语言学定义

Forpersonaluseonlyinstudyandresearch;notforcommercialgenerallyknownaslinguistics.（应用语言学）appliedSpeechandwriting口头语与书Butin面语Displacement^言的移位性Displacemenmeansthatlanguageuseanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsSpeechandwritingarethetwocanbeusedtorefertothingswhichreferstotheapplicationoflinguist（majormediaofcommunication.arepresentornotpresent,realorprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especially'teachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.Otherrelatedbranchesinclude㈤nthropologicalinguistics,（人类语言学）neurologicallinguistics（神经语言学）mathematicallinguistics,（数字语言学）andisomputationallinguistics.计算机语言学）3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptiveanddescriptive规定与描写Modernlinguisticsregardstheimaginedmattersinthepast,:hspokenformoflanguageasprimarp「esent,orfuture,orinfar-awaybutnotthewrittenform.Reasonsplaces.are:1.Speechprecedeswriting;2.Culturaltransmission语言的文化Therearestillmanylanguagestha传递，性madethedistinctionbetweenlanciteansmitted.Itispasseddownfrom第一章绪论1/Whatislinguistics?什么是语言学？Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguagbutlanguagesingeneral.2/Thescopeoflinguistics语言学的研究范畴Thestudyoflanguageasawholeoftencalledgenerallinguistics.（普通语言学）Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunicationjscalledphonetics.（语音学）Thestudyofhowsoundsareputhaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten.Langueandparo国言和言语TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussureandparoleearly20thcentury.LanguereferstotheabstractWhilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.,wewerebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnedanew.Thisindicatesthatlanguageisculturallyonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanThestudyofmeaninginlanguagemodernlinguisticsisdescriptiverulestotellpeoplewhattheyshoulchadethedistinctioninordertomembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussurestingleoutoneaspectoflanguagelinguistsshoulddoistoabstracllanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualutogetherandusedincommunicatiscalledphonology.（音系学）Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.（形态学）Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax.（句法学）dnalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive,ifitaimstolaydownsayandwhattheyshouldnotsayissaidtobeprescriptive.Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionagrammarisprescriptivewhilelinguisticsystemsharedbyalltheforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatoflanguageandmakethemthebyinstinct.Chapter3Morphology形态学Definitio诧义Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.形态学是语法的一个分支，研究词的内部结构和构词。sMorphologyisdividedintotwosub-branches:inflectionalosubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.Competenceandperformance语calledsemantics.（语义学）Thetaskoflinguistsissupposed1Thestudyofmeaningincontexto:describethelanguagepeoplemorphologyandlexicalorderivationalmorphology.Theformeruseiscalledpragmatics.（语用学）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.（社会语言学）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindisactuallyuse,whetheritis“correct言育它力和语言运用ornot.ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.studiestheinflectionsandthelatteristhestudyofwordformation.Synchronicanddiachroni共时和历时ThedescriptionofalanguageatChomskyinthelate1950'建态学可分为两个分支科学:Hedefinescompetenceastheidea®折形态学和词汇或派生形态user'sknowledgeoftherulesofhs前者■研究词的屈折变化，somepointintimeisasynchronic,language,andperformancethe后者研究词的构成。study;thedescriptionofalanguageactualrealizationofthisknowledge1.Morpheme语素reiscoverandspecifythelanguagecalledpsycho-linguistics.心理语言学）Thestudyofapplications（astherecoveryofspeechability）isasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoimportant.inlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsisrules.Thesmallestmeaningfulunitoftanguage语言最小的意义单位。Themeaningmorphemesconveymaybeoftwokinds:lexical词。能够加上一个派生词缀的meaningandgrammaticalmeaningmorphemesmanifestvarious2.Syntaxasasystemofrules句语素达的意义有两种：词汇grammaticalrelationsor原有语素叫做词干。词干可以法是规则系统是一个黏着词根、B由语素或Syntaxconsistsofasetofabstract意义和语法意义。grammaticalcategoriessuchas2.Typesofmorphemes语素的分类a)Freemorphemesg由语素Freemorphemesarethenumber,tense,degree,andcase.TheEnglishinflectionalaffixesinclude:屈折词缀或屈折语素表明各种不同的语法关系或语法范畴,者本身就是一个派生词O实例:Tolerate词缀-ateQuickly词根toler-自由语素quickrulesthatallowwordstobecombinedwithotherwordstoformgrammaticalsentences.Aentenceisconsideredgrammaticalwhenitisinagreementwiththegrammatical+词缀-lymorphemeswhichareindependent如：数、时态、形容词和副词knowledgeinthemindofnativeunitsofmeaningandcanbeused的级和格。现在英语中的屈折Carelessness自由语素carespeakers.Universallyfoundinthefreelyallbythemselvesorin词缀包括:+词缀-less形成的派生词grammarsfallhumanlanguages,careless+词缀-nesscombinationwithothermorphemes.(e)s,indicatingpluralityofnounssyntacticrulescomprisethesystemofinternalizedinguisticknowledge自由语素是独立的意义单位,表示名词复数Affixesaredividedintotwokinds:lprefixesandsuffixes前缀和后缀能够独自自由使用，当然也可-(e)s,indicatingthirdpersonsinguofalanguagespeakerknownas以和其它语素结合使用。presenttense表示现在时的第Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthelinguisticcompetence.b)Boundmorphemes黍占着三人称单数stem,butusuallydonotchangeth(Thesyntacticrulesofanylanguage语素-(e)d,indicatingpasttenseforallpartofspeechoftheoriginalwordarefiniteinnumber,andyetthereisancholimittothenumberofsentencesBoundmorphemesarethethreepersons^示过去时Exceptionaretheprefixes-"morphemeswhichcannotbeused-ing,indicatingprogressiveaspectnativespeakersofthatlanguageareindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemeseitherfreeorbound,toformawo黏着语素是那些不能单独使用，而必须和其它语素一自由语素或黏着语素-结合在一起以形成一个单词的语素。3.表示进行时前缀改变词干的意思，但通常-er,indicatingcomparativedegree3f改变原词的词性。'dadj.andadverb形示形容词和副Typesofboundmorphemes黏着语素的分类Boundmorphemesincludetwo词比较级-est,indicatingsuperlativedegreeadj.andadverbs表示形容词和副词最高级s,indicatingthepossessivecanouns表示名词的所有格(m)-”是例外。Chapter4Syntax句法学WhatisSyntax?abletoproduceandcomprehend.】句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，句子由单词组合而成。句子的语法性是指句子的合成必须符合操本族语者头脑中的语法知识。任Syntaxstudiesthesentencesetofctureoflanguage.ThetermsyntaxcameoriginallyfromGreekDerivationalaffixesareaddedtoarHterallymeantarrangement.It何一种语言的句法规则都包含了说话者的头脑中的语言知识..系统(称为语言能力)任何语言的句法规则的数量是types:rootsandaffixes词根和词existingformtocreateaword.Thsmeansthatsentencesarestructuedr限的，但说话者可以理解和缀。isaverycommonwaytocreateneaiccordingtoaparticular表达的句子的数量是无限的。