第四章 中英文 对照 版本 就业 利息 货币 通论

第四章 中英文 对照 版本 就业 利息 货币 通论 BOOK II DEFINITIONS AND IDEAS 第二编: 定义与理念 CHAPTER 4 THE CHOICE OF UNITS 第四章 单位的选择 I IN this and the next three chapters we shall be occupied with an attempt to Clear up certain perplexities which have no peculiar or exclusive relevance to the problems which it is our special purpose to examine. Thus these chapters are in the nature of a digression, which will prevent us for a time from pursuing our main theme. Their subject-matter is only discussed here because it does riot happen to have been already treated elsewhere in a way which I find adequate to the needs of my own particular enquiry. 在本章和以下三章我们将试图用一定的篇幅澄清某些疑难之处～而这些疑难 之处同我们所要验证的特殊目标并没有特别密切的关系。因此～这几章具有脱离 主的性质～从而暂时会打断我们的主要思路。之所以只在此处对他们加以讨论～ 是因为将其放在别处处理不适合我特定研究的需要。 The three perplexities which most impeded my progress in writing this book, so that I could not express myself conveniently until I had found some solution for them, are, firstly, the choice of the units of quantity appropriate to the problems of the economic system as a whole; secondly, the part played by expectation in economic analysis; and thirdly, the definition of income. 在撰写本书时～有三个疑难之处极大地阻碍了我的工作进展～因此～直到我 找出某种解决办法之前～我无法顺畅地表达自己的思想。这三个疑难之处是:首 先～选择一个适合于研究整体经济体系问题的数量单位,其次～预期在经济 中的作用,第三～收入的定义。 II That the units in terms of which economists commonly work are unsatisfactory can be illustrated by the concepts of the National Dividend the stock of real capital and the general price-level:-- 经济学家们通常使用的单位的令人不满意之处可以用国民所得、实际资本存 量和价格总水平三个概念予以: 1 (i) The National Dividend, as defined by Marshall and Professor Pigou, measures the volume of current output or real income and not the value 2of output or money-income. Furthermore, it depends, in some sense, on net output;--on the net addition, that is to say, to the resources of the community available for consumption or for retention as capital stock, due to the economic activities and sacrifices of the current period, after allowing for the wastage of the stock of real capital existing at the commencement of the period. On this basis an attempt is made to erect a quantitative science. But it is a grave objection to this definition for such a purpose that the community's output of goods and services is a non-homogeneous complex which cannot be measured, strictly speaking, except in certain special cases, as for example when all the items of one output are included in the same proportions in another output. 3 ,i,国民所得。按照马歇尔和庇古的定义～该概念测度当期产出量或者实 4际收入～而不是测度产出价值或者货币收入。进而言之～它在某种意义上取决 于净产出——即产出的净增加量～也即由于当期的经济活动和节欲而取得的可用 于消费或留作资本存量的社会资源～减去本期开始前已有的实际资本存量在本期 的损耗之差。经济学家试图在此基础上建立一门定量科学。但基于此目的而形成 的上述定义存在严重的缺陷～因为社会的商品和劳务产出是一个非同质的复合 体～而严格来说～除了某些特例之外是不能计量的～例子之一是一种产出的所有 构成项目都同比例地包括在其他产品中。 (ii) The difficulty is even greater when, in order to calculate net output, we try to measure the net addition to capital equipment; for we have to find some basis for a quantitative comparison between the new items of equipment produced during the period and the old items which have perished by wastage. In order to arrive at the net National Dividend, Professor 1 Vide Pigou, Economics of Welfare, passim, and particularly Part I. chap. iii. 2 Though, as a convenient compromise, the real income, which is taken to constitute the National Dividend, is usually limited to those goods and services which can be bought for money. 3 见庇古的《福利经济学》全书，尤其是第1编第3章。 4 国民所得本应包括一切实际收入，但为方便起见，这里仅限于可以用货币购买的商品和劳 务。 