语言学讲义 考研 4 Syntax

讲义四SyntaxGraceTan SYNTAXisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures. 句法研究的是语言中不同成分组合句子的支配规则，或者句子结构中各要素间的相互关系。 TheTraditionalApproach TheStructuralApproach TheGenerativeApproach TheFunctionalApproachI.TraditionalapproachThetypesofsentenceA.Accordingtothestructure:Sentencecanbesimpleandnon-simple(complexandcompound).ThesimplesentenceThegirliswatchingTV.MaryandJohnaresittingonthesofa.Thecompoundsentence并列句Acompoundsentenceconsistsoftwoormoresimplesentences,usuallyconnectedbyacommaplusajoiningword(and,but,for,or,nor,so,yet).Acompoundsentenceisusedwhenyouwanttogiveequalweighttocloselyrelatedideas.Wearewateringthetrees,forwedon’thaveanyrainforamonth. Thecomplexsentence复合句 Acomplexsentenceismadeupofasimplesentenceandastatementthatbeginswithadependentword.Acomplexsentenceisusedwhenyouwanttoemphasizeoneideaoveranotherinasentence. WhatIwanttoemphasizeisthis. Weshouldneverpretendtoknowwhatwedon’tknow. Thecompound-complexsentence EllipsisisacommonfeatureinEnglish,butinmanysentencesofthistypeitisnotpossibletostateexactlywhatis‘leftout’.B.Accordingtocommunicativefunction:Sentencecanbedeclarative,interrogative,imperativeandexclamatory.functionalapproach:P101Indicative(interrogative+declarative)Imperative(jussive命令句+optative祈愿句)Yes/nowh_2.3.Theextensionofsentence Sentencecanbeextendedeitherbyconjoiningorembedding. Conjoiningisawaybywhichclausesarejoinedbymeansofcoordinatingconjunctions并列连词(and,but,or),orconnectives连接词andparataxis.并列(一系列相关的从句或词组之间没有连词)(如:"Icame,Isaw,Iconquered.") Embedding嵌入法isaprocessofconstructionwherebyoneclauseisaconstituentofanotherorissubordinatedtoanother.2.4.ThestructureofsentenceThelinearandhierarchicalstructuresofsentences湖大2004Statebrieflyononeofthetwotopicsgivebelow(minimally100words)Grammarisantonomous.Linguisticstructureishierarchical.LanguagetypesSVO:English,French,Swahili,Hausa,ThaiVSO:Tagalog,Irish,(Classical)Arabic,(Biblical)HebrewSOV:Turkish,Japanese,Persian,GeorgianOVS:Apalai(Brazil),Barasano(Colombia),Panare(Venezuela)OSV:ApurinaandXavante(Brazil)VOS:Cakchiquel(Guatemala),Huave(Mexico)Sentencepatterns/typesinEnglishi)SVCMaryisanurse/poor.ii)SVAMaryweighs120pounds.iii)SVMarycame.iv)SVOMarycheatedme.v)SVOCMarycalledmeJim.vi)SVOAMaryputherchilddown.vii)SVOOMarylendhimsomemoney. 真题：Namethree/fiveofSVOlgs: 广外2004ObservethegivenKoreandataandstateasmanysyntaticdifferencebetweenEnglishandKoreanasyoucan.(note:SM=subjectmarkerOM=objectmarker) (1)k□sony□n-ieew□yu-l□lmasi-ass-ta theboy-SMmilk-OMdrink-PAST-ASSERTION “Theboydrankmilk.” (2)k□-n□nmu□s-□lm□k-ass-n□nya He-SMwhat-OMeat-PAST-QUESTION “Whatdidheeat?” KeyKoreanisSOVinitssyntaxwhileEnglishisSVO.Koreanisagglutinative粘着initswordformation.Differentlinguisticelements,eachofwhichexistsseparatelyandhasafixedmeaning,arejoinedtoformoneword.InKorean,aquestionisformedbyusingmu□s-□l(What-OM)inthemiddleofaSandaquestionmarkerattheendoftheSwithouttheinversionoraux-insertionasinEnglish.Categories范畴 Itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofgrammaticalunits甄别性特点 Thecategoriesofthenoun,includenumber,gender,caseandcountability; 名词的范畴包括数、性、格和可数性； Thecategoriesoftheverb,forexample,person,tense,aspect,mood,voice,etc. 动词范畴则含有人称、时、体、式、态等。