arrangementofwordsArootisoftenseenaspartofwordwordsinEnglish.Suchawayof3.Thebasiccomponentsofaitcanneverstandbyitselfalthougfword-formationiscalledderivationWell-arrangedsentencesaresentence句子的构成itbearsclear,definitemeaning;itandthenewwordformedbyconsideredgrammaticalsentencesAsentenceisastructurallyhGrammaticasentencesareformedmustbecombinedwithanotherroEerivationiscalledaderivative.Tindependentunitthatusuallyfollowingasetofsyntacticrules.oranaffixtoformaword.existingformtowhichaderivationcomprisesanumberofwordsto词根被看作是词的一部分，它affixcanbeaddediscalledastem句法学研究语言的句子结构formacompletestatement,questione该术语来自希腊语，字意是排有清楚、明确的意思，但不能Astemcanbeaboundroot,afreorcommand.Normally,asentence单独存在，它必须和另一个词morpheme,oraderivedformitsef列。句子是根据一种特定的排consistsofatleastasubject语)根或词缀组合构成单词。派生词缀加在一个原有的单词列词的方式构成的。排列正确anditspredicate(谓语)whicha止以构成一个新词。这是英语的句子被认为是合乎语法的句Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectioncontainsafiniteverboraverbandderivationa屈折词缀和派生中的一个很常见的构成新词的子。合乎语法的句子是根据一phrase.词缀方式，这样的方式叫派生法,套句法规则构成的。句法是一句子是一个结构独立和完整的Inflectionalaffixesorinflectional用派生法构成的新词叫派生个规则系统。语法单位，这一单位通常由一些单词组成一个完整的陈述句、问句或命令。一个句子至少包含一个主语和一个谓语，而谓语又包含一个限定动词或一个动词词组。Thereferringexpression(被才旨称calledcoordinatingconjunctionsuchas"and”but””or”.并列句包含两个子句，由and,but,or等并列连词连接。c)Thecomplexsentenc复合句Acomplexsentencecontainstwo是古希腊学者柏拉图提出的。该理论把词看作是该词所指事物的名称或标记。2)Theconceptualistview意念论oirheconceptualistviewholdsthat的对象),suchasaperson,aplace,oreclauses,oneofwhichisathing,anidea,oranevent,isincorporatedintckheother.Thatis,grammaticallycalledsubject.Athetwoclausesinacomplexsubjectisusuallyanounoranounsentenceholdunequalstatus,onephrase.Thepartofsentencewhiccomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallyhsubordinatingtheother.Theincorporatedprsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledanembedded'clause,andtheclauseintowhichcalledpredicate.Afiniteverb,isembeddediscalledamatrixinformallycalledthemainverbofaclause.sentence,expressesexistence复合句包含两个或两个以上的thereisnodirectlinkbetweena放到语境中去研究，但它更注重人的心理活动，认为语言的意义存在于语言使用者在交际过程中对听到话语的反应。3.Senseandreference!义和所指Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentlinguisticformandwhatitrefersto；aspectsofmeaning.rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthrought它们是词汇意义的既相互联系h鼠有所不同的两个方面。actionoroccurrencewhichislimitbyperson,number,tenseandmood.主语是指句子中被指称的对象，如人、物、事、概念等。主语通常由名词或名词词组构成。谓语是指对句子中主语进行表述或判断的部分。谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。限定动词常被称为句子的中心动词，表述存在、动作或出现，限定动词送人称、数、时态和情态的限制。4.Typesofsentences子的类型a)Thesimplesentences单句Asimplesentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandaloneasitsownsentence.简单句由一个子句构成，该子句包含一个主语和一个谓语，且独立构成句子。沽句，其中一个被并入另一个句子。复合句中两个句子的地位是不同的，一个句子从属于另一个句子。被并入或是从属的子句通常被称为子句，而包含子句的子句被称为主句Chapter5Semantics语义学Whatissemantics什么是语义学？Semanticscanbesimplydefinedthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.语义学可定义为对语言意义的研究。Someviewsconcerningthstudyofmeaning语义研究的几种主要理论1)Thenamingtheory命名论sitwasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsmediationofconceptsinthemind意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间(即语言与现歧世界之间)没有直接联系；确切地说，在理解语义时，是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。3)Contextualism语境论Contextualismisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningobservablecontexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized:the1)Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompliersareinterestedin.意义关心的是语言形式的内在意义。