5Pigou deducts such obsolescence etc., "as may fairly be called 'normal'; and the practical test of normality is that the depletion is sufficiently regular to be foreseen, if not in detail, at least in the large." But, since this deduction is not a deduction in terms of money, he is involved in assuming that there can be a change in physical quantity, although there has been no physical change; i.e. he is covertly introducing changes in 6value. Moreover he is unable to devise any satisfactory formula1 to evaluate new equipment against old when owing to changes in technique, the two are not identical. I believe that the concept at which Professor Pigou is aiming is the right and appropriate concept for economic analysis. But, until a satisfactory system of units has been adopted, its precise definition is an impossible task. The problem of comparing one real output with another and of then calculating net output by setting off new items of equipment against the wastage of old items presents conundrums which permit, one can confidently say, of no solution. ,ii,为了计算净产出～我们设法计量资本设备的净增量时所遇到的困难更 大～因为我们必须找出某个共同的基础～以便对当期内生产的新设备项目同已经 7损耗掉的老设备的差额进行定量比较。为得出净国民所得～庇古教授扣减了那 些‚可以正确地称之为‘正常的’?的设备报废等～而实际检验正常与否的办法 是要看是否能经常预见损耗的发生～即使未必很详尽但至少要能预料到。但是～ 因为这种扣减不是一种以货币形式表示的扣减～这意味着庇古教授是在假设:虽 然设备的实物形式没有发生变化～但实物数量可以发生改变～即他暗中引进了价 值变化概念。进而言之～当生产技术发生变化～新设备与旧设备并不等同时～庇 8古教授未能想出任何令人满意的公式以估算新旧设备的价值。我相信～庇古教 授所探究的概念是经济分析中正确与适用的概念。但是～直到采用令人满意的单 位体系之前～要精确定义该概念是不可能的事情。人们可以肯定地断言～将一组 实际产出同另一组实际产出进行比较～并据此用新设备项目抵减旧设备项目的损 耗从而计算出净产出之类的问题都成为难以解决的问题～人们可以肯定地断言～ 这些难题实在没有办法解决。 5 Economics of Welfare, Part I. chap. v., on "What is meant by maintaining Capital intact"; as amended by a recent article in the Economic Journal, June 1935, P. 225. 6 Cf. Prof. Hayek's criticisms, Economica, Aug. 1935, P. 247. 7 《福利经济学》第1部分，第5章，论“维持资本完整的涵义是什么”;以及他在近期发 表在《经济学杂志》1935年6月号一文中所作的修正(第225页)。 8 参阅哈耶克教授的批评，《经济》，1935年8月号，第247页 (iii) Thirdly, the well-known, but unavoidable, element of vagueness which admittedly attends the concept of the general price-level makes this term very unsatisfactory for the purposes of a causal analysis, which ought to be exact. ,iii,第三～一般价格水平这一概念显然具有的含糊不清的性质是人所共知 的～也是无法避免的～这使得该概念很不适合于应该精确无误的因果分析。 Nevertheless these difficulties are rightly regarded as "conundrums." They are "purely theoretical" in the sense that they never perplex, or indeed enter in any way into, business decisions and have no relevance to the causal sequence of economic events, which are clear-cut and determinate in spite of the quantitative indeterminacy of these concepts. It is natural therefore, to conclude that they not only lack precision but are unnecessary. Obviously our quantitative analysis must be expressed without using any quantitatively vague expressions. And, indeed, as soon as one makes the attempt, it becomes clear, as I hope to show, that one can get on much better without them. 尽管人们已经正确地认识到这些困难是‚难解的问题?～但从下述意义而 言～这些困难都是‚纯理论性的?～它们从来没有使经济决策复杂化～事实上也 未曾以任何一种方式影响商业决策～而且与经济事务的因果次序也完全不相关。 这些概念虽然难以量化～但经济事务本身是界限分明的和确定的。因此～得出如 下结论是很自然的:这些概念不仅缺乏精确性～而且也无此种必要。显然～我们 的定量分析表达方式必须不使用任何数量上含糊不清的表达式～而且事实上～正 如我希望予以表明的那样～一旦我们试图进行数量分析～没有这些含混不清的概 念～事情反而会显得更为明朗。 The fact that two incommensurable collections of miscellaneous objects cannot in themselves provide the material for a quantitative analysis need not, of course, prevent us from making approximate statistical comparisons, depending on some broad element of judgment rather than of strict calculation) which may possess significance and validity within certain limits. But the proper place for such things as net real output and the general level of prices lies within the field of historical and statistical description, and their purpose should be to satisfy historical or social curiosity, a purpose for which perfect