自考英语词汇学复习大纲

Chapter1BasicConcepts基本概念1.1thedefinitionofaword（hedefinitionofawordcomprisesthefollowingpoints:(1)aminimalfreeformofalanguage;(2)asoundunity;(3)aunitofmeaning;(4)aformthatcanfunctionaloneinasentence.Awordisaminimalfreeformofalanguagethathasagivensoundandmeaningandsyntacticfunction.）1.2soundandmeaning：symbolicconnectionisalmostalwaysarbitraryandconventional.Adogiscalledadognotbecausethesoundandthethreelettersthatmakeupthewordjustautomaticallysuggesttheanimalinquestion.1.3soundandform：1.4vocabulary1.5classificationofwords词汇分类Chapter2DevelopmentItisassumedthattheworldhasapproximately3,000(someputit5,000)languages,whichcanbegroupedintoroughly300languagefamiliesonthebasisofsimilaritiesintheirbasicwordstockandgrammar.2.1Indo-European印欧语2.2Historicalreview历史概述2.3GrowthofPresent-dayEnglishVocabulary2.4ModesofVocabularyDevelopmentChapter3WordFormation3.1Morphemes词素Definition:Theseminimalmeaningfulunitsareknownasmorphemes.Inotherwords,themorphemeis"thesmallestfunctioningunitinthecompositionofwords".词素是“构词中最小功能单位”。3.2Allomorphs语素变体Morphemesareabstractunits,whicharerealizedinspeechbydiscreteunitsknownasmorphs.'Theyareactualspoken,minimalcarriersofmeaning'.Themorphemeistothemorphwhataphonemeistoaphone.词素是一个音素发音的语素。词素是真正能发音的最小的意义载体。morpheme3.3TypesofMorphemes3.4RootandStemTheaffixationandcompoundinginvolvedifferentword-formingelements词缀法和混合涉及不同的词语构成因素Chapter4Word-formationWordformation构词的方式4.1Affixation词缀法fallsintotwosubclasses（子类）:Affixationisgenerallydefinedastheformationofwordsbyaddingword-formingorderivationalaffixestostems.Thisprocessisalsoknownasderivation,fornewwordscreatedinthiswayarederivedfromoldforms.Thewordsformedinthiswayarecalledderivatives.词缀法可定义为通过给词干加结构词词缀或派生词缀构成新词的一种构词方法。用这种方法构成的词叫派生构词。因为通过这种方式创造的新词是从旧词派生而来。通过这种方式造出的词叫做“派生词”。4.1.1Prefixation前缀法weshallclassifyprefixesonasemanticbasisin​toninegroups我们可以在语义基础上将前缀分为九类Prefixationistheformationofnewwordsbyaddingprefixestostems.Prefixesdonotgenerallychangetheword-classofthestembutonlymodifyitsmeaning.前缀法是在词干上加上前缀构词的一种方法，前缀一般不改变词干的词类，只对词干的意义进行修饰。4.1.2Suffixation后缀法Suffixationistheformationofnewwordsbyaddingsuffixestostems.Unlikeprefixeswhichprimarilychangethemeaningofthestem.Suffixeshaveonlyasmallsemanticrole,theirprimaryfunctionbeingtochangethegrammaticalfunctionofstems.Inotherwords,theymainlychangethewordclass.后缀法是在词干加上后缀来构成新词。不像主要改变词干意义的前缀，后缀的只有很小语义作用，其主要功能是改变词干的语法功能。换句话说，他们主要是改变词性。4.2Compounding复合法Compounding,alsocalledcomposition,istheformationofnewwordsbyjoiningtwoormorestems.Wordsformedinthiswayarecalledcompounds.Soacompoundisalexicalunitconsistingofmorethanonestemandfunctioningbothgrammaticallyandsemanticallyasasingleword.