed advertising, the average price was $26 (a difference of more than 20 percent). B. Advertising as a Signal of Quality 1. The willingness of a firm to spend a large amount of money on advertising may be a signal to consumers about the quality of the product being offered. 2. Example: Kellogg and Post have each developed a new cereal that it would sell for $3 per box. (Assume that the marginal cost of producing the cereal is zero.) Each company knows that if it spends $10 million on advertising, it will get 1 million new consumers to try the product. If consumers like the product, they will buy it again. a. Post has discovered through market research that its new cereal is not very good. After buying it once consumers would not be likely to buy it again. Thus, it will only earn $3 million in revenue, which would not be enough to pay for the advertising. Therefore, it does not advertise. b. Kellogg knows that its cereal is great. Each person that buys it will likely buy one box per month for the next year. Therefore, its sales would be $36 million, which is more than enough to justify the advertisement. c. By its willingness to spend money on advertising, Kellogg signals to consumers the quality of its cereal. 3. Note that the content of the advertisement is unimportant; what is important is that consumers know that the advertisements are expensive. C. Brand Names 1. In many markets there are two types of firms; some firms sell products with widely recognized brand names while others sell generic substitutes. 2. Critics of brand names argue that they cause consumers to perceive differences that do not really exist. 3. Economists have defended brand names as a useful way to ensure that goods are of high quality. a. Brand names provide consumers with information about quality when quality cannot be easily judged in advance of purchase. b. Brand names give firms an incentive to maintain high quality, since firms have a financial stake in maintaining the reputation of their brand names. SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS: Quick Quizzes 1. The three key attributes of monopolistic competition are: (1) there are many sellers; (2) each firm produces a slightly different product; and (3) firms can enter or exit the market freely. Figure 1 shows the long-run equilibrium in a monopolistically competitive market. This equilibrium differs from that in a perfectly competitive market because price exceeds marginal cost and the firm doesn’t produce at the minimum point of average total cost. Figure 1 2. Advertising may make markets less competitive because it manipulates people’s tastes rather than being informative. Advertising gives consumers the perception that there is a greater difference between two products than really exists. That makes the demand curve for a product more inelastic, so the firms then charge greater markups over marginal cost. However, some advertising could make markets more competitive, since advertising is just one more method of competition between products and since it sometimes provides useful information to consumers, allowing them to more easily take advantage of price differences. In addition, expensive advertising can be a signal of quality. Advertising also allows entry, since advertising can be used to inform consumers about a new product. Brand names may be beneficial because they provide information to consumers about the quality of goods. They also give firms an incentive to maintain high quality, since their reputations are important. But brand names may be criticized because they may simply differentiate products that are not really different, as in the case of drugs that are identical but the brand-name drug sells at a much higher price than the generic drug. Questions for Review 1. The three attributes of monopolistic competition are: (1) there are many sellers; (2) each seller produces a slightly different product; and (3) firms can enter or exit the market without restriction. Monopolistic competition is like monopoly because firms face a downward-sloping demand curve, so price exceeds marginal cost. Monopolistic competition is like perfect competition because, in the long run, price equals average total cost, as free entry and exit drive economic profit to zero. 2. In Figure 2, a firm has demand curve D1 and marginal-revenue curve MR1. The firm is making profits because at quantity Q1, price (P1) is above average total cost (ATC). Those profits induce other firms to enter the industry, causing the demand curve to shift to D2 and the marginal-revenue curve to shift to MR2. The result is a decline in quantity to Q2, at which point the price (P2) equals average total cost (ATC), so profits are now zero. Figure 2 Figure 3 3. Figure 3 shows the long-run equilibrium in a monopolistically competitive market. Price equals average total cost. Price is above marginal cost. 4. Since, in equilibrium, price is above marginal cost, a monopolistic competitor produces too little output. But this is a hard problem to solve because: (1) the administrative burden of regulating the large number of monopolistically competitive firms would be high; and (2) the firms are earning zero economic profits, so forcing them to price at marginal cost means that firms would lose money unless the government subsidized them. 5. Advertising might reduce economic well-being because it is costly, manipulates people's tastes, and impedes competition by making products appear more different than they really are. But advertising might increase economic well-being by providing useful information to consumers and fostering competition. 