02Chapter 2_sound 语言学概论 教学课件

ChapterTwoSpeechSoundsAshumanbeingswearecapableofmakingallkindsofsounds,butonlysomeofthesesoundshavebecomeunitsinthelanguagesystem.Wecananalyzespeechsoundsfromvariousperspectivesandthetwomajorareasofstudyarephoneticsandphonology.Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.ArticulatoryPhoneticsisthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.AcousticPhoneticsisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds.PerceptualorAuditoryPhoneticsisconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguages.Itaimsto‘discovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur’.Inphonologywenormallybeginbyanalyzinganindividuallanguage,sayEnglish,inordertodetermineitsphonologicalstructure,i.e.whichsoundunitsareusedandhowtheyareputtogether.Thenwecomparethepropertiesofsoundsystemsindifferentlanguagesinordertomakehypothesesabouttherulesthatunderlietheuseofsoundsinthem,andultimatelyweaimtodiscovertherulesthatunderliethesoundpatternsofalllanguages.1.Howspeechsoundsaremade1.1SpeechorgansPositionofthevocalfolds:voicelessPositionofthevocalfolds:voicing(initial&thewidestaperture)Positionofthevocalfolds:glottalstop1.2TheIPAIn1886,thePhoneticTeachers’AssociationwasinauguratedbyasmallgroupoflanguageteachersinFrancewhohadfoundthepracticeofphoneticsusefulintheirteachingandwishedtopopularizetheirmethods.ItwaschangedtoitspresenttitleoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation(IPA)in1897.OneofthefirstactivitiesoftheAssociationwastoproduceajournalinwhichthecontentswereprintedentirelyinphonetictranscription.TheideaofestablishingaphoneticalphabetwasfirstproposedbytheDanishgrammarianandphoneticianOttoJespersen(1860-1943)in1886,andthefirstversionoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(theIPAchart)waspublishedinAugust1888.Itsmainprincipleswerethatthereshouldbeaseparateletterforeachdistinctivesound,andthatthesamesymbolshouldbeusedforthatsoundinanylanguageinwhichitappears.ThealphabetwastoconsistofasmanyRomanalphabetlettersaspossible,usingnewlettersanddiacriticsonlywhenabsolutelynecessary.Theseprinciplescontinuetobefollowedtoday.TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(Revisedto2005)2.ConsonantsandvowelsConsonantsareproduced‘byaclosureinthevocaltract,orbyanarrowingwhichissomarkedthataircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefriction’.Bycontrast,avowelisproducedwithoutsuch‘stricture’sothat‘airescapesinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthornose’.Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.Asthereisnoobstructionofairintheproductionofvowels,thedescriptionoftheconsonantsandvowelscannotbedonealongthesamelines.2.1ConsonantsIntheproductionofconsonantsatleasttwoarticulatorsareinvolved.Forexample,theinitialsoundinbadinvolvesbothlipsanditsfinalsegmentinvolvestheblade(orthetip)ofthetongueandthealveolarridge.Thecategoriesofconsonant,therefore,areestablishedonthebasisofseveralfactors.Themannerofarticulationreferstowaysinwhicharticulationcanbeaccomplished:thearticulatorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninstantorarelativelylongperiod;theymaynarrowthespaceconsiderably;ortheymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachother.Stop(orPlosive)Oral&NasalFricative(Median)ApproximantLateral(Approximant)TrillTaporFlapAffricateTheplaceofarticulationreferstothepointwhereaconsonantismade.Practicallyconsonantsmaybeproducedatanyplacebetweenthelipsandthevocalfolds.ElevenplacesofarticulationaredistinguishedontheIPAchart:BilabialLabiodentalDentalAlveolarPostalveolar(Palatal-Alveolar)RetroflexPalatalVelarUvularPharyngealGlottal2.2VowelsTheoretically,anysegmentmustbeeitheravoweloraconsonant.Theproblematicareaisthatinyetandwettheinitialsegmentsareobviouslyvowels.Togetoutofthisproblem,theusualsolutionistosaythatthesesegmentsareneithervowelsnorconsonantsbutmidwaybetweenthetwocategories.Forthispurpose,theterm‘semi-vowel’isoftenused.Languagesalsofrequentlymakeuseofadistinctionbetweenvowelswherethequalityremainsconstant(unchanged)throughoutthearticulationandthosewherethereisanaudiblechangeofquality.Theformerareknownaspureormonophthongvowels(单元音)andthelatter,vowelglides〔滑元音〕.Ifasinglemovementofthetongueisinvolved,theglidesarecalleddiphthongs〔双元音〕.Adoublemovementproducesatriphthong〔三合元音〕,whichis‘aglidefromonevoweltoanotherandthentoathird,allproducedrapidlyandwithoutinterruption’.Theyarereallydiphthongsfollowedbytheschwa〔中性元音，即[ə]〕,foundinEnglishwordslikewire[waɪə]andtower[taʊə].2.3ThesoundsofEnglishReceivedPronunciation(RP)themostcommonmodelaccentintheteachingofEnglishasaforeignlanguage,alsocalledBBCEnglish/OxfordEnglish.GeneralAmerican(GA)thewidelyacceptedaccentusedbymosteducatedspeakersintheUSA.EnglishconsonantsTheconsonantsofEnglishcanbedescribedinthefollowingmanner:[p] voicelessbilabialstop[b] voicedbilabialstop[s] voicelessalveolarfricative[z] voicedalveolarfricativeEnglishvowelsThedescriptionofEnglishvowelsneedstofulfillfourbasicrequirements:theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low);thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back);thelengthortensenessofthevowel(tense(紧)vs.lax〔松〕orlongvs.short),Notethatthetenseorlaxfeaturecorrespondstothefeatureoflongorshortrespectively.lip-rounding(roundedvs.unrounded).NotethatinEnglishallthefrontvowelsandthecentralvowelsareunroundedvowels,ie,withoutroundingthelips,andallthebackvowels,withtheexceptionof[B:],arerounded.WecannowdescribetheEnglishvowelsinthisway:3.FromphoneticstophonologySpeechisacontinuousprocess,sothevocalorgansdonotmovefromonesoundsegmenttothenextinaseriesofseparatesteps.Rather,soundscontinuallyshowtheinfluenceoftheirneighbors.Forexample,inthewordlamb,/A/isfollowedby/m/,sothevelumwillbegintoloweritselfduringthearticulationof/A/sothatitisreadyforthefollowingnasal.Accordingly,/A/showstheinfluenceofitsneighbor/m/.3.1Coarticulation〔协同发音〕coarticulation:simultaneousoroverlappingarticulations,aswhenthenasalqualityofanasalsoundaffectstheprecedingorfollowingsoundsothatthelatterbecomesnasalized.Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,asinthecaseoflamb,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation(先期协同发音).Ifthesoundshowstheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,itisperseverativecoarticulation〔后滞协同发音〕,asisthecaseofmap〔Nasalqualityof/m/carriesforwardtothevowel/A/.Inotherwords,theprocessofloweringsoftpalateisstillinprocesswhenthearticulationof/A/hasbegun.