复合法，同样也被称作合成法,是指由两个或者更多的词干相结合而构成的新词，此种方式形成的词被称为复合词。所以，复合词是“由多于一个以上的词干组成的，同时具有一个词的语法功能和意义功能的词汇单位”。4.2.1CharacteristicsofCompounds复合词的特征Compoundsdifferfromfreephrasesinthefollowingthreeaspects:复合词和自由词组不同于三个方面4.4.2FormationofCompounds复合词的形成4.3Conversion转化法Conversionistheformationofnewwordsbyconvertingwordsofoneclasstoanotherclass.Sincethewordsdonotchangeinmorphologicalstructurebutinfunction,thisprocessisalsoknownasfunctionalshift.Conversionisgenerallyconsideredtobeaderivationalprocesswherebyanitemisadaptedorconvertedtoanewwordclass,withouttheadditionofanaffix.Hencethenamezero-derivation.转类法是将一种词类转化为另一种词类构成新词的方法。这些词在语法意义上是新词。既然这些词在形态结构上不便，只在功能上有变化，这一转类过程也叫做功能转换。一般认为，转类法是单词不添加词缀而直接转化为一个新词的派生构词的过程。这一过程由于不加词缀，所以又称零派生。4.4blending拼缀法，混合词blendsfallintofourmajorgroups:Blendingistheformationofnewwordsbycombiningpartsoftwowordsorawordplusapartofanotherword.Wordsformedinthiswayarecalledblendsorpormanteauwords.拼缀法是通过合并两个词的某些部分或一个词与另外一个词的另一部分相加起来构成新词。以此种方式构成的词被称作为拼缀词或拼级词。4.5Clipping截短法，删减法Therearefourcommontypesofclipping:Anothercommonwayofmakingawordistoshortenalongerwordbycuttingapartofftheoriginalandusingwhatremainsinstead.Thisiscalledclipping.另一个常见的构词法时将原词的一部分截去，只用剩下来的一部分构成新词，这种方法叫截短法。4.6Acronym首字母缩词法4.7Back-formation逆构法Back-formationisconsideredtobetheoppositeprocessofsuffixation.Wordscreatedthroughback-formationaremostlyverbs.逆构法被认为是后缀法的相反过程。由逆构法生成的词多半是动词。FormationofnewwordsbyremovingthesupposedsuffixesStyle:informal非正式通过消除假想的后缀的方法来构词的方式4.8wordsfrompropernouns专有名词转化而来的词Style:vivid,impressive,thought-provoking生动，印象深刻，发人深省的·定义模式：it’stheformationofnewwordsbydoing…(doing是主要动词，可替换为add,cut,join/combine,change)·分类：1)词的自身长度变化(变形)：加减法加：affixation，减：clipping,back-formation2)词间组合：整体组合：compound;部分组合：blending;字母组合：acronymy3)词的自身变化:变性:conversion;变态/变位:wordsfrompropernames(普通化/特殊变为普通)Chapter5WordMeaning词义5.1MeaningsofmeaningWordsarebutsymbols,manyofwhichhavemeaningonlywhentheyhaveacquiredreference.Referenceistherelationshipbetweenlanguageandtheworld.词只是符号，许多词只有获得参照后才有意义。参照是语言与周围世界的关系。Meaningandconceptarecloselyconnectedbutnotidentical.Theyarebothrelateddirectlytoreferentsandarenotionsofthewordsbutbelongtodifferentcategories.意义与概念有紧密的联系，但并不等同。他们都直接与参照相关，都是词的概念，但属于不同的范畴。Generallyspeaking,themeaningof‘meaning’isperhapswhatistermed‘sense’.Unlikereference,‘sense’denotestherelationshipsinsidethelanguage.Everywordthat-hasmeaninghassense(noteverywordhasreference)一般来说，‘意义'的意义也许就是“语感”。