它是语言形式所有特征的总和，它是抽象且脱离语境to勺。它是词典编写者们所感兴趣的语义方面。简单地说，意义是词汇内在的，situationalcontextandthelinguistid由象的，游离于语境之外的意context.义。语境论以这样的假设为基础:*们可以从显而易见的语境中推知或归纳出语义。语境有两种：情景语境和语言语境。语境论认为语言的意义离不开et用语言的语境，语义不是抽象的，它存在于语境之中，它来自语境，取决于语境。4)Behaviorism行为主义Behavioristsattemptedtodefinet2)Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandnon-linguisticworldofexperience.所指是语言形式在现实世界中所指称的东西；涉及语言成分和非语言的经验世界的关系。简单地说，所指是词汇在特定】e勺语境中所指称的具体事物omeaningofalanguageformasthMajorsenserelations主“situationinwhichthespeakeruitandtheresponseitcallsforthint藤意义关系1)Synonymy同义关系usedinalanguagearetakentobethehearer.Thistheory,somewhatSynonymyreferstothesamenessb)Thecoordinatesentencelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.closetocontextualism,islinkedwithrclosesimilarityofmeaning.并歹U句SowordsarejustnamesorlabelsAcoordinatesentencecontainstwoorthings.clausejoinedbyalinkingword命名论是最原始的语义理论，psychologicalinterest.语义的行为主义论和语义的语境论有相似之处，它也把语义Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.同义现象指的是语义的相同或相近。词义相近的词叫同义词。Accordingtothewaytheydiffer,synonymscanbedividedintothefollowinggroups:a)Dialectalsynonyms-synonymsusedindifferentregion语用学和语义学识和对正在进行的语言交际所Pragmaticsandsemanticsarebohfc的环境的具体认识。linguisticstudiesofmeaning,but4.Sentencemeaningandtheyaredifferent.Whatessentiallyutterancemeaning］子意义和话distinguishessemanticsand语意义apragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyThemeaningofasentenceis言内行为，言外行为和言后行为。a)Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeanincbymeansofsyntaxdialects.meaning,thecontextofuseisBritishEnglishandAmericanconsidered.Ifitisnotconsideredabstract,andde-contextualized,lexiconandphonology.whileutterancemeaningisconcrete,内行为是说出词、短语和分Englisharethetwomajorthestudyisrestrictedtotheareaoandcontext-dependent.Utterance向的行为，它是通过句法、词studyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.pragmaticscanalsoberegardedakindofmeaningstudy.Itplacesthestudyofmeaningintheconte*Thesharedknowledgeisof际。由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。2PragmaticsandsemanticsContextisessentialtothepragmatSpeechacttheoryisanimportantgeographicalvarietiesoftheEngllanguage.方言同义词一用在不同地域方言中的同义词。英国英语和美国英语是英语的两大地理变体。示例：英国英语美国英语AutumnfallChapter6Pragmatics语用学1.Whatispragmatics?什么是语用学？PragmaticscanbedefinedastheAstheprocessofcommunicationessentiallyaprocessofconveyingmeaninginacertaincontext,inwhichlanguageisused.语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交stnaditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。3.Context语境studyoflanguage.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakeriandthehearer.语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为a说话者和听话者所共有的知识。twotypes:theknowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,andtheknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认basedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。5.SpeechacttheoryfF语行为理论theoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage.ItwasoriginatedwiththBritishphilosopherJohnAustininthelate50'softhe20thcen言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。Accordingtospeechacttheoryweareperformingactionswhenweaspeaking.根据言语行为理论，我们说话的同时是在实施某种行为。Accordingtospeechacttheory,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeakirlocutionaryact,illocutionaryact,aperlocutionaryact.