〕Thefactthatthevowel[]inlambhassomequalityofthefollowingnasalisaphenomenonwecallnasalization.Toindicatethatavowelhasbeennasalized,weaddadiacritictothetopofthesymbol[],as[].Bythesametoken,wecanusethesediacriticsforrecordingothervariationsofthesamesound.Take/p/forexample,itisaspiratedinpeakandunaspiratedinspeak.Thisaspiratedvoicelessbilabialstopisthusindicatedbythediacritich,as[ph],whereastheunaspiratedcounterpartistranscribedas[p].Whenweuseasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscription,itiscalledabroadtranscription(宽式转写)，normallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooksforgeneralpurposes.Theuseofmorespecificsymbols(,withdiacritics)toshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasanarrowtranscription〔窄式转写〕,neededandusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.Botharephonetictranscriptionssoweputbothformsinsquarebrackets[].3.2Phonemes〔音位〕Phonologyisnotspecificallyconcernedwiththephysicalpropertiesofthespeechproductionsystem.Phoneticiansareconcernedwithhowsoundsdifferinthewaytheyarepronouncedwhilephonologistsareinterestedinthepatterningofsuchsoundsandtherulesthatunderliesuchvariations.Crystal:‘Phonologicalanalysisreliesontheprinciplethatcertainsoundscausechangesinthemeaningofawordorphrase,whereasothersoundsdonot’.Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotherresultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.Forinstance,inthewordpit[pit],ifwereplace/p/by/b/,adifferentwordresults:bit;Incontrast,inthewordspeak[spi:k],ifwereplaceunaspirated[p]byaspirated[ph],itisstillspeak,withoutanewlyemergentword,onlywithadifferentpronunciationcausedbydialectorpersonalhabit.Sowecanconcludethat/p/and/b/representdifferentphonemesinEnglish,while[p]and[ph]not.ThistechniqueiscalledMinimalPairstest.Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.SoinEnglishpitandbitareaminimalpair,andsoaretieanddie,tinanddin,andpillandtill.MinimalPairstestisaneasywaytodeterminephonemes:1.Tofindtheminimalpairs.2.Tofindoutifsubstitutingonesoundforanotherinaminimalpairresultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.Theword‘phoneme’simplyreferstoa‘unitofexplicitsoundcontrast’:theexistenceofaminimalpairautomaticallygrantsphonemicstatustothesoundsresponsibleforthecontrasts(Roca&Johnson,1999:53).Byselectingonetypeofsoundinsteadofanotherwecandistinguishonewordfromanother.(Spenser,1996:3)Phoneme:aphonologicalunit;aunitofexplicitsoundcontrast.Iftwosoundsinalanguagemakeacontrastbetweentwodifferentwords,theyaresaidtobedifferentphonemes.Languagesdifferintheselectionofcontrastivesounds.InEnglish,thedistinctionbetweenaspirated[ph]andunaspirated[p]isnotphonemic.Theybothbelongtothesamephoneme/p/,butarerealizedasdifferentphoneticsoundsconditionedbydifferentpositons.InChinese,however,thedistinctionbetween/p/and/ph/isphonemicsothat宾and拼aretranscribedas/pin/and/phin/respectively.Thedifferencebetweenthepinyinsymbolsbandpisnotthedifferenceofvoicingbutthedifferenceofaspiration–thereisnovoiced[b]inChinesePutonghua.Byconvention,phonemictranscriptionsareplacedbetweenslantlines(//)whilephonetictranscriptionsareplacedbetweensquarebrackets([]).Inphoneticterms,phonemictranscriptionsrepresentthe‘broad’transcriptions.3.3Allophones(音位变体)[p,ph]aretwodifferentphonesandarevariantsofthephoneme/p/.Suchvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophonesofthesamephoneme.Inthiscasetheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution〔互补分布〕becausetheyneveroccurinthesamecontext:[p]occursafter[s]while[ph]occursinotherplaces.Wecanrepresentthisruleas:/p/[p]/ [s]_____[ph]elsewhereNote:Thearrowrepresentstheprocessofvariation;theslash/specifiestheenvironmentinwhichtheprocesstakesplace.Thebar____(calledtheFocusBar)indicatesthepositionofthetargetsegment,,thepositioninwhich/p/appears.Thisphenomenonofvariationinthepronunciationofphonemesindifferentpositionsiscalledallophonyorallophonicvariation.Allophone:variantsofthesamephoneme.Iftwoormorephoneticallydifferentsoundsdonotmakeacontrastinmeaning,theyaresaidtobeallophonesofthesamephoneme.Tobeallophones,theymustbeincomplementarydistributionandbearphoneticsimilarity.Phoneticsimilarity:theallophonesofaphonememustbearsomephoneticresemblance.Notallthephonesincomplementarydistributionareconsideredtobeallophonesofthesamephoneme./h/occursonlyatthebeginningofasyllable,and/N/alwaysoccursattheendofasyllable.Intermsofdistribution,theyarecomplementarytoeachother.ButtheyarenotassignedtothesamephonemeinEnglish,becausephoneticallyspeaking,theyhavelittleincommonexceptthattheyarebothconsonants./h/isavoicelessglottalfricative,while/N/avoicedvelarnasal.FreevariantsandfreevariationSometimesaphonememayalsohaveFreeVariants.Forexample,thefinalconsonantofcupmaynotbereleasedbysomespeakerssothereisnotaudiblesoundattheendofthisword.Inthiscaseitisthesamewordpronouncedintwodifferentways.Thisdifferencemaybecausedbydialectorpersonalhabit,insteadofbyanydistributionrule.SuchaphenomenoniscalledFreevariation.moreexamples:Pakistancity奶，从琢磨4.Phonologicalprocesses,phonologicalrulesanddistinctivefeatures4.1Assimilation〔同化〕Nasalization,dentalization,andvelarizationareallinstancesofassimilation,aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,wecallitregressiveassimilation〔逆同化〕.Theconverseprocess,inwhichaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,isknownasprogressiveassimilation.EnglishFricativeDevoicingDevoicingisaprocessbywhichvoicedsoundsbecomevoiceless;devoicingdoesnotoccurwithothersounds,suchasstopsandvowels./v/[f]/z/[s]etc.voicedfricativevoiceless/____voicelessNasalizationrule:[-nasal][+nasal]/____[+nasal]Dentalizationrule:[-dental][dental]/____[dental]Velarizationrule:[-velar][+velar]/____[+velar]4.2Epenthesis〔增音〕,ruleorderingandtheElsewhereConditionahotel,aboy,ause,awagon,abigman,ayellowrug,awhitehouseanapple,anhonor,anorangecurtain,anoldladyEpenthesis(Insertion)Rule:(indicatinganemptyposition.)PluralsinEnglishNote:1.Sibilants(咝音辅音)refertosomefricativesandaffricates:/s,z,F,V,tF,dV/.2./z/occursinmostcases,soitisthebasicformandtheothertwoformsarederivedfromit.Thebasicformistechnicallyknownasunderlyingform,thederivedsurfaceform.Withthesetworulesathand,seeifwecanderivethecorrectsurfaceformfromtheunderlyingform.TheElsewhereCondition〔剩余位置规那么〕Themorespecificruleappliesfirst.两条操作原那么在派生过程的某一点发生冲突时，操作范围受限制的那条规那么优先起作用。4.3DistinctivefeaturesTheideaofDistinctiveFeatureswasfirstdevelopedbyRomanJacobson(1896-1982)inthe1940sasameansofworkingoutasetofphonologicalcontrastsoroppositionstocaptureparticularaspectsoflanguagesounds.Sincethenseveralversionshavebeensuggested.Someofthemajordistinctionsinclude[consonantal],[sonorant响音],[nasal]and[voiced].Thefeature[consonantal]candistinguishbetweenconsonantsandvowels,soallconsonantsare[+consonantal]andallvowels[–consonantal].[sonorant]distinguishesbetweenwhatwecallobstruents〔阻塞音〕(stops,fricativesandaffricates)andsonorants(allotherconsonantsandvowels),withobstruentsbeing[–sonorant]andothers[+sonorant].