不像参照，“语感”示的是语言内部的关系。有意义的每个词都有语感，但并不是每个词都有参照物。5.2Motivation动机Motivationaccountsfortheconnectionbetweenthelinguisticsymbolanditsmeaning.动机是语言符号和它意义之间的关系。5.3TypesofMeaning意义的类型Word-meaningisnotmonogeneousbutacompositeconsistingofdifferentparts.Theseareknowninfamiliartermsasdifferenttypesofmeaning.词义并非是成分单一的，而是由不同部分组合的复合物。这些在熟悉的术语中通常称作不同类型的意义。Chapter6SenseRelationsandSemanticField语义关系和语义场senserelations语义关系6.1Polysemy歧义Definition:thewordswithmorethanonesensesorwhichcanbeusedtoexpressmoremeanings一词多义。6.1.1TwoapprochestoPolysemy:歧义的两个角度6.1.2TwoProcessesofDevelopment:发展的两个过程6.2homonymy同音异义Definition:wordshavedifferentmeaningsbutidenticalsoundsorspelling声音拼写相同意义不同。6.2.1TypesofHomonyms同音异义的种类6.2.2OriginsofHomonyms：changesinsoundandspelling;Borrowing;Shortening同音异义的起源声音和拼写的变化，借词，缩短6.2.3DifferentiationofHomonymsfromPolysemants同音异义词和歧义词的区别6.2.4RhetoricFeaturesofHomonyms：createpunsfordesiredef​fect---humour,sarcasm,ridicule同音异义词的修饰特点为预期的效果制造双关语——幽默，讽刺，嘲笑6.3Synonymy同义词6.3.1DefinitionofSynonyms同义词定义Synonymscanbedefinedasworddifferentinsoundandspellingbutmostnearlyalikeorexactlythesameinmeaning.同义词可定义为在读音和拼写上不同但在意义却很相似或完全一样的词。6.3.2TypesofSynonyms同义词的类型6.3.3SourcesofSynonyms同义词的来源6.3.4DiscriminationofSynonyms同义词的辨别6.4Antonymy反义词6.4.1TypesofAntonyms反义词的类型6.4.2SomeoftheCharacteristicsofAntonyms反义词的一些特征6.4.3TheUseofAntonyms反义词的使用6.5Hyponymy上下位关系Hyponymydealswiththerelationshipofsemanticinclusion.Thatis,themeaningofamorespecificwordisincludedinthatofanothermoregeneralword.上下义关系涉及语义包容的关系。也就是说，一个更具体的词的意义被包含在另外一个更一般的的词的意义之中。6.6SemanticField语义场Definiton:wordstoreiscomposedaroundanumberofmeaningareas.围绕着一定数量的意义区域构成。Function:wordsineachfielddefineoneanother.每个语义场中的词语义关联和定义其他的。Chapter7ChangesinWordMeaning词义的变化7.1TypesofChanges变化类型7.2CausesofChanges变化原因7.2.1Extra-linguisticFactors语言以外的因素7.2.2LinguisticFactors语言因素：shortendphrase;borrowings;competitionofnativewords;analogy短语，借词，本地词竞争，类推Chapter8Meaning&Context意义和背景8.1TypesofContext背景类型8.1.1Extra-linguisticContext——non-linguisticsituation,culturalbackground非语言背景非语言状况，文化背景8.1.2LinguisticContext8.2TheRoleofContext背景的功能8.2.1EliminationofAmbiguity歧义的消除8.2.2IndicationofReferents指代物的说明8.2.3ProvisionofCluesforInferringWord-meaning推导词义的线索供应Chapter9EnglishIdioms英语习语Idiom—idiomsconsistofsetphrasesandshortsentences，whicharepeculiartothelanguageinquestionandloadedwiththenativeculturesandideas.Strictlyspeaking，idiomsareexpressionsthatarenotreadilyunderstandablefromtheirliteralmeaningsofindividualelements.Inabroadsense，idiomsmayincludecolloquialisms，catchphrases，slangexpressions，proverbs，etc.