SLA二语习得重要问题总结

RevisedbyBLUEontheafternoonofDecember12,2020.SLA二语习得重要问题总结SLA期末考试提纲Week9Chapter1IntroducingSecondLanguageAcquisitionChapter2FoundationsofSecondLanguageAcquisitionPARTONE:Definition:SecondLanguageAcquisition(SLA):atermthatrefersbothtothestudyofindividualsandgroupswhoarelearningalanguagesubsequenttolearningtheirfirstoneasyoungchildren,andtotheprocessoflearningthatlanguage.FormalL2learning:instructedlearningthattakesplaceinclassrooms.InformalL2learning:SLAthattakesplaceinnaturalisticcontexts.Firstlanguage/nativelanguage/mothertongue(L1):Alanguagethatisacquirednaturallyinearlychildhood,usuallybecauseitistheprimarylanguageofachild’sfamily.Achildwhogrowsupinamultilingualsettingmayhavemorethanone“first”language.Secondlanguage(L2):Initsgeneralsense,thistermreferstoanylanguagethatisacquiredafterthefirstlanguagehasbeenestablished.Initsspecificsense,thistermtypicallyreferstoanadditionallanguagewhichislearnedwithinacontextwhereitissocietallydominantandneededforeducation,employment,andotherbasicpurposes.Themorespecificsensecontrastswithforeignlanguage,librarylanguage,auxiliary(帮助的，辅助的)language,andlanguageforspecificpurposes.Targetlanguage:Thelanguagethatistheaimorgoaloflearning.Foreignlanguage:Asecondlanguagethatisnotwidelyusedinthelearners’immediatesocialcontext,butratheronethatmightbeusedforfuturetravelorothercross-culturalcommunicationsituations,oronethatmightbestudiedasacurricularrequirementorelectiveinschoolwithnoimmediateornecessarypracticalapplication.Librarylanguage:Asecondlanguagethatfunctionsasatoolforfurtherlearning,especiallywhenbooksandjournalsinadesiredfieldofstudyarenotcommonlypublishedinthelearner’sL1.Auxiliarylanguage:Asecondlanguagethatlearnersneedtoknowforsomeofficialfunctionsintheirimmediatesociopoliticalsetting.Orthattheywillneedforpurposesofwidercommunication,althoughtheirfirstlanguageservesmostotherneedsintheirlives.Linguisticcompetence:Theunderlyingknowledgethatspeakers/hearershaveofalanguage.Chomskydistinguishesthisfromlinguisticperformance.Linguisticperformance:Theuseoflanguageknowledgeinactualproduction.Communicativecompetence:Abasictenet(原则、信条、教条)ofsociolinguisticsdefinedas“whataspeakerneedstoknowtocommunicateappropriatelywithinaparticularlanguagecommunity”(Saville-Troike2003)Pragmaticcompetence:Knowledgethatpeoplemusthaveinordertointerpretandconveymeaningwithincommunicativesituations.Multilingualism:Theabilitytousemorethanonelanguage.Monolingualism:Theabilitytouseonlyonelanguage.Simultaneousmultilingualism:Abilitytousemorethanonelanguagethatwereacquiredduringearlychildhood.Sequentialmultilingualism:AbilitytouseoneormorelanguagesthatwerelearnedafterL1hadalreadybeenestablished.Innatecapacity:Anaturalability,usuallyreferringtochildren’snaturalabilitytolearnoracquirelanguage.Childgrammar:Grammarofchildrenatdifferentmaturationallevelsthatissystematicintermsofproductionandcomprehension.Initialstate:Thestartingpointforlanguageacquisition;itisthoughttoincludetheunderlyingknowledgeaboutlanguagestructuresandprinciplesthatareinlearners’headsattheverystartofL1orL2acquisition.Intermediatestate:Itincludesthematurationalchangeswhichtakeplacein“childgrammar”,andtheL2developmentalsequencewhichisknownaslearnerlanguage.Finalstate:TheoutcomeofL1andL2leaning,alsoknownasthestablestateofadultgrammar.Positivetransfer:AppropriateincorporationofanL1structureorruleinL2structure.Negativetransfer:InappropriateinfluenceofanL1structureorruleonL2use.Alsocalledinterference.Poverty-of-the-stimulus:TheargumentthatbecauselanguageinputtochildrenisimpoverishedandtheystillacquireL1,theremustbeaninnatecapacityforL1acquisition.Structuralism:Thedominantlinguisticmodelofthe1950s,whichemphasizedthedescriptionofdifferentlevelsofproductioninspeech.Phonology:Thesoundsystemsofdifferentlanguagesandthestudyofsuchsystemsgenerally.Syntax:Thelinguisticsystemofgrammaticalrelationshipsofwordswithinsentences,suchasorderingandagreement.Semantics:Thelinguisticstudyofmeaning.Lexicon:Thecomponentoflanguagethatisconcernedwithwordsandtheirmeanings.Behaviorism:Themostinfluentialcognitiveframeworkappliedtolanguagelearninginthe1950s.Itclaimsthatlearningistheresultofhabitformation.Audiolingualmethod:Anapproachtolanguageteachingthatemphasizesrepetitionandhabitformation.Thisapproachwaswidelypracticedinmuchoftheworlduntilatleastthe1980s.Transformational-GenerativeGrammar:Thefirstlinguisticframeworkwithaninternalfocus,whichrevolutionizedlinguistictheoryandhadprofoundeffectonboththestudyoffirstandsecondlanguages.Chomskyarguedeffectivelythatthebehavioristtheoryoflanguageacquisitioniswrongbecauseitcannotexplainthecreativeaspectsoflinguisticability.Instead,humansmusthavesomeinnatecapacityforlanguage.PrinciplesandParameters(model):TheinternallyfocusedlinguisticframeworkthatfollowedChomsky’sTransformational-GenerativeGrammar.ItrevisedspecificationsofwhatconstitutesinnatecapacitytoincludemoreabstractnotionsofgeneralprinciplesandconstraintscommontohumanlanguageaspartofaUniversalGrammar.Minimalistprogram:TheinternallyfocusedlinguisticframeworkthatfollowedChomsky’sPrinciplesandParametersmodel.Thisframeworkaddsdistinctionsbetweenlexicalandfunctionalcategorydevelopment,aswellasmoreemphasisontheacquisitionoffeaturespecificationasapartoflexicalknowledge.Functionalism:AlinguisticframeworkwithanexternalfocusthatdatesbacktotheearlytwentiethcenturyandhasitsrootsinthePragueSchool(布拉格学派)ofEasternEurope.Itemphasizestheinformationcontentofutterancesandconsiderslanguageprimarilyasasystemofcommunication.FunctionalistapproacheshavelargelydominatedEuropeanstudyofSLAandarewidelyfollowedelsewhereintheworld.Neurolinguistics:Thestudyofthelocationandrepresentationoflanguageinthebrain,ofinteresttobiologistsandpsychologistssincethenineteenthcenturyandoneofthefirstfieldstoinfluencecognitiveperspectivesonSLAwhensystematicstudybeganin1960s.Criticalperiod:ThelimitednumberofyearsduringwhichnormalL1acquisitionispossible.CriticalPeriodHypothesis:TheclaimthatchildrenhaveonlyalimitednumberofyearsduringwhichtheycanacquiretheirL1flawlessly;iftheysufferedbraindamagetothelanguageareas,brainplasticityinchildhoodwouldallowotherareasofthebraintotakeoverthelanguagefunctionsofthedamagedareas,butbeyondacertainage,normallanguagedevelopmentwouldnotbepossible.ThisconceptiscommonlyextendedtoSLAaswell,intheclaimthatonlychildrenarelikelytoachievenativeornear-nativeproficiencyinL2.Informationprocessing(IP):AcognitiveframeworkwhichassumesthatSLA(likelearningofothercomplexdomains)proceedsfromcontrolledtoautomaticprocessingandinvolvesprogressivereorganizationofknowledge.Connectionism:Acognitiveframeworkforexplaininglearningprocesses,beginninginthe1980sandbecomingincreasinglyinfluential.ItassumesthatSLAresultsfromincreasingstrengthofassociationsbetweenstimuliandresponses.Variationtheory:AmicrosocialframeworkappliedtoSLAthatexploressystematicdifferencesinlearnerproductionwhichdependoncontextsofuse.Accommodationtheory:AframeworkforstudyofSLAthatisbasedonthenotionthatspeakersusuallyunconsciouslychangetheirpronunciationandeventhegrammaticalcomplexityofsentencestheyusetosoundmorelikewhomevertheyaretalkingto.Socioculturaltheory(SCT):AnapproachestablishedbyVygotskywhichclaimsthatinteractionnotonlyfacilitateslanguagelearningbutisacausativeforceinacquisition.Further,alloflearningisseenasessentiallyasocialprocesswhichisgroundedinsocioculturalsettings.Ethnography(人种论、民族志)ofcommunication:AframeworkforanalysisoflanguageanditsfunctionsthatwasestablishedbyHymes(1966).Itrelateslanguageusetobroadersocialandculturalcontexts,andappliesethnographicmethodsofdatacollectionandinterpretationtostudyoflanguageacquisitionanduse.Acculturation(文化适应):LearningthecultureoftheL2communityandadaptingtothosevaluesandbehaviorpatterns.AcculturationModel/Theory:Schumann’s(1978)theorythatidentifiesgroupfactorssuchasidentityandstatuswhichdeterminesocialandpsychologicaldistancebetweenlearnerandtargetlanguagepopulations.HeclaimstheseinfluenceoutcomesofSLA.Socialpsychology:Asocietalapproachinresearchandtheorythatallowsexplorationofissuessuchashowidentity,status,andvaluesinfluenceL2outcomesandwhy.Ithasdisciplinarytiestobothpsychologicalandsocialperspectives.PARTTWO:Short&Longanswers:Chapter1Whatarethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenlinguists,psycholinguist,sociolinguistsandsocialpsycholinguistsP3（1）Linguistsemphasizethecharacteristicsofthedifferencesandsimilaritiesinthelanguagesthatarebeinglearned,andthelinguisticcompetence(underlyingknowledge)andlinguisticperformance(actualproduction)oflearnersatvariousstagesofacquisition.（2）Psychologistsemphasizethementalorcognitiveprocessesinvolvedinacquisition,andtherepresentationoflanguagesinthebrain.（3）Sociolinguistsemphasizevariabilityinlearnerlinguisticperformance,andextendthescopeofstudytocommunicativecompetence(underlyingknowledgethatadditionallyaccountsforlanguageuse,orpragmaticcompetence).（4）Socialpsychologistsemphasizegroup-relatedphenomena,suchasidentityandsocialmotivation,andtheinteractionalandlargersocialcontextsoflearning.Whatarethedifferencesbetweensecondlanguage,foreignlanguage,librarylanguageandauxiliarylanguageP4（1）Asecondlanguageistypicallyanofficialorsocietallydominantlanguageneededforeducation,employment,andotherbasicpurposes.Itisoftenacquiredbyminoritygroupmembersorimmigrantswhospeakanotherlanguagenatively.Inthismorerestrictedsense,thetermiscontrastedwithothertermsinthislist.（2）Aforeignlanguageisonenotwidelyusedinthelearners'immediatesocialcontextwhichmightbeusedforfuturetravelorothercross-culturalcommunicationsituations,orstudiedasacurricularrequirementorelectiveinschool,butwithnoimmediateornecessarypracticalapplication.（3）Alibrarylanguageisonewhichfunctionsprimarilyasatoolforfuturelearningthroughreading,especiallywhenbooksorjournalsinadesiredfieldofstudyarenotcommonlypublishedinthelearners'nativetongue.