根据言语行为理论，说话者说话时可能同时实施三种行为：汇和音位来表达字面意义的行为。Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker'sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.言外行为是表达说话者的意图的行为，它是在说某些话时所实施的行为。Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtabouttheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomethingChapter7HistoricalLinguisticsi莎史语言学1.Thepurposeand:urijgnificanceofthehistoricalstudyoflanguage研究语言变化的目的和意义Thehistoricalstudyoflanguageisofgreatimportancetoourunderstanding^humanlanguagesrandhumanlinguisticcompetence.Researchesinhistoricallinguisticsshedlightonprehistoricdevelopmentintheevolutionoflanguageandtheconnectionsofearlierandlatervariantsofthesame©anguage,andprovidevaluablenidsightsintothekinshippatternsofdifferentlanguages.Thehistoricalstudyoflanguagealsoenablesustodeterminehownon-linguisticfactors,suchassociOl,。在语言演变过程中,词汇renaissancemovement.变异culturalandpsychologicalfactors,和语法规则有的消亡了,有的古英语源自欧洲大陆的盎格鲁a)Speechcommunity言interactovertimetotriggerlinguistic生了，有的是外借的,有的撒克逊民族所操的语言。语社区change.则转化了其意义或功能。中古英语深受诺曼底占领者所Insociolinguisticstudies,speakers研究语言变化对于理解人类语尽管语言变化是普遍的,必然操的法语的影响。词汇和语法aretreatedasmembersofsocial言和人类的语言能力极其重的，有时甚至是显著的,但语等均受其影响。groups.Thesocialgroupisolatedfor要。言的变化是一个缓慢的渐变过现代英语是英语自身发展和欧anygivenstudyiscalledspeech历史语言学的研究成果揭示语程，其变化是同代人所不易察洲文艺复兴运动渗透结合的产community.Aspeechcommunity言变化的史前发展和同一语言觉的。物，很多词汇是外来语。thusdefinedasagroupofpeople早期和后期变体自己的联系,语言的发展可以看作是语言从AsBritishinfluencereachedotherwhoformacommunit乂whichmay”haveasfewmembersasafamilyor为不同语言的亲缘关系提供线一个阶段到另一个阶段的演化continents,the“BritishEmpire索。过程。establishedEnglish-speakingasmanymemberasacountry),and历史语言学的研究还可以使我3.Majorperiodsinthehistorycoloniesinsharethesamelanguageora们对非语言的因素，如社会文ofEnglishmanypartsoftheworld.Englishisparticularvarietyoflanguage.Theimportantcharacteristicofaspeech化和心理因素等在语言变化过英语历史发展的主要阶段nowthenativelanguageinthe程中所起的作用有更深的认识。2.Thenatureoflanguagechange语言变化的本质Alllivinglanguageschangewitha)OldEnglish(450-1100古英语阶段b)MiddleEnglish(1100-1500)中古英语阶段c)ModernEnglish(1500-)现代英语阶段time.UnlessalanguageisnolongfefrostModernEnglishspeakerfindspokenbythegeneralpublicofaMiddleEnglishonlypartiallysociety,suchasLatin,itschangeiscomprehensible,andOldEnglishinevitable.Asageneralrule,simplyunintelligible,justlikeaUnitedStates,Canada,AustraliacommunityisthatthemembersofandNewZealand.英帝国的兴起及其移民化过程的成功使现代英语的使用遍布全球。以现代英语为母语的国家包括英国、美国、加拿大、澳大利亚和新西兰等。4.EnglishLinguisticchangein英语语言系统的变化thegroupmust,insomereasonableway,interactlinguisticallywithothermembersofthecommunity.Theymaysharecloselyrelatedlanguagevarieties,aswellasattitudestowardlinguisticnorms.社会语言学研究中，说话者被当作是社会群体的成员。分离出来用于任何特定研究的社会hardlyforeignlanguagelanguagechangeisuniversalLanguagechangeisessentiallya群体称作言语社区。因而，言continuousand,toaconsiderable1recognizableasthenativelanguagmatterofchangeinthegrammar语社区就被定义为一个社区degree,regularandsystematictheyspeak.Werefertothechangeinthe(人数小到一个家庭，大到一大多数现代英语的使用者发Languagechangeisextensivegrammarofalanguageaslinguistics国家)使用同样的语言或语takingplaceinvirtuallyallaspectsof,对于他们来说，中古英语change.Linguisticchangeoccursirt的某种变体的一群人。言语thegrammar.只能部分地被理解，古英语则allcomponentsofthegrammar社区的重要特点是，这个群体Althoughlanguagechangeis如外语一般，简直不可理解。includingchangesinthesound的成员必须以某种适当的方式morphological,syntactic,lexicalandr其他的社区成员进行语言交universal,inevitable,andinsomeOldEnglishdatesbacktothecases,vigorous,itisneveranmid-fifthcenturywhenAnglo-Saxosemanticsystems.