习语由固定的短语和短句组成，它们是所涉及的语言所独有的，而且带有本族的文化和观念。严格来讲，习语是不能从其个体成分的文字意思立即理解其意义的，从广义上讲，习语可以包括口语词、时髦词、俚语、谚语等。9.1CharacteristicsofIdioms习语的特点9.1.1SemanticUnity语义的整体性9.1.2StructuralStability结构稳定性9.2ClassificationofIdiomsThestandardofClassificationofidiomsisThecriterionof’grammaticalfunction’.习语的分类是语法功能的标准9.3UseofIdioms习语的使用Chapter10EnglishDictionary英语词典10.1TypesofDictionaries字典的种类10.2UseofDictionaries词典的使用10.3ThreeGoodGeneralDictionaries三种最好的普通词典10.3.1LongmanDictionaryofContemporaryEnglish(LDCE)NewEdition(1987)朗曼当代词典新版（1987）10.3.2CollinsCOBUILDEnglishLanguageDictionary(CCELD)(1987)柯林斯合作英语词典10.3.3AChinese-EnglishDictionary(Re​visedEdition)(CED)(1995)汉英词典（修订版）ced1995byusefrequency按使用频率分：basicwordstockandnonbasicvocabulary基本词汇和非基本词汇bynotion按概念分：contentwordsandfunctionalwords实义词和功能词byorigin按起源分：nativewordsandborrowedwords本地词和外来词basicwordstock基本词汇nonbasicvocabulary非基本词汇allnationalcharacter全民性stability稳定性productivity多产性polysemy一词多义collocability搭配性terminology术语jargon行话slang俚语argon黑话dialectalwords方言词archaism古语词neologism新词neutralinstyle文体上中性frequentinuse使用频繁nativewords本地词borrowedwords外来词denizens同化词aliens异形词translation-loans译借词semantic-loans借义词Noenoughletters:alphabetfromlatinPronunciationchangedmorerapidlyEarlyscribes:changespellingforeasierrecognitionBorrowing:differentrulesofpronunciationandspellingobviouscharacteristics明显的特点Easternset：东部诸语族：Westernset：西部诸语族：Balto-Slavic波罗的海-斯拉夫语Indo-Iranian印度-伊朗语Armenian亚美尼亚语Albanian阿尔巴尼亚语Celtic凯尔特语Italic意大利语Hellenic希腊语——GreekGermanic日耳曼语Norwegian挪威语Icelandic冰岛语Danish丹麦语Swedish瑞典语German德语Dutch荷兰语Flemish佛兰德语English英语Persian波斯语Bengali孟加拉国语Hindi印地语Romany普吉赛语Prussian普鲁士语Lithuanian立陶宛语Polish波兰语Czech捷克语Bulgarian保加利亚语Slovenian斯洛文尼亚语Russian俄语Portuguese葡萄牙语Spanish西班牙语French法语Italian意大利语Roumanian罗马尼亚语Scottish苏格兰语Irish爱尔兰语Welsh威尔士语Breton布里多尼语Scandinavianlanguages斯堪的纳维亚语Latin拉丁语言OldEnglish(450--1150)——Anglo-Saxon古英语盎格鲁-撒克逊语MiddleEnglish(1150-1500)中古英语ModernEnglish(1500-uptonow)现代英语50000-60000words5万~6万间词汇Highlyinflected高度转折complexendings复杂的结尾vowelchanges元音变化Frenchwords法语词汇leveledendings水平结尾EarlyModernEnglish(1500-1700)早期现代英语LateModernEnglish(1700-uptothepresent)晚期现代英语Borrow借词newwords新词noendings无结尾fromasyntheticlanguage(OldEnglish)tothepresentanalyticlanguage。从古英语的综合型语言发展成了现在的型语言。therapiddevelopmentofmodernscienceandtechnology（45％）现代科学和技术的迅猛发展（45％）social,economicandpoliticalchanges（11％）社会，经济和政治的变化（11％）theinfluenceofotherculturesandlanguages（24％）其它文化和语言的影响（24％）Creation创词——formationofnewwords,mostimportantsemanticchange旧词新义——oldformwithnewmeaning,newusagesborrowing借词——vitalrolethreemainsources三种主要来源monomorphemicwords：canstandbythemselvesandfunctionfreelyinasentence.