[nasal]and[voiced]ofcoursedistinguishnasal(includingnasalized)soundsandvoicedsoundsrespectively.Theseareknownasbinaryfeaturesbecausewecangroupthemintotwocategories:onewiththisfeatureandtheotherwithout.Binaryfeatureshavetwovaluesorspecificationsdenotedby‘ + ’and‘ – ’sovoicedobstruentsaremarked[+voiced]andvoicelessobstruentsaremarked[–voiced].Theplacefeaturesarenotbinaryfeatures–theyaredividedupintofourvalues:[PLACE:Labial][PLACE:Coronal舌冠/尖][PLACE:Dorsal舌背/][PLACE:Radical舌根]Theyareoftenwritteninshorthandformsas[Labial]p[Coronal]p[Dorsal]p[Radical]pDistinctivefeaturematrixforEnglishconsonantphonemes糙音糙音龈前龈前糙音Ausefulfeatureforconsonantsnotfoundhereis[±spread展喉](for‘spreadglottis’),whichdistinguishesbetween‘aspirated’and‘unaspirated’voicelessobstruents.Aspiratedsoundsare[+spread]andunaspiratedsoundsare[–spread].Nowwecanrepresenttherulethatgovernstheunaspirationof/p/after[s]intermsoffeatures:-cont-voice[–spread]/[s]_____[+spread]inotherplacesThisisamoregeneralrule,whichalsoappliesto/t/and/k/.Itmeansthat/p,t,k/([–voiced,–cont])areallunaspirated([–spread])after[s]andaspirated([+spread])inallotherpositions.PasttenseformsinEnglishstopped,walked,coughed,kissed,leashed,reachedstabbed,wagged,achieved,buzzed,soothed,bridgedsteamed,stunned,pulledplayed,flowed,studiedwanted,located,decided,guidedTheregularpasttenseforminEnglishispronouncedas[t]whenthewordendswithavoicelessconsonant,[d]whenitendswithavoicedsound,and[ɪd]whenitendswith[t]or[d].Wetake[d]astheunderlyingformbecauseitisthemostlydistributedcoveringallsonorants.5.SuprasegmentalsSuprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalsare:5.1ThesyllablestructureσOnset(节首)Rime〔韵基〕Nucleus〔节核〕Coda〔节尾〕kræktOpensyllable:bar,tieAsyllablethathasnocodaiscalledanopensyllableClosedsyllable:bard,tiedAsyllablewithcodaisaclosedsyllable.Differentlanguagespermitdifferentkindsofsyllables.InEnglish,theonsetpositionmaybeempty(asinour)orfilledbyaclusterofasmanyasthreeconsonants(asinspring)whilethecodapositionmaybefilledbyasmanyasfourconsonants(asinsixths)EnglishSyllable:(((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C)Chinesesyllable:(C)V(C)MaximalOnsetPrinciple(MOP)Whenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecoda.5.2StressStressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Intranscription,araisedverticalline[5]isoftenusedjustbeforethesyllableitrelatesto.Abasicdistinctionismadebetweenstressedandunstressedsyllables,theformerbeingmoreprominentthanthelatter,whichmeansthatstressisarelativenotion.Atthewordlevel,itonlyappliestowordswithatleasttwosyllables.Atthesentencelevel,amonosyllabicwordmaybesaidtobestressedrelativetootherwordsinthesentence.SentenceStressJohnboughtaredcar.JOHNboughtaredcar.JohnBOUGHTaredcar.JohnboughtaREDcar.JohnboughtaredCAR.5.3IntonationIntonationinvolvestheoccurrenceofrecurringfall-risepatterns,eachofwhichisusedwithasetofrelativelyconsistentmeanings,eitheronsinglewordsorongroupsofwordsofvaryinglength.FocusofChapter21.descriptionofEnglishconsonantsintermofmannerofarticulationandplaceofarticulation.2.DescriptionofEnglishvowels.3.Definitionofphoneme.4.Todefineandillustrateallophoneswithexamples5.Toknowaboutsometechnicalterms:coarticulation,assimilation,epenthesisandelsewherecondition