1).Word-levelcategoriesMajorlexicalcategories（主要词类）:N,V,Adj,Prep.MinorLexicalcategories（次要词类）:Det,Deg,Qual,Auxi,Conj. Det—Determiner(限定词) Deg—Degreeword（程度词） Qual—Qualifier(修饰词) Aux—Auxiliary(助动词) Con—Conjunction(连接词)2).Phrase-levelcategoriesPhrasecategories(短语范畴)---thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasNP,VP,AP,PP.Thestructure:specifier+head+complement Head(词头/中心词)----thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformed Specifier(指示语/标志语)----thewordsontheleftsideoftheheads Complement（补足语）----thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsEg.TheprettygirldreamingaboutgoingtoParis….GrammaticalCategories Theterm“grammaticalcategory”isusedbysomelinguiststorefertowordclasses. InTGgrammaticalcategoriesaresyntacticunitsindicatedby“categorysymbols”suchasS,NP,VP,Det,A,etc. 有些语言学家用“语法范畴”这个术语来示词类。在转换生成语法中，语法范畴是用S,NP,VP,Det,A等“范畴符号”表示的句法单位。 WhichofthefollowingitemsisNotoneofthegrammaticalcategoriesofEnglishpronouns? A gender B number C case D voice Answer:D ____isNotagrammaticalcategoryofEnglishverbs? A tense B aspect C number D gender Answer:DNumber thenoun---abook,somebooks thepronoun---I,we,etc. Englishverbs---do&does,etc. InFrenchandGerman,adjectivesandarticlesalsoreflectthenumber. ItisgenerallybelievedthatChinesedoesnothavenumber.性(Gender) Manyinflectionallanguageshavethreemeaning-relatedgenderdistinction:masculine,feminineandneuter. InEnglishgendercontrastcanbeonlyobservedinpronounsandasmallnumberofnounswhichshowsthebiologicalgender. Gender Noun Pronoun masculine actor He feminine actress She InEnglish,thegenderdistinctionsare____ A notrelatedtorealworldentities B onthewholenatural C dividedintoFeminine,Masculineandneuter D dividedintoFeminineandMasculine Answer:BCase Latin:nominative主格,vocative呼格,accusative宾格,genitive属格,dative与格,ablative离格. English:nominative/subjectivecaseaccusative/objectivecasegenitivecase中山大学2004Thecategoryof___isprominentinthegrammarofLatin,with6distinctionsofnominative,vocative,accusative,genitive,dativeandablative.Tense Itisdeictic,indicatingtimerelativetotimeofutterance. Thereareonlytwokindsoftenses:past&present. 北外2003Somegrammarbookssaythereare3basictensesinEnglish—thepresent,thepastandthefuture;otherssaythereareonly2basicsentences—thepresentandthepast.ExplainwhattenseisandwhetheritisjustiabletosaythereisafuturetenseinEnglish.Aspect Itisnotdeictic,indicatingtimerelativetothetimeofanothereventdescribedinthenarrative. Theperfective完成体indicatesthecompletionofanaction. Theimperfectiveindicatesthedurationwithoutcompletion. Therelationbetweenthedeterminer“this”andthenoun“man”is____ A government B concord C binding D paradigmatic Answer:BConcord&Government Concord(agreement):formsoftwoormorewordsinasyntacticrelationshipshouldagreewitheachotherintermsofsomecategories:thisman,thesemen Government:awordofacertainclassdeterminestheformsofothersintermsofcategory. Shegavehimabook.II.StructuralismSaussurearguesthatlinguisticunitsareinterrelatedwitheachotherinastructure,notisolates.AccordingtoSaussure,languageisasystemofsigns,eachofwhichconsistsoftwoparts:signified(concept),signifier(soundimage).Andtherelationshipbetweenthetwopartsisarbitrary.Consequently,oneneedstofindthevalueofasignfromitsrelationstoothersinordertoexplainindividualsigns.SyntacticRelationPositionalrelationorWordOrder:referstothesequencearrangementofwordsinalg.Itisalsocalledsyntagmaticrelation,horizontalrelation,chainrelation.指一个单位和同一个序列中的其他单位之间的关系，或者说是在现场的所有成分之间的关系。 EnglishSVOtypeRelationobsubstituability/Paradigmaticrelation:itreferstotherelationholdingbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure,orbetweenoneelementpresentandtheotherabsent.Itisalsocalledassociativerelation,verticalrelationorchoicerelation.The______issmiling.Constraints:---ananimatenoun（book,desk）---asemanticcomponentofhuman（trees,cats）---inthesingular（boys,men） Expressionslike“Tom”or“He”canbothbefilledintheblankofthesentence“____issmiling.”SoTomandHehave___relation. A syntagmatic B paradigmatic C systematic D governing Answer:BRelationofCo-occurrencewordsofdifferentclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.真题北二外2004 ___referstotherelationsholdingbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotheratparticularplaceinstructure,orbetweenoneelementpresentandtheothersabsent. A.syntagmaticrelation B.Paradigmaticrelation C.Co-occurrencerelation Bconstructions&constituents structurallinguistsfindthatsentencesdonotonlyhavealinearstructure,butalsohaveahierarchicalstructure,madeupoflayersofwordsgroups.Forinstance,inthesentence“Theboykickedtheball”,therelationbetween“the”and“boy”iscloserthanthatbetween“boy”and“kicked”. Usually,sentencesandphrasesarereferredtoasconstructions. Thecomponentelementsofconstructionarecalledasconstituents. Aconstituentwhichisnotatthesametimeaconstructionisamorpheme. Aconstruction,whichisnotatthesametimeaconstituent,isasentence. 湖南大学2004Applythesubstitutiontesttodeterminewhichofthebracketedsequencesinthefollowingsentencesformsconstituents.Rewritethesentence,replacingthewordsinbracketswithoneword.Isthebrackedsequenceaconstituent? A)[Thetragedy]upsettheentirefamily. B)Theyhid[inthecave]. C)[Thecomputerwasvery]expensive. D)[Thetownsquareandthecivicbuilding]willberebuilt. Key:ThebracketedsequencesinsentencesA,B,andD,areallconstituents.Byreplacingthewordsinbrackets,theycanberewrittenlikethis: A)Itupsettheentirefamily. B)Theyhidthere. D)Theywillberebuilt. Whichofthefollowingchoiceisnotaconstituent? A Ilikethesong. B I C song D like Answer:AICanalysisImmediateconstituents ICUC Binarycutting Brackets((Poor)(John))((ran)(away)) Treediagram:advantagesanddisadvantages 北二外2004Distinguishthetwopossiblemeaningsof“morebeautifulflowers”byICanalysis.endocentric&exocentricconstructionsEndocentricconstruction:HeadConstruction:onewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttooneofitsconstituents,whichservesasthecenterofthewhole.NP:anoldmanVP:willbeleavingAP:verylate Exocentricconstruction:onewhosedistributionisnotfunctionallyequivalenttoanyofitsconstituents.Thatis,thereisnonoticeablecenterinit.BasicS:Theboysmiled.PP:ontheshelfPredicateconstruction:Hekickedtheball.Connectiveconstruction:Johnseemedangry.北二外2001 Tellifeachofthefollowingisendocentricorexocentricconstruction. 1.Takeabreak. 