（4）Anauxiliarylanguageisonewhichlearnersneedtoknowforsomeofficialfunctionsintheirimmediatepoliticalsetting,orwillneedforpurposesofwidercommunication,althoughtheirfirstlanguageservesmostotherneedsintheirlives.Whyaresomelearnersmore(orless)successfulthanotherP5TheintriguingquestionofwhysomeL2learnersaremoresuccessfulthanothersrequiresustounpackthebroadlabel“learners”forsomedimensionsofdiscussion.LinguisticsmaydistinguishcategoriesoflearnersdefinedbytheidentityandrelationshipoftheirL1andL2;psycholinguistsmaymakedistinctionsbasedonindividualaptitudeforL2learning,personalityfactors,typesandstrengthofmotivation,anddifferentlearningstrategies;sociolinguistsmaydistinguishamonglearnerswithregardtosocial,economic,andpoliticaldifferencesandlearnerexperiencesinnegotiatedinteraction;andsocialpsychologistsmaycategorizelearnersaccordingtoaspectsoftheirgroupidentityandattitudestowardtargetlanguagespeakersortowardL2learningitself.Chapter2Listatleastfivepossiblemotivationsforlearningasecondlanguageatanolderage.P10Themotivationmayarisefromavarietyofconditions,includingthefollowing:Invasionorconquestofone’scountrybyspeakersofanotherlanguage;Aneedordesiretocontactspeakersofotherlanguagesineconomicorotherspecificdomains;Immigrationtoacountrywhereuseofalanguageotherthanone'sL1isrequired;Adoptionofreligiousbeliefsandpracticeswhichinvolveuseofanotherlanguage;Aneedordesiretopursueeducationalexperienceswhereaccessrequiresproficiencyinanotherlanguage;Adesireforoccupationalorsocialadvancementwhichisfurtheredbyknowledgeofanotherlanguage;Aninterestinknowingmoreaboutpeoplesofotherculturesandhavingaccesstotheirtechnologiesorliteratures.WhatarethetwomainfactorsthatinfluencethelanguagelearningP13（1）Theroleofnaturalability:Humansarebornwithanaturalabilityorinnatecapacitytolearnlanguage.（2）Theroleofsocialexperience:NotallofL1acquisitioncanbeattributedtoinnateability,forlanguage-specificlearningalsoplaysacrucialrole.Eveniftheuniversalpropertiesoflanguagearepreprogrammedinchildren,theymustlearnallofthosefeatureswhichdistinguishtheirL1fromallotherpossiblehumanlanguages.Childrenwillneveracquiresuchlanguage-specificknowledgeunlessthatlanguageisusedwiththemandaroundthem,andtheywilllearntouseonlythelanguage(s)usedaroundthem,nomatterwhattheirlinguisticheritage.American-bornchildrenofKoreanorGreekancestrywillneverlearnthelanguageoftheirgrandparentsifonlyEnglishsurroundsthem,forinstance,andtheywillfindtheirancestrallanguagejustashardtolearnasanyotherEnglishspeakersdoiftheyattempttolearnitasanadult.Appropriatesocialexperience,includingL1inputandinteraction,isthusanecessaryconditionforacquisition.WhatistheinitialstateoflanguagedevelopmentforL1andL2respectivelyP17-18TheinitialstateofL1learningiscomposedsolelyofaninnatecapacityforlanguageacquisitionwhichmayormaynotcontinuetobeavailableforL2,ormaybeavailableonlyinsomelimitedways.TheinitialstateforL2learning,ontheotherhand,hasresourcesofL1competence,worldknowledge,andestablishedskillsforinteraction,whichcanbebothanassetandanimpediment.HowdoesintermediatestatesprocessP18-19Thecross-linguisticinfluence,ortransferofpriorknowledgefromL1toL2,isoneoftheprocessesthatisinvolvedininterlanguagedevelopment.Twomajortypesoftransferwhichoccurare:(1)positivetransfer,whenanL1structureorruleisusedinanL2utteranceandthatuseisappropriateor“correct”intheL2;and(2)negativetransfer(orinterference),whenanL1structureorruleisusedinanL2utteranceandthatuseisinappropriateandconsideredan“error”.Whatisanecessaryconditionforlanguagelearning(L1orL2)P20LanguageinputtothelearnerisabsolutelynecessaryforeitherL1orL2learningtotakeplace.ChildrenadditionallyrequireinteractionwithotherpeopleforL1learningtooccur.ItispossibleforsomeindividualstoreachafairlyhighlevelofproficiencyinL2eveniftheyhaveinputonlyfromsuchgenerallynon-reciprocalsourcesasradio,television,orwrittentext.WhatisafacilitatingconditionforlanguagelearningP20WhileL1learningbychildrenoccurswithoutinstruction,andwhiletherateofL1developmentisnotsignificantlyinfluencedbycorrectionofimmatureformsorbydegreeofmotivationtospeak,bothrateandultimatelevelofdevelopmentinL2canbefacilitatedorinhabitedbymanysocialandindividualfactors,suchas(1)feedback,includingcorrectionofL2learners'errors;(2)aptitude,includingmemorycapacityandanalyticability;(3)motivation,orneedanddesiretolearn;(4)instruction,orexplicitteachinginschoolsettings.Giveatleast2reasonsthatmanyscientistsbelieveinsomeinnatecapacityforlanguage.P21-24Thenotionthatinnatelinguisticknowledgemustunderlie（指原则、理由构成某学说...的基础，潜在于...之下)languageacquisitionwasprominentlyespoused(采纳或支持事业理念)byNoamChomsky.Thisviewhasbeensupportedbyargumentssuchasthefollowing:Children’sknowledgeoflanguagegoesbeyondwhatcouldbelearnedfromtheinputtheyreceive:Childrenoftenhearincompleteorungrammaticalutterancesalongwithgrammaticalinput,andyettheyaresomehowabletofilterthelanguagetheyhearsothattheungrammaticalinputisnotincorporatedintotheirL1system.Further,childrenarecommonlyrecipientsofsimplifiedinputfromadults,whichdoesnotincludedataforallofthecomplexitieswhicharewithintheirlinguisticcompetence.Inaddition,childrenhearonlyafinitesubsetofpossiblegrammaticalsentences,andyettheyareabletoabstractgeneralprinciplesandconstraintswhichallowthemtointerpretandproduceaninfinitenumberofsentenceswhichtheyhaveneverheardbefore.Constraintsandprinciplescannotbelearned:Children’saccesstogeneralconstraintsandprincipleswhichgovernlanguagecouldaccountfortherelativelyshorttimeittakesfortheL1grammartoemerge,andforthefactthatitdoessosystematicallyandwithoutany“wild”divergences.Thiscouldbesobecauseinnateprinciplesleadchildrentoorganizetheinputtheyreceiveonlyincertainwaysandnotothers.Inadditiontothelackofnegativeevidence,constraintsandprinciplescannotbelearntinpartbecausechildrenacquireafirstlanguageatanagewhensuchabstractionsarebeyondtheircomprehension;constraintsandprinciplesarethusoutsidetherealmoflearningprocesswhicharerelatedtogeneralintelligence.Universalpatternsofdevelopmentcannotbeexplainedbylanguage-specificinput:Inspiteofthesurfacedifferencesininput,therearesimilarpatternsinchildacquisitionofanylanguageintheworld.Theextentofthissimilaritysuggeststhatlanguageuniversalsarenotonlyconstructsderivedfromsophisticatedtheoriesandanalysesbylinguists,butalsoinnaterepresentationsineveryyoungchild’smind.Linguistshavetakenaninternaland/orexternalfocustothestudyoflanguageacquisition.WhatisthedifferencebetweenthetwoP25-26Internalfocusemphasizesthatchildrenbeginwithaninnatecapacitywhichisbiologicallyendowed,aswellastheacquisitionoffeaturespecificationasapartoflexicalknowledge;whileexternalfocusemphasizestheinformationcontentofutterances,andconsiderslanguageprimarilyasasystemofcommunication.WhatarethetwomainfactorsforlearningprocessinthestudyofSLAfromapsychologicalperspectiveP26-27(1)InformationProcessing,whichassumesthatL2isahighlycomplexskill,andthatlearningL2isnotessentiallyunlikelearningotherhighlycomplexskills.Processingitselfisbelievedtocauselearning;(2)Connectionism,whichdoesnotconsiderlanguagelearningtoinvolveeitherinnateknowledgeorabstractionofrulesandprinciples,butrathertoresultfromincreasingstrengthofassociations(connections)betweenstimuliandresponses.WhatarethetwofociforthestudyofSLAfromthesocialperspectiveP27(1)Microsocialfocus:theconcernswithinthemicrosocialfocusrelatetolanguageacquisitionanduseinimmediatesocialcontextsofproduction,interpretation,andinteraction.