precision--such as our causal analysis requires, whether or not our knowledge of the actual values of the relevant quantities is complete or exact--is neither usual nor necessary. To say that net output to-day is greater, but the price-level lower, than ten years ago or one year ago, is a proposition of a similar character to the statement that Queen Victoria was a better queen but not a happier woman than Queen Elizabeth--a proposition not without meaning and not without interest, but unsuitable as material for the differential calculus. Our precision will be a mock precision if we try to use such partly vague and non-quantitative concepts as the basis of a quantitative analysis. 当然～两组混杂的不具有可比性的事物本身不能作为定量分析的对象～但这 一事实并不是让我们放弃严格的计算而依靠某些宽泛的判断要点进行粗略的统 计比较～尽管这种比较在一定限度内颇具重要性和有效性。但是～诸如实际净产 出和一般物价水平之类的概念应该属于历史和统计描述的领域～其目的应该是满 足对历史和社会的好奇心～为了这个目的～完美的精确——就像我们的因果分析 所要求的那样～尽管我们对有关数量的实际价值的知识并不完全或精确——既不 普遍～也不必要。说相比于十年前或一年前～今天的净产出更多～但是价格水平 更低～这一命题在本质上类似于这样的陈述:维多利亚女王比伊丽莎白女王更好～ 但并不比她更快乐——这个命题并非毫无意义和毫无趣味～但不适合充当运用微 积分的材料。如果我们试图把如此部分含糊不清和非定量概念用作定量分析的基 础～我们所谓的精确性将是虚有其表的。 III On every particular occasion, let it be remembered, an entrepreneur is concerned with decisions as to the scale on which to work a given capital equipment; and when we say that the expectation of an increased demand, i.e. a raising of the aggregate demand function, will lead to an increase in aggregate output, we really mean that the firms, which own the capital equipment, will be induced to associate with it a greater aggregate employment of labour. In the case of an individual firm or industry producing a homogeneous product we can speak legitimately, if we wish, of increases or decreases of output. But when we are aggregating the activities of all firms, we cannot speak accurately except in terms of quantities of employment applied to a given equipment. The concepts of output as a whole and its price-level are not required in this context, since we have no need of an absolute measure of current aggregate output, such as would enable us to compare its amount with the amount which would result from the association of a different capital equipment with a different quantity of employment. When, for purposes of description or rough comparison, we wish, to speak of an increase of output, we must rely on the general presumption that the amount of employment associated with a given capital equipment will be a satisfactory index of the amount of resultant output;--the two being presumed to increase and decrease together, though not in a definite numerical proportion. 要记住～在每一个特定场合～一个企业家总要在资本设备既定的条件下作出 有关生产规模的决策～而且当我们说～预期需求增加～即总需求函数上升～将会 导致总产出增加时～我们真正的意思是～这将促使拥有资本设备的厂商雇佣更多 数量的劳动力。对于生产同质产品的单一厂商或单一行业的情形～只要我们愿意～ 我们可以准确地判断产出是增加还是减少了。但是当我们把所有厂商的产出加总 时～除非使用既定设备下的就业量～我们就不能准确地说产量是增加了还是减少 了。总产出及其价格水平概念在这里都是不必要的～因为我们不需要当期总产出 的绝对数值～例如～能使我们对在不同的资本设备与就业量下所生产的总产出加 以比较的绝对数值。当出于描述或粗略比较的目的～我们希望论及产出的增加时～ 我们所必须依赖下述一般假设:对应于既定资本设备的就业量是一个用来表示由 它生产的产量的良好指标——就业量和总产出被假定为同时增减～虽然二者的增 减并不是同比例的。 In dealing with the theory of employment I propose, therefore, to make use of only two fundamental units of quantity, namely, quantities of money-value and quantities of employment. The first of these is strictly homogeneous, and the second can be made so. For, in so far as different. grades and kinds of labour and salaried assistance enjoy a more or less fixed relative remuneration, the quantity of employment can be sufficiently defined for our purpose by taking an hour's employment of ordinary labour as our unit and weighting an hour's employment of special labour in proportion to its remuneration; i.e. an hour of special labour remunerated at double ordinary rates will count as two units. We shall call the unit in which the quantity of employment is measured the labour-unit; and the money-wage of a labour-unit we shall call the 9wage-unit. Thus, if E is the wages (and salaries) bill, W the wage-unit, and N the quantity of employment, E = N. W. 