2.anextremelydifficultbook 3.LadiesandGentlemen 4.atpresent 5.swimminginthelake Thephrase“thethreesmallChinesechildren”is_____construction. A endocentric B exocentric C hierarchical D linear Answer:A Whichofthefollowingisexocentric? A womenandmen B onthetable C acleverboy D anuglyman Answer:B返回PSrules NP→(Det)N(PP)… VP→(Qual)V(NP)… AP→(Deg)A(PP)… PP→(Deg)P(NP)…Theparenthesestheelementinthemisoptional箭头可以读作“由…构成”或者“扩展为…”，括号表明其中的成分可以省略，每个规则后面的三点表示可以选择加入其他的补语。 东大2001ExplainandexemplifythefollowingPSrules. (D)NNP(S) Pron Aux__t(M)(have-en)(be-ing) Key:1strulemeansthatanounphrasecanbewrittenasadeterminerplusanoun,andmaythenbefollowedbyasentence. Eg:(a)themanwhocametoseemelastnight (b)Michaelwhohadneverbeentherebefore. 2ndrulemeansthatanauxiliarycanberepresentedbyanumberofways.Anauxiliaryshouldcontaintenseelement(t)andamodalverb(M),orapastperfectfrom(have-en)orbeplusaningformofaverb. Eg:Aux---t(M):MayIreadyourpaper? Aux---t(have-en):Haveyoufinishedyourpaper? Aux---t(be-ing):Areyoureadingyourpaper? 广外2004Onthebasisofthefollowingdata,writeoutthePSrulesforadverbphrasesandverbphrases. 1)Johnwalkedslowly. 2)TomtalkedwithJackveryquickly. 3)Alicediscussedthematterwithherbestfriendquiteearly. Key:Adverbsmaybeprecededbyaverytinyclassofadverbs.TheclassofadverbsinthesesentencesleadstothefollowingnewPSrules: AdvP→(Deg)Adv(DegstandsforDegreewords) VP→V(NP)(PP)(AdvP) NP→(Det)N(PP)… VP→(Qual)V(NP)… AP→(Deg)A(PP)… PP→(Deg)P(NP)…SpecifierComplementHeadXPXTheXPrule:XP→(specifier)X(complement)CoordinationRule（并列规则）Coordinationstructures---thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.Fourimportantproperties: 1)nolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesbeforetheconjunction;连词连接多少个成分没有限制 2)acategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated;任何层次都可以并列 e.g.sonandfather,intheroomandinthegarden 3)thecategoriesmustbeofthesametype; 4)thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.并列词组的类别与构成该词组的类别一致 Example: girlsplayinginthegardenandboysreadingintheroom名词短语 intheroomandinthegarden介词短语 判断并列词组的类别根据构成并列词组的成分的类别来判断SubordinationRule Subordinatingconstructionisaconstructioninwhichtheunitshavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentontheother,thereisonlyonehead,theotherismodifier.eg.twodogs,baldgentlemen,swimminginthelake∴3clauses:complementclauses补语分句adjunct/adverbialclause附加语言分句relativeclause Recursiveness/Recursion Achildren'srhyme Thisisthefarmersowingthecorn, thatkeptthecockthatcrowedinthemorn, thatwakedthepriestallshavenandshorn, thatmarriedthemanalltatteredandtorn, thatkissedthemaidenallforlorn, thatmilkedthecowwiththecrumpledhorn, thattossedthedog, thatworriedthecat, thatkilledtherat, thatatethemalt, thatlayinthehousethatJackbuilt.TransformationalGenerativeGrammarNoamChomskyanylanguagehastwolevelsofstructures---deepandsurfacestructurethesurfacestructureisderivedfromthedeepstructure.D-Structure&S-structure D-structure:itreferstotheabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction,whichistheunderlyinglevelofstructuralrelationsbetweenitsdifferentconstituents. S-structure:itreferstothefinalstageinthesyntacticderivationofaconstruction,whichcloselycorrespondstothestructuralorganizationofaconstructionpeopleactuallyproduceandreceive.AD-structuremayhavedifferentS-structures: (1)   Themanopenedthedoor. (2)   Themandidn’topenthedoor. (3)   Didthemanopenthedoor? (4)   Didn’tthemanopenthedoor? (5)   Thedoorwasopenedbytheman. (6)   Thedoorwasnotopenedbytheman. (7)   Wasthedooropenedbytheman? (8)   Wasn’tthedooropenedbytheman?