单语素词在句子中独立起作用allomorphs：thealternativemorphsofthesamemorpheme词素变体可替换语素（音标）的相同词素freemorpheme——freeroot自由语素自由词根boundmor�pheme粘着语素boundroot：fundamentalmeaning粘着词根基本意义affix词缀（附加物）attach,modify附着，修饰Inflectionalaffix——attachedtotheendofwords附在词尾曲折词缀Grammaticalrelationships文法关系derivationalaffix派生词缀prefix前缀Suffix后缀affix词缀rootorstem词根或词干Independent独立freegrammaticalunits自由的语法单位completemeanings完整的意义Nounsuffixes名词后缀Adjectivesuffixes形容词后缀Adverbsuffixes:-ly,-ward(s),-wise副词后缀Verbsuffixes：-ate,-en,-(i)fy,-ize(-ise)动词后缀affixation(30%-40%)词缀法（30％-40％）compounding(28%-30%)复合法（28％-30％）conversion(26%)转化法（26％）shortening(8%-10%)缩略法（8％-10％）blendingandothermeans(1%-5%)拼缀法和其他方法（1％-5%）clipping删节acronymy首字母缩略法prefixation前缀法——beforetheword,modifythemeaning前置，改词意suffixation后缀法——aftertheword,changewordclass后置，改词性Negativeprefixes否定前缀Reversativeprefixes逆反前缀Pejorativeprefixes贬义前缀Prefixesofdegreeorsize程度大小前缀Prefixesoforientationandattitude倾向态度前缀Locativeprefixes方位前缀Prefixesoftimeandorder时间顺序前缀Numberprefixes数字前缀Miscellaneousprefixes多种前缀Denominalnouns名词派生来的名词Deverbalnouns动词派生来的名词De-adjectivenouns:-ity,-ness由形容词转化为名词Nounandadjectivesuffixes:-ese,-an,-ist名词和形容词后缀a.Concrete具体名词–eer,-er,-ess,-ette,-terb.Abstract抽象名词–age,-dom,-ery(-ry),-hood,-ing,-ism,-shipa.Thefollowingsuffixescombinewithverbstemstocreatelargelynounsdenotingpeople,-ant，-ee，-ent，-er（-or）下面这组后缀加在动词词干上构成新词，主要表示人，。。。b.Suffixesofthisgroupaddedtoverbstemstoproducelargelyabstractnouns,denotingaction,result,process,state,etc：-al，-age，-ance，-ation(-ition,-tion,-sion,-ion)，-ence，-ing，-ment下面这组后缀加在动词词干上，主要构成抽象名词，表示动作、结果、过程、状态等。。。Denominalsuffixes：-ed,-ful,-ish,-less,-like,-ly,-y名词派生的后缀（加名词后）Deverbalsuffixes:-able（-ible），-ive（-ative，-sive）动词派生的后缀（加动词后）Nouncompounds名词性复合词Adjectivecompounds形容词性复合词Verbcompounds动词复合词conversion反转backformation-er,-ing,-ion逆序法Verbtonoun动词转名词Adjectivetonoun形容词转名词1.Conversiontonoun转化为名词2.Conversiontoverbs转化为动词3.Miscellaneousconversion混合反转1).Phoneticfeatures语音特点——firstelementstress第一个构词成分重音2).Semanticfeatures语义特点——unity,asoneword统一性，如同个单词3).Grammaticalfeatures语法特点——singlegrammaticalrole独立的语法作用State(ofmindorsensation)状态（心理或感觉）Eventoractivity事件或行动Resultoftheaction行动的结果Doeroftheaction行动的发出者Toolorinstrumenttodotheactionwith行动的工具Placeoftheaction行动的地点Wordsfullyconverted完全转化的词Wordspartiallyconverted部分转化的词Miscellaneousconversion多种转化1）Nountoverb名词变动词2）Adjectivetoverb形容词变动词ToputinoronN放入名词TogiveNortoprovidewithN提供名词ToremoveNfrom从……消除名词TodowithN用名词做……TobeoractasN象名词一样起作用TomakeorchangeintoN变成名词TosendorgobyN用名词送去（1）Voicelesstovoicedconsonant清辅音变浊辅音（2）Initialtoendstress字首重音变字尾重音Frontclipping前删Backclipping后删Frontandbackclipping前后删Phraseclipping删短语Phrasalverbstonouns:KeeporiginalorderInverttheverbandparticle:p+v动词短语转名词：保持原有顺序，动词小品词出现反转head+tail头＋尾head+head头＋头head+word头＋整词word+tail整词＋尾Initialisms　