因此～我建议在构建就业理论时只使用两种基本的数量单位～即货币价值量 和就业量。二者中前一个是的单位是严格相同的～后一个的单位可以人为使之相 9 If X stands for any quantity measured in terms of money, it will often be convenient to write X for the same w quantity measured in terms of the wage-unit. 同～原因在于:由于不同级别和类型的劳动者以及领薪金的办事员的报酬多少具 有相对的稳定性。如果把普通劳动者一小时的工资作为我们的计量单位～根据特 殊劳动者的报酬按一定比例换算他的就业时数～即～报酬两倍于普通劳动者的特 殊劳动者一小时的工作时数计为两个工作时数～那么就我们的目的而言～足以据 此定义就业量。我们把衡量就业量的单位称为劳动单位～而每一劳动单位的货币 10工资就称为工资单位。因此～设E是工资,和薪金,总额～W是工资单位～而 N是就业量～则有E,N•W。 This assumption of homogeneity in the supply of labour is not upset by the obvious fact of great differences in the specialised skill of individual workers and in their suitability for different occupations. For, if the remuneration of the workers is proportional to their efficiency, the differences are dealt with by our having regarded individuals as contributing to the supply of labour in proportion to their remuneration; whilst if, as output increases, a given firm has to bring in labour which is less and less efficient for its special purposes per wage-unit paid to it, this is merely one factor among others leading to a diminishing return from the capital equipment in terms of output as more labour is employed on it. We subsume, so to speak, the non-homogeneity of equally remunerated labour units in the equipment, which we regard as less and less adapted to employ the available labour units as output increases, instead of regarding the available labour units as less and less adapted to use a homogeneous capital equipment. Thus if there is no surplus of specialised or practised labour and the use of less suitable labour involves a higher labour cost per unit of output, this means that the rate at which the return from the equipment diminishes as employment increases 11is more rapid than it would be if there were such a surplus. Even in the limiting case where different labour units were so highly specialised as to be altogether incapable of being substituted for one another, there is no awkwardness; for this merely means that the. elasticity of supply of output from a particular type of capital equipment falls suddenly to 10 如果X代表任何以货币表示的数量，那么为方便起见，可以用Xw来表示以工资单位衡 量的同一个数量。 11 This is the main reason why the supply price of output rises with increasing demand even when there is still a surplus of equipment identical in type with the equipment in use. If we suppose that the surplus supply of labour forms a pool equally available to all entrepreneurs and that labour employed for a given purpose is rewarded, in part at least, per unit of effort and not with strict regard to its efficiency in its actual particular employment (which is in most cases the realistic assumption to make), the diminishing efficiency of the labour employed is an outstanding example of rising supply price with increasing output, not due to internal diseconomies. zero when all the available labour specialised to its use is already 12employed. Thus our assumption of a homogeneous unit of labour involves no difficulties unless there is great instability in the relative remuneration of different labour-units; and even this difficulty can be dealt with, if it arises, by supposing a rapid liability to change in the supply of labour and the shape of the aggregate supply function. 