真题分析Analyze: Johnexpectsmothertobringapresent. Johnpersuadesmothertobringapresent. 这两个句子的表层结构（surfacestruture）是相同的，因为都包含名词+动词+名词+带有标记to的动词不定式+冠词+名词。 但是两个句子的深层结构不同， 因为句（1）可转换成为： (3)Johnexpectedthatmotherwouldbringapresent. 但句（2）却不能转换为： （4）﹡Johnpersuadedthatmotherwouldbringapresent.AS-structuremaycomefromdifferentD-structures.Eg.Heisanxious/difficulttoteach.Flyingplanescanbedangerous.Theturkeyisreadytoeat. 两个句子的不同可以用下图表示： （1a）Johnexpectedmothertobringapresent.（2a）Johnpersuadedmothertobringapresent. 大连外(2001-2002)Producesurfacestructuresfromthefollowingdeepstructureswithoutgoingthroughtheprocessoftransformations.(1)Negshepastworklastweek(2)Tagyoupastmeethim(3)thestudents1presbe+inghelpthestudents(4)policemenpastbe+enbeatJohn(5)QtheprofessorpresbeangrySOMEREASON(6)SOMEONEpastbe+ingbe+enbeatJosephhard(7)QhepastdoSOMETHING(8)Impyoupreswillwashyou(9)[NegMarypastgotothebookstore][NegLisapastgotothebookstore](10)thegirl[thegirlpresbebeautiful]presbefromChinaShedidn‘tworklastweek.Youmethim,didn‘tyou?Thestudentsarehelpingthemselves.ThepolicemenwerebeatenbyJohn.Whyistheprofessorangry?TheboywasbeingbeatenhardbyJoseph.Whatdidhedo?Washyourself.Marydidn′tgotothebookstore.Lisadidn‘tgotothebookstoreeither.ThegirlwhoisbeautifulisfromChina.TGGrammar5stagesClassicaltheory:1957-65,theaimistomakelinguisticsascience.Thistheoryischaracterizedbythreefeatures: A.emphasisongenerativeabilityoflanguage; B.introductiontotransformationalrules; C.grammaticaldescriptionregardlessofmeaning.2.TheperiodofStandardTheory:1965-1970:theaimistodealwithhowsemanticsshouldbestudiedinlinguistics.3.TheperiodofExtendedStandardTheory:1970-1980:focusonlanguageuniversalsanduniversalgrammar:4.Theperiodofgovernment（管辖）andbinding（约束）:1981-1992,5.Theperiodofminimalistprogram:1992-today,therevisionoftheprevioustheory. Accordingtostandardtheory,___containalltheinformationnecessaryforthesemanticinterpretationofsentences. A.deepstructureB.surfacestructure C.transformationrulesD.PSrules AGenerativeaspectForChomsky,whatisinternalizedinthemindofanativespeakerisnotacompletelistofwordsandphrasesbutarulesystemofgrammaticalknowledge. Phrasestructuralrules短语结构规则/rewriterules重写规则Transformationalaspect 16TRANSFORMATIONALRULES NPmovement Themanbeatthechild..→Thechildwasbeatenbytheman. Wh-movement HesoldabooktoMary.→WhatdidheselltoMary? AUX-movement:be,have,do,will,can,should JohnwillgotoEngland.→WillJohngotoEngland?HewanttogotoEngland.→HewantstogotoEnglandS-insertion →Hedoesn’twanttogotoEngland.NOT–insertion Whentheaffirmativesentence“JacksoldhislinguisticstextbookstoJillafterthefinalexamination”istransformedinto“WhendidJacksellhislinguisticstextbookstoJill?”threetransformationalrulesareapplied.TheyareDo-insertion,Subject-auxInversionandwh-movement.(武汉大学2002年考研) 南开Whatsyntacticruleisinvolvedinthetransformationofthesentence“Themanwascheated”?Explainbyusingtreediagrams. Key: TheD-structureis“ewascheatedtheman”,withebeingthemissingsubject. TheS-structureis“Themanwascheatedt“,inwhichtisthetrace.IntheS-structure,theNPthemanmovestothespecifierofAGRPpositiontogettheS-structure. ThesyntacticruleinvolvedisNPMovement. 