首字母缩略词Acronyms首字母拼音词1.Lettersrepresentfullwords字母代表所有词2.Lettersrepresentconstituentsinacompoundorjustpartsofaword字母代表复合词或者只是一个词的几部分Initialismsarewordspronouncedletterbyletter.一个字母一个字母念。Acronymsarewordsformedfrominitiallettersbutpronouncedasanormalword.首字母拼音词是由字母组合在一起作为一个标准单词拼音的词。Abstractnouns抽象名词Humannouns人类名词Compoundnounsandothers复合名词和其他Adjectives形容词namesofpeople人名namesofplaces地名namesofbooks书名tradenames商业名称Reference参照Concept概念Sense语感OnomatopoeicMotivation象声动机：soundssuggestmeanings,imitatingnaturalsoundsornoises声音暗指意义，模仿自然的声音MorphologicalMotivation形态动机：themeaningsarethesumtotalofthemorphemescombined组合词素的综合SemanticMotivation语义动机EtymologicalMotivation词源动机：themeaningsoftenrelatetotheorigin与来源有关thementalassociationssuggestedbytheconceptualmeaningofaword词的概念所指的精神联系theconnectionbetweentheliteralsenseandfigurativesense文字语义和寓意间的联系GrammaticalMeaning语法意义LexicalMeaning词法的意义Connotativemeaning内涵意义Stylisticmeaning文体意义Affectivemeaning情感意义Collocativemeaning搭配意义appreciative褒义pejorative贬义ConceptualMeaning概念意义AssociativeMeaning联系意义diachronicapproach.历时的角度:growthanddevelopment成长和发展primarymeaning基本义----derivedmeaning派生义synchronicapproach.共时的角度:coexistence共存centralmeaning中心义----sencondarymeaning次要义(secondary----sometimesdominant有时占优势)polysemy歧义homonymy同音异义synonymy同义antonymy反义hyponymy上下位关系radiation辐射型:center,everydirectionlikerays;independent;backtocentralmeaning.e.g:neck(多个意思同时并存)concatenation连锁型:moveawayfromfirstsensebyshifts;noconnectionwithoriginalmeaning;Latermeaningisrelatedtoprecedingone.eg.:treacle,candidate（剩下一个意思）Perfecthomonyms:identicalsoundsandspelling完全同形同音异义词Homographs:identicalspelling同形异音异义词Homophones:identicalsound---mostcommon同音异形异义词Perfecthomonyms:identicalsoundsandspelling完全同形同音异义词Homographs:identicalspelling同形异音异义词Homophones:identicalsound---mostcommon同音异形异义词Absolutesynonyms绝对同义词Relativesynonyms相对同义词Borrowing借词DialectsandregionalEnglish方言和区域词Figurativeandeuphemisticuseofwords比喻词和委婉语Coincidencewithidiomaticexpressions与习语的巧合1.Differenceindenotation指示义不同2.Differenceinconnotation隐含义不同3.Differenceinapplication应用不同1.Contradictoryterms矛盾词语2.Contraryterms对立词语3.Relativeterms关联词语Antonymsareclassifiedonthebasisofsemanticopposition.