6. Advertising with no apparent informational content might convey information to consumers if it provides a signal of quality. A firm won't be willing to spend much money advertising a low-quality good, but will be willing to spend significantly more advertising a high-quality good. 7. The two benefits that might arise from the existence of brand names are: (1) brand names provide consumers information about quality when quality cannot be easily judged in advance; and (2) brand names give firms an incentive to maintain high quality to maintain the reputation of their brand names. Problems and Applications 1. a. The market for #2 pencils is perfectly competitive since pencils by any manufacturer are identical and there are a large number of manufacturers. b. The market for bottled water is monopolistically competitive because of consumers' concerns about quality. As a result, each producer has a slightly different product. c. The market for copper is perfectly competitive, since all copper is identical and there are a large number of producers. d. The market for local telephone service is monopolistic because it is a natural monopoly—it is cheaper for one firm to supply all the output. e. The market for peanut butter is monopolistically competitive because different brand names exist with different quality characteristics. f. The market for lipstick is monopolistically competitive because lipstick from different firms differs slightly, but there are a large number of firms who can enter or exit without restriction. 2. A monopolistic firm produces a product for which there are no close substitutes, but a monopolistically competitive firm produces a product that is only somewhat different from substitute goods. So the goods differ in terms of the degree to which substitutes exist. 3. Monopolistically competitive firms don't increase the quantity they produce to lower the average cost of production because doing so would require them to lower their price. The loss in revenue from the lower price outweighs the benefits of the lower cost of production. 4. a. Figure 4 illustrates the market for Sparkle toothpaste in long-run equilibrium. The profit-maximizing level of output is QM and the price is PM. Figure 4 b. Sparkle's profit is zero, since at quantity QM, price equals average total cost. c. The consumer surplus from the purchase of Sparkle toothpaste is area A + B. The efficient level of output occurs where the demand curve intersects the marginal-cost curve, at QC. So the deadweight loss is area C, the area above marginal cost and below demand, from QM to QC. d. If the government forced Sparkle to produce the efficient level of output, the firm would lose money because average cost would exceed price, so the firm would shut down. If that happened, Sparkle's customers would earn no consumer surplus. 5. Since each firm in a monopolistically competitive market produces a product that is slightly different from other products, a monopolistically competitive market has a large number of products. But whether that number is optimal or not depends on two key externalities: the product-variety externality and the business-stealing externality. The product-variety externality is a positive externality to consumers from the introduction of a new product. The business-stealing externality is a negative externality because other firms lose customers and profits from the addition of a new product. Since the entrant doesn't take these externalities into account in deciding whether or not to enter the market, it isn't clear whether the actual number of products will be optimal, above optimal, or below optimal. 6. By sending Christmas cards to their customers, monopolistically competitive firms are advertising themselves. Since they are in a position in which price exceeds marginal cost, they would like more customers to come in, as shown in Figure 5. Since the price, PM, exceeds marginal cost, MCM, any additional customer who pays the existing price increases the firm's profits. Figure 5 7. If you were thinking of entering the ice-cream business, you would want to make ice cream that is slightly different from the existing brands. By differentiating your product from others, you gain some market power. 8. Many answers are possible. The answers should explain that commercials are socially useful to the extent that they provide consumers information about the product or demonstrate from the existence of the commercial that the product is worth advertising, and thus is not of low quality. Commercials are socially wasteful to the extent that they manipulate people's tastes and try to make products seem more different than they really are. 9. a. A family-owned restaurant would be more likely to advertise than a family-owned farm because the output of the farm is sold in a perfectly competitive market, in which there is no reason to advertise, while the output of the restaurant is sold in a monopolistically competitive market. b. A manufacturer of cars is more likely to advertise than a manufacturer of forklifts because there is little difference between different brands of industrial products like forklifts, while there are greater perceived differences between consumer products like cars. The possible return to advertising is greater in the case of cars than in the case of forklifts. c. A company that invented a reliable watch is likely to advertise more than a company that invented a less reliable watch that costs the same amount to make because the company with the reliable watch will get many repeat sales over time to cover the cost of the advertising, while the company with the less reliable watch will not. 10. a. Perdue created a brand name for chicken by advertising. By doing so, he was able to differentiate his product from other chicken, gaining market power. b. Society gained to the extent that Perdue has a great incentive to maintain the quality of his chicken. Society lost to the extent that the market for chicken became less competitive, with the associated deadweight loss. 11. a. Figure 6 shows Tylenol's demand, marginal revenue, and marginal cost curves. Tylenol's price is PT, its marginal cost is MCT, and its markup over marginal cost is PT - MCT. Figure 6 b. Figure 7 shows the demand, marginal revenue, and marginal cost curves for a maker of acetaminophen. The diagrams differ in that the acetaminophen maker faces a horizontal demand curve, while