流。这些成员不仅可能对语言overnightoccurrence.invadedtheBritishIslesfromChapter8Socio-linguistics社会规范持相同态度，而且可能使LanguagedevelopmentmaybenorthernEurope.语言学用紧密联系的语言变体。regardedaslinguisticevolutionfrorMiddleEnglishbeganwiththe1.Whatissocio-linguistics?言语社区的范畴可以是地域性sSociolinguisticsisthesub-disciplii(ife位、经济地位、受教育程度、onestagetoanother.所有尚在使用的语言都随着时间的变化而变化。语言的变化是不可避免的。语言变化是普遍的、连续的，在一定程度上也是规则的和系统的。语言变化涉及语法系统的各大组成部arrivaloftheNormanFrenchinvadersinEngland.MiddleEnglihadbeendeeplyinfluencedbyNormanFrenchinvocabularyandgrammar.ModernEnglishisseparatedwithMiddleEnglishwithEuropean什么是社会语言学?oflinguisticsthatstudieslanguageinsocialcontexts.社会语言学是语言学的一个分支，它研究社会环境中的语言。2languagevariation语言的，也可以是跨地区的。社会兴趣爱好、职业、年龄等因素相同的人所使用的语言往往带有相同言语社区的烙印。b)Speechvariety言语变体Speechvarietyreferstoanyareawhereaspeakercomesfrom.BlackEnglishisstigmatizedas差异，也'儡！人英语使用者难distinguishableformofspeechuseRegionalvariationoflanguageis:henglish”,apurelysattituldetha以融入美国主流社会。byaspeakerorgroupofspeakers.mostdiscernibleanddefinable.hasnolinguisticbasis.Likeother2.Socialdialect社会方言a)Educationvarieties教Aspeechvarietymaybelexical,语言的地域变异产生了地区方varieties,BlackEnglishhassomephonological,morphological言。语言往往随着使用地理位vocabularyofitsown.Ithasa育变体syntactic,oracombinationof置的变化而变化。地域变异是numberofdistinctivefeaturesinitsSocialdialects,orsociolects,arelinguisticfeatures.Considereda语言最易辨别的特征。phonological,morphologicalandvarietiesoflanguageusedbymoreneutralterm,speechvarietyiThemostdistinguishablelinguisticsyntacticsystemswhicharepeoplebelongingtoparticularsocialrule-governedandsystematic.sometimesusedinsteadofstandadteatureofaregionaldialectisitsclasses.Thespeakersofasocial】黑人英语是英语的一种变体,language,vernacularlanguage,accent.Oftenspeakersofthesandialectusuallyshareasimilarsocialdialect,pidgin,creole,etc.Speechlanguagebutofdifferentregional使用者多为身处社会下层的美background.variationmovesonascaleofthedialectsofthelanguagehaveave胡黑人。将黑人英语视为劣等Manydifferencesinlanguagesuse英语是一种基于种族歧视的社nationallanguage,dialect,anddifficulttimecommunicating.Onepersistforeducationalreasons.Itis,individualwaysofcommunicationwayoutofthecommunication会观，与语言学观相悖。黑人therefore,importanttoknow,forSociolinguistsareparticularlydilemmaislanguagestandardizatdR语的语音、形态、句法和词example,whetheragroupofinterestedintheretypesofspeechknownaslanguageplanning.汇系统有明显不同于英语speakerssharesimilareducationalvariety,ordialects,namely,region菲言地域变异的最显著特征是的特征，但它符合语言是规则backgrounds.dialects,sociolectsorsocialdialect^域口音。由于口音差异给跨系统”的原则，是语言规则操作语言使用中的变体存在都是由andfunctionalspeechvarieties地区的交流造成理解上的困的产物，有着明显的自律性和教育因素造成的。因此，了解knownasregisters.Thetermdialect,,推广标准化的运动便应运系统性。一个说话者群体是否有相似的asatechnicalterminlinguistics而生。黑人英语与标准英语的区别的教育背景是重要的。carriesnovaluejudgmentandd)Socialvariation社会变具体内容见课本182—184页。社会方言通行于有着相同社会simplyreferstoadistinctformofb)Thesocialenvironmento清景的群体之中。社会群体的language.在社会环境中使用的语言都属SocialvariationgivesrisetoBlackEnglish黑人英语的社会sociolectswhicharesubdivisible环境多样化决定了社会方言的多样化。受过相同教育的人往往使于某种言语变体。一种言语变intosmallerspeechcategoriesTheassumptionthatBlackEnglish用相同的被称为教育变体的社,is“geneticalinferior"'deficient会方言。例如，语言的高等教体具有一些与其它言语变体不whichreflecttheirsocioeconomic同的特征。这些特征反映在发educational,occupationalandethnand“incompleteis,simply育变体和初等教育变体相比,音、句法规则、词汇上。言语background