反义词在意义对立的基础上分类。Awordwhichhasmorethanonemeaningcanhavemorethanoneantonym..多义词可以拥有一个以上反义词Antonymsdifferinsemanticinclusion.反义词的语义内涵相互区别。Contrarytermsaregradableantonyms,differingindegreeofintensity,soeachhasitsowncorrespondingopposite.对立词语是分级的反义词，在程度上区别，因此每个都有它们自己的反义词。Todefinethemeaning定义词义Toexpresseconomicallytheoppositeofaparticularthought简练地表达某一特定思想的对立面Toforantithesisformantithesistoachieveemphasisbyputtingcontrastingideastogether将对立的思想拼合在一起来形成对偶Toservestylisticpurpose去达到风格的目的superordinateterms上位关系subordinateterms下位关系extension延展narrowing缩小degradation降级elevation升级transfer转移1.Historicalreason历史原因2.Classreason阶级原因3.Psychologicalreason心理原因1.Lexicalcontext词法背景2.Grammaticalcontext句法背景Definition定义Explanation解释Example例子Synonymy同义Antonymy反义Hyponymy上下位关系Relevantdetails相关的细节Wordstructure词语结构Theconstituentsofidiomscannotbereplaced.Thestructureisfixed.首先，习语的组成部分成分不可替换。Thewordordercannotbeinvertedorchanged.习语的语序不能倒装或改变。Theconstituentsofidiomscannotbedeletedoraddedto，notevenanarticle.习语的组成成分不能删除或增加。Manyidiomsaregrammaticallyunanalysable.很多习语在语法上是不可分析的。theidomaticityofidiomsisgradableandmaybestbethoughtintermsofscale.习语的习语性是分等级的，而且可能最好从等级上来研究。Thefixityofidiomsdependsontheidiomaticity.Themoreidiomatictheidioms，themorefixedthestructure.习语的稳定性在于其习语性程度。Idiomsnominalinnature（名词性习语）Idiomsadjectiveinnature（形容词性习语）Idiomsverbalinnature（动词性习语）Idiomsadverbialinnature（副词性习语）SentenceIdioms（句式习语）Phrasalverbs短语动词Verbphrases动词短语StylisticFeatures语体色彩Rhetoricalfeatures修辞特征Variationofidioms习语的变化Colloquialisms口语词Slang俚语Literaryexpressions书面表达式Phoneticmanipulation语音运用Lexicalmanipulation词汇运用Figuresofspeech修辞手法Alliteration头韵（法）Rhyme韵脚Reiteration重复（同义的重复）Repetition重复Juxtaposition（ofantonyms）邻接（反义词）Simile明喻Metaphor「n.暗语，隐喻」Metonymy「n.借代」Synecdoche「n.借代，提喻法」Personification（拟人）Euphemism（委婉语）Replacement替换Additionordeletion增词或减词Position-shifting移位Shorting缩略法Dismembering肢解MonolingualandBilingualDictionaries单语和双语词典LinguisticandEncyclopedicDictionaries语言和百科全书词典Unabridged,DeskandPocket未删节版，案头和口袋词典SpecializedDictionaries特殊词典Unabridgeddictionaries未删节词典Deskdictionaries案头词典Pocketdictionaries口袋词典ChoiceofDictionaries词典的选择ContentoftheDictionary词典的内容UseoftheDictionary词典的使用Monolingualorbilingual单语或双语Generalorspecialized普通或特殊BritishorAmerican英式或美式Earlyorlate早期或最新Spelling拼写Pronunciation发音Definition定义Usage用法Grammar语法Usagenotesandlanguagenotes使用信息和语言信息Etymologicalinformation词源信息Supplementarymatter补充Spelling拼写Pronunciation发音Definition定义Usage用法Cleargrammarcodes清晰的语法代码Usagenotes使用注解Languagenotes语言注解Definition定义Extracolumn额外栏Usageexamples使用范例