(2)Macrosocialfocus:theconcernsofthemacrosocialfocusrelatelanguageacquisitionandusetobroaderecologicalcontexts,includingcultural,political,andeducationalsettings.Week10Chapter5SocialcontextsofSecondLanguageAcquisitionPARTONE:DefinitionCommunicativecompetence:Abasictenetofsociolinguisticsdefinedas“whataspeakerneedstoknowtocommunicateappropriatelywithinaparticularlanguagecommunity”(Saville-Troike2003)Languagecommunity:Agroupofpeoplewhoshareknowledgeofacommonlanguagetoatleastsomeextent.Foreignertalk:SpeechfromL1speakersaddressedtoL2learnersthatdiffersinsystematicwaysfromlanguageaddressedtonativeorveryfluentspeakers.DirectCorrection:Explicitstatementsaboutincorrectlanguageuse.Indirectcorrection:Implicitfeedbackaboutinappropriatelanguageuse,suchasclarificationrequestswhenthelistenerhasactuallyunderstoodanutterance.InteractionHypothesis:TheclaimthatmodificationsandcollaborativeeffortswhichtakeplaceinsocialinterationfacilitateSLAbecausetheycontributetotheaccessibilityofinputformentalprocessing.Symbolicmediation:Alinkbetweenaperson’scurrentmentalstateandhigherorderfunctionsthatisprovidedprimarilybylanguage;consideredtheusualroutetolearning(oflanguage,andoflearningingeneral).PartofVygosky’sSocioculturalTheory.Variablefeatures:Multiplelinguisticforms(vocabulary,phonology,morphology,syntax,discourse)thataresystematicallyorpredictablyusedbydifferentspeakersofalanguage,orbythesamespeakersatdifferenttimes,withthesamemeaningorfunction.Linguisticcontext:Elementsoflanguageformandfunctionassociatedwiththevariableelement.Psychologicalcontext:factorsassociatedwiththeamountofattentionwhichisbeinggiventolanguageformduringproduction,thelevelofautomaticityversuscontrolinprocessing,ortheintellectualdemandsofaparticulartask.Microsocialcontext:featuresofsetting/situationandinteractionwhichrelatetocommunicativeeventswithinwhichlanguageisbeingproduced,interpreted,andnegotiated.Accommodationtheory:AframeworkforstudyofSLAthatisbasedonthenotionthatspeakersusuallyunconsciouslychangetheirpronunciationandeventhegrammaticalcomplexityofsentencestheyusetosoundmorelikewhomevertheyaretalkingto.ZPD:ZoneofProximalDevelopment,anareaofpotentialdevelopmentwherethelearnercanonlyachievethatpotentialwithassistance.PartofVygosky’sSocioculturalTheory.Scaffolding:Verbalguidancewhichanexpertprovidestohelpalearnerperformanyspecifictask,ortheverbalcollaborationofpeerstoperformataskwhichwouldbetoodifficultforanyoneoftheminindividualperformance.Intrapersonalinteraction:communicationthatoccurswithinanindividual'sownmind,viewedbyVygoskyasasocioculturalphenomen.Interpersonalinteraction:Communicativeeventsandsituationsthatoccurbetweenpeople.Socialinstitutions:Thesystemswhichareestablishedbylaw,custom,orpracticetoregulateandorganizethelifeofpeopleinpublicdomains:e.g.politics,religion,andeducation.Acculturation:learningthecultureoftheL2communityandadaptingtothosevaluesandbehavioralpatterns.Additivebilingualism:TheresultofSLAinsocialcontextswheremembersofadominantgrouplearnthelanguageofaminoritywithoutthreatto