the maker of Tylenol faces a downward-sloping demand curve. The acetaminophen maker has no markup of price over marginal cost, while the maker of Tylenol has a positive markup, because it has some market power. Figure 7 c. The maker of Tylenol has a bigger incentive for careful quality control, because if quality were poor, the value of its brand name would deteriorate, sales would decline, and its advertising would be worth less. 17 MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION Figure 1 Explain to students that product differentiation gives the seller in a monopolistically competitive market some ability to control the price of its product. In a sense, each firm is a monopoly in the production of their particular version of the product. This is reflected by the fact that these firms face a downward-sloping demand curve. Point out that the graph looks something like a monopoly, but that the demand the firm faces will likely be much flatter (because it will be more elastic). � EMBED MS_ClipArt_Gallery ��� Figure 2 Remember that students have a hard time understanding why a firm will continue to operate if it is earning “only” zero economic profit. Remind them that zero economic profit means that firms are earning an accounting profit equal to their implicit costs. � EMBED MS_ClipArt_Gallery ��� � EMBED MS_ClipArt_Gallery ��� Point out to students that, just like firms in perfect competition, firms in monopolistic competition also earn zero economic profit in the long run. Show them that this result occurs because firms can freely enter the market when profits occur, driving the level of profits to zero. Any market with no barriers to entry will see zero economic profit in the long run. Figure 3 Activity 1 — Advertising: Informative or Manipulative? Type: In-class assignment Topics: Advertising Materials needed: None Time: 15 minutes Class limitations: Works in any size class Purpose This activity illustrates the various purposes of advertising. Instructions Ask students to bring two magazines with them to class on the day that you will discuss this chapter. Arrange students into groups of three or four. Their assignment is to choose an advertisement and determine whether the ad serves primarily to inform consumers and promote competition or make the consumer less price sensitive to their product. Ask each group to find an example of both kinds of ads. Make sure that each group is also responsible for choosing ads for products sold in monopolistically competitive markets. Table 1 Activity 2 — Brand Names Type: In-class assignment Topics: Product differentiation Materials needed: Enough copies of the questions for each student Time: 10 minutes Class limitations: Works in any size class Purpose This activity illustrates the importance of product differentiation in consumer products. Instructions Give the students the following quiz. Ask them to make their best guess if they are not certain about a particular product. Assure them that their grades will not be affected by their scores on these questions. After they finish, go through the questions product by product, asking the class to raise their hands if they circled that product. Common Answers and Points for Discussion Student answers will be spread across the various brands for each company. All of their answers are correct. In each case, the company makes every brand listed. This illustrates the importance of product differentiation in consumer markets. These firms go to great expense to establish and maintain separate brand identities for products that essentially serve the same function. This quiz can be a good way to introduce the effect of product differentiation on demand, or to introduce the impact of advertising. Brand Names Quiz Identify the brands made by each company: 1. Margarine. Unilever makes: a. Imperial b. Promise c. Country Crock d. Shedd’s e. Krona f. Mrs Filbert’s g. I Can’t Believe It’s Not Butter 2. Bottled water. Nestle’ makes: a. Perrier b. Arrowhead c. Poland Spring d. Calistoga e. Vittel f. Contrex 3. Pet Food. Quaker makes: a. Gravy Train b. Gaines Burgers c. Cycle d. Kibbles ‘n Bits e. Top Choice f. Ken-L-Ration 4. Soap. Proctor and Gamble makes: a. Safeguard b. Zest c. Ivory d. Camay 5. Jeans. V.F. Corporation makes: a. Lee b. Wrangler c. Rustler d. Girbaud 6. Pasta. Borden makes: a. Creamette b. Prince c. Bravo c. Dutch Maid d. Gioia e. Anthony’s 7. Coffee. Phillip Morris makes: a. Yuban b. Maxim c. Sanka d. Maxwell House 8. Consumer Electronics. Matsushita makes: a. Panasonic b. Technics c. Quasar d. National 9. Gin. Diageo PLC makes: a. Gilbey’s b. Gordon’s c. Tanqueray � Activity 3 — Equilibrium Price for Blue Jeans Type: In-class demonstration Topics: Product differentiation Materials needed: None Time: 5 minutes Class limitations: Works in any size class Purpose This assignment shows that market supply and demand graphs give an oversimplified picture of price when products are differentiated. Instructions Ask the students to draw a supply and demand graph illustrating the market for blue jeans. After they have drawn the graph, have them label the equilibrium price with a real dollar figure. This dollar amount should reflect the price of jeans as accurately as possible. Draw a standard supply and demand graph on the board. Ask a student for the equilibrium price. Ask several more students for their prices. Common Answers and Points for Discussion The class will have a whole range of prices for blue jeans, reflecting the range of blue jeans in the real world. Recent prices at one shopping mall varied from $14 to over $100 for a pair of blue jeans. The price differences reflect product differentiation. Quality, style, and reputation all effect the price of jeans. The same jeans sold by different retailers are likely to be priced differently. The simple supply and demand graph can be useful for broad analysis of the market for jeans, but individual prices and quantities are determined by the demand and cost curves of the individual products. 333