南开OnekindofsubstitutionisNPMovement.Canyoushowbytreediagramhowthemovementruleisrealizedinthesentence“Johnseemstobehappy”? 考点分析：名词移位出现在由seem一类动词构成的句子中，主语位置上的名词经过移位，提升到主语位置上，因此，这类结构又称为提升raising结构.NPMovementisinRaisingstructures. IP DPP JohnIVP VIP seemstbehappy Aspeaker’sactualutteranceinChomsky’sterminologyiscalled____ A deepstructure B linguisticuniversals C universalgrammar D surfacestructure Answer:D ThesentencethathasaNPandaVPismostlyshownina____formula“S→NP+VP. A hierarchical B linear C treediagram D vertical Answer:C WhichofthefollowingisNotacharacteristicofChomsky’sTGGrammar? A Innateness B Deductivemethodology C Emphasisoninterpretation D Emphasisonstimulus-responsereinforcement. Answer:D WhichisthefullformofLAD? A languageassociativedistrict B languageacquisitiondistrict C languageassociativedevice D languageacquisitiondevice Answer:D ChomskyarguesthatLADprobablyconsistsof___elements. A 2B 3C 4D 5 Answer:B Reason:句法,语音,逻辑式 AccordingtoChomsky,grammarisamechanismthatshouldbeabletogeneratealland__thegrammaticalsentencesofalg. Only InChomsky’sTGGrammar,whichtheoryfocusesdiscussionongovernmentandbinding? A theClassicalTheory B theStandardTheory C theExtendedStandardTheory D theRevisedExtendedStandardTheory Answer:D返回 浙大2002Whatisthenatureoftransformtional-generativegrammar?Whatareitsmainaspects?(about200words) 北师大2003Explainandcommentonthefollowingpairofsentences. A.Johniseasytoplease. B.Johniseagertoplease.IV.TheFunctionalApproach Systematic-functionalgrammar Halliday.Asthenamesuggests,ithastwocharacteristics:systemicandfunctional. Thesystemicpart:languageelementscanformintosystem.Theuseoflanguageinvolvesanetworkofsystemsofchoices.Theitemsinasystemareinchoicerelationwitheachother. Thefunctionalpart:Hallidaybelievesthatlanguageisasocialphenomenon,andemphasizesthestudyoflanguageinrelationtothefunctionsitperforms. ThecontributionofHallidayisthatherelatesfunctionsoflanguagestoitsstructures.Theme主位andRheme述位 Themeisknownoratleastobviousinthegivensituationandfromwhichthespeakerproceeds. Rhemeiswhatthespeakerstatesabout,orinregardto,thestartingpointoftheutterance. InEnglish,themeandrhemeareoftenexpressedby__and___. A.subject,objectB.subject,predicate C.predicate,objectD.object,predicate Themaninthewilderness(T)//saidtome.(R) Slowlyandquietly(T)//hepushedthedooropen.(R) Tom,Tom,thepiper’sson(T)//stoleapigandawaydidrun.(R) Ifwintercomes,(T)//canspringbefarbehind?(R) ThenotionofFunctionalSentencePerspectiveisusedtodescribe____ A howinformationisdistributedinsentences. B howsentencesareformed C thefunctionofsentences D therelationbetweenlanguageanditsusers. Answer:ACommunicativeDynamism交际动力J.Firbas(1964),----theextenttowhichthesentenceelementcontributestothedevelopmentofthecommunication.Inhisopinion,theme----thelowestdegreeofCDwithinthesentence Halliday’sSystemic-FunctionalGrammartakes___astheobjectofstudy. A actualusesoflanguage B idealspeaker’slinguisticcompetence C children’slanguage D adult’slanguage Answer:AIdeationalfunction Languageservesfortheexpressionofcontent,thatis,ofthespeaker’sexperienceofth