单个工人的特殊技能以及他们对不同职位的适应性存在巨大差异的明显事 实～并不足以推翻劳动供给同质性的假设～因为如果工人们的报酬与其效率成比 例～那么我们对单个工人在劳动供给上的贡献与其报酬成比例的考虑足以解决这 些差异。同时～当产出增加时～一个特定企业的所增雇的按工资单位计量的劳动 者对某种特殊生产目的表现出来越来越低的效率～也不过是在既定的用产量计算 12 How the supply curve in ordinary use is supposed to deal with the above difficulty I cannot say, since those who use this curve have not made their assumptions very clear. Probably they are assuming that labour employed for a given purpose is always rewarded with strict regard to its efficiency for that purpose. But this is unrealistic. Perhaps the essential reason for treating the varying efficiency of labour as though it belonged to the equipment lies in the fact that the increasing surpluses, which emerge as output is increased, accrue in practice mainly to the owners of the equipment and not to the more efficient workers (though these may get an advantage through being employed more regularly and by receiving earlier promotion); that is to say, men of differing efficiency working at the same job are seldom paid at rates closely proportional to their efficiencies. Where, however, increased pay for higher efficiency occurs, and in so far as it occurs, my method takes account of it; since in calculating the number of labour units employed, the individual workers are weighted in proportion to their remuneration. On my assumptions interesting complications obviously arise where we are dealing with particular supply curves since their shape will depend on the demand for suitable labour in other directions. To ignore these complications would, as I have said, be unrealistic. But we need not consider them when we are dealing with employment as a whole, provided we assume that a given volume of effective demand has a particular distribution of this demand between different products uniquely associated with it. It may be, however, that this would not hold good irrespective of the particular cause of the change in demand. E.g. an increase in effective demand due to an increased propensity to consume might find itself faced by a different aggregate supply function from that which would face an equal increase in demand due to an increased inducement to invest. All this, however, belongs to the detailed analysis of the general ideas here set forth, which it is no part of my immediate purpose to pursue. 的资本设备条件下～增雇劳动者造成报酬递减的诸要素之一。在这里～可以说～我们把同等报酬的劳动单位的非同质性归因于设备～归因于在产出增加时～设备越来越不适应增雇的劳动者～而不归因于可用的劳动单位越来越不适应于所使用的同质的资本设备～因而～如果没有富余的专业化或有经验的劳动者～而使用不太适用的劳动者导致更高的单位产出的劳动成本～这意味着:当就业量增加时～ 13设备收益的递减的速率快于存在富余的专业化或有经验的劳动者时的情形。甚至在极端场合～其中不同劳动单位的专业化程度如此之高以致他们相互之间完全不能替代～那也不会难以解释～因为这仅仅意味着:当所有可用的专业化劳动力 14都已经被雇用时～某一特殊类型的资本设备的产出供给弹性突然降为零。因此～ 13 这就是说明，为什么甚至当与现用设备类型完全相同的设备尚有富余时，产出的供给价格仍会随需求的增加而上升的主要理由。如果我们假设多余的劳动供给形成一个向所有企业家都开放的蓄水池，并假设因一特定目的而雇佣的劳动者，至少地是部分地按照努力程度的大小，而不是严格地按照他实际从事特定工作的效率来支付报酬(在大多数场合，这是一个合乎现实的假定)，那么，被雇佣的劳动者效率的递减就是一个用以说明供给价格随产出增加而上升不能归因于内部不经济的突出例子。 14 我无法回答出为什么通常所用的供给曲线是如何处理上述困难的～因为使用这一曲线的人们并没有非常明确地给出他们所用的假设条件。他们可能假设因某一特定目的而被雇佣的劳动力总是严格按照其效率领取报酬。但这并不符合现实。把劳动者效率的不同归结为设备差异的基本原因也许是基于这样的事实:由于产出增加所导致的剩余产品的增加～在现实中主要为设备的所有者所获取～而不是由效率更高的工人们,尽管他们可以更经常地被雇佣和更早的获得提升,所获取～那就是说～作同一工作而效率不同的人们很少能获得同其效率成比例的报酬。然而～即使效率更高的工人能获得更高的报酬～我的也可把这一事实考虑在内～因为在计算受雇佣的劳动单位时～单个工人的工作时数是按照报酬的比例加权加以计算的。按照我的假设～当我们描述某一个具体的供给曲线时～显然会出现有趣的繁难之处～因为这种供给曲线的具体形态取决于其它方面对适用于该曲线的劳动的需求。正如我所说～忽略这些复杂性是不符合现实的。但是～当我们处理就业总量时～如果我们假设某一既定量的有效需求是由各种不同产品的特殊比例所唯一构成的～那我们就没有必要考虑这些繁难之处。然而～需求改变的原因的不同却可能使我们的说法难以成立。例如～有效需求的等量增加可以来自消费倾向的提高～也可以来自投资诱导的增强～二者所面临的总供给函数应该有所不同。然而～所有这一切应该属于对此所提出的一般思想的详细分析～而这种分析不是我 除非不同劳动单位的相对报酬极其不稳定～我们关于劳动力同质的假设不会遇到 任何困难。而且即使不稳定性确实存在～我们也可以通过假设劳动力的供给和总 供给函数的形状会迅速改变的办法来解决此类困难。 It is my belief that much unnecessary perplexity can be avoided if we limit ourselves strictly to the two units, money and labour, when we are dealing with the behaviour of the economic system as a whole; reserving the use of units of particular outputs and equipments to the occasions when we are analysing the output of individual firms or industries in isolation; and the use of vague concepts, such as the quantity of output as a whole, the quantity of capital equipment as a whole and the general level of prices, to the occasions when we are attempting some historical comparison which is within certain (perhaps fairly wide) limits avowedly unprecise and approximate. 我相信～当我们论述整个经济体系的行为时～如果我们将自己的讨论严格限 定于使用两种单位～即货币和劳动～那就可以避免很多不必要的困惑和混乱。当 我们孤立地分析单个厂商或单个行业的产出时～可以在这种情形继续使用特定产 出和设备的原用单位。当我们试图进行某种历史比较时～可以在这种情形使用诸 如总产出数量～总资本设备量和一般价格水平之类含糊不清的概念～这是因为在 一定,也许还相当宽广,限度内～历史的比较本来就是不精确的和粗略的。 It follows that we shall measure changes in current output by reference to the number of men employed (whether to satisfy consumers or to produce fresh capital equipment) on the existing capital equipment, skilled workers being weighted in proportion to their remuneration. We have no need of a quantitative comparison between this output and the output which would result from associating a different set of workers with a different capital equipment. To predict how entrepreneurs possessing a given equipment will respond to a shift in the aggregate demand function it is not necessary to know now the quantity of the resulting output, the standard of life and the general level of prices would compare with what they were at a different date or in another country. 依上所述～我们将使用现有资本设备条件下所雇佣的人数,不论是用于生产 满足消费者～还是用于生产新的资本设备,来衡量现行产出的变化。熟练工人的 目前所要研究的。 工作时数则按其报酬进行加权计算。我们无需将一个产量同另一个由不同资本设 备、不同工人集合所生产的产出进行定量比较。要预测拥有既定设备的企业家们 对总需求函数的移动会作出何种反应～也没有必要知道如何将企业家作出反应后 的产出量、生活水平和一般价格水平与不同时期或不同国家的同类事物进行比 较。 IV It is easily shown that the conditions of supply, such as are usually expressed in terms of the supply curve, and the elasticity of supply relating output to price, can be handled in terms of our two chosen units by means of the aggregate supply function, without reference to quantities of output, whether we are concerned with a particular firm or industry or with economic activity as a whole. For the aggregate supply function for a given firm (and similarly for a given industry or for industry as a whole) is given by Z=ø(N), rrr 不论我们所关注的是一家特定的厂商、或是一个特定的行业～或是整个经济 活动～均可以很容易表明:通常以供给曲线、联结产出与价格的供给弹性所表示 的供给情况可以在使用我们所选择的两个单位的条件下通过总供给函数加以处 理～而不需要使用产出值。因为一家特定的厂商,对于一个既定行业或是全部行 业～情况大致相似,的总供给函数如下式所示: Z=ø(N) rrr where Z is the return the expectation of which will induce a level of r employment Nr. If, therefore, the relation between employment and output is such that an employment Nr results in an output O, where O = ψ(N), rrrr it follows that P=Z/O=ø(N)/ψ(N) rrrrrr is the ordinary supply curve. 此处～Z是引致就业水平Nr的预期收益～因此～如果就业和产出之间的关r 系为:就业量Nr可以导致产出O～此处O = ψ(N)～可以推论出: rrrr P=Z/O=ø(N)/ψ(N) rrrrrr 这就是通常的供给曲线。 Thus in the case of each homogeneous commodity, for which O = ψ(N) has rrr a definite meaning, we can evaluate Z = ø(N) in the ordinary way; but rrr we can then aggregate the Nr's in a way which we cannot aggregate the O's, r since ΣO is not a numerical quantity. Moreover, if we can assume that, r in a given environment, a given aggregate employment will be distributed in a unique way between different industries, so that Nr is a function of N, further simplifications are possible. 因此～在每种商品均同质的情形～O = ψ(N)具有明确的含义。也可以用通rrr 常的方法估计Z = ø(N)～但我们不能用以加总O的方法却能用以加总N～因为rrrrr ΣO不是一个可以用数值表示的量。进而言之～如果我们能假定:在既定的情形～r 既定的总就业量在不同行业中的分配比例是固定不变的～那么N就是N的函数。r 那就可能使问题得到进一步的简化。