大学英语翻译讲义

《英汉翻译技巧》课程教学大纲 课程编号：18040072 课程名称：英汉翻译技巧 学时与学分：     32学时/2学分 先修课程：大学英语1、2、3册 适应专业：大学二年级第四学期非英语专业英语四级成绩为425分以上的本科生 一、课程性质、目的和任务 A. 课程性质：大学英语选修课 B. 目的和任务： 本课程以翻译实践为主，系统地介绍翻译的方法和技巧，旨在熟练掌握常规英汉翻译方法，提高翻译质量，达到《大学英语课程教学要求》（教育）高教司，2007）对非英语专业本科生提出的翻译“较高要求”乃至“更高要求”。 二、课程教学内容及要求 本课程主要教材《大学英汉翻译教程》以遵循传统而屡有创新的翻译方法和技巧为章节框架，以归化译法的创新技巧为主线，各章各节的叙述以讲理举证为主，同时提出了行之有效的翻译技巧。书中译例丰富，涵盖社会、经济、人文等各个方面，满足翻译教学与自学需要。 本课程力求翻译技巧有所创新，有的放矢地解决翻译学习中的实际问。创新译法的目的在于让汉语读者以最小的投入成本，也就是花最短的时间，用最少的精力，获得最多的信息，也就是原文作者的信息产出、译者的信息转移劳动和译文读者的信息接受这三个方面都能实现“利益最大化”。 本课程采用课堂教学和课外练习相结合的教学方式，运用多媒体辅助教学。学生每周课下完成指定翻译实践练习，在课堂上进行小组讨论。 三、 用教材及参考书： 常玉田,《大学英汉翻译教程》，外语教学与研究出版社，2008； 钟书能，《英汉翻译技巧》，对外经济贸易大学出版社，2010； 彭萍，《实用英汉对比与翻译》； 武峰，《12天突破英汉翻以》； 叶子南，<《灵活与变通—英汉翻译案例讲评》 教师根据各单元主题推荐的相关课外阅读材料。 四、考核方式 成绩评定：平时成绩(30%) + 期末笔试(70%) Western Theories in the 20th century and 21st century 1) Response-oriented, Behavioral Approaches or Equivalence(对等论) These theories insist that a translation should produce equivalent responses, without considering the relationship between the original and translated texts. (Nida1964, Nida and Taber 1968, Carroll 1966) 【Main article: Dynamic and formal equivalence】 The question of fidelity vs. transparency has also been formulated in terms of, respectively, "formal equivalence"（形式对等） and "dynamic equivalence"（动态对等）. The latter two expressions are associated with the translator Eugene Nida and were originally coined to describe ways of translating the Bible, but the two approaches are applicable to any translation. "Formal equivalence" corresponds to "metaphrase", and "dynamic equivalence" to "paraphrase". "Dynamic equivalence" (or "functional equivalence"功能对等) conveys the essential thought expressed in a source text — if necessary, at the expense of literality, original sememe and word order, the source text's active vs. passive voice, etc. By contrast, "formal equivalence" (sought via literal translation ) attempts to render the text literally, or "word for word" (the latter expression being itself a word-for-word rendering of the classical Latin verbum pro verbo) — if necessary, at the expense of features（特征） natural to the target language. There is, however, no sharp boundary between dynamic and formal equivalence. On the contrary, they represent a spectrum（范围） of translation approaches. Each is used at various times and in various contexts by the same translator, and at various points within the same text — sometimes simultaneously（同时）. Competent translation entails（必须是） the judicious（正确的） blending of dynamic and formal equivalents. Common pitfalls in translation, especially when practiced by inexperienced translators, involve false equivalents such as "friends” and false cognate. 2) 翻译对话论(Dialogue Theory)：该理论认为译者对源语文本的解读是一种特殊的阅读行为,译者对译语文本的构建是一种特殊的创作;译者在翻译的过程中必须和原作者与译文读者平等对话,作者、译者和读者都作为主体在翻译的各个阶段各司其责,共同完成翻译这一最复杂的跨文化交际活动,他们之间是一种主体间性的关系. 3) 翻译目的（功能）论（skopostheory）： 目的（功能）派译论源于20世纪70年代的德国。Skopos是希腊语，意为“目的”。翻译目的论(skopostheorie)是将Skopos概念运用于翻译的理论，其核心概念是：翻译过程的最主要因素是整体翻译行为的目的。Skopos这一术语通常用来指译文的目的。德国译论家凯瑟琳娜·莱斯首次把功能范畴引入翻译批评,将语言功能,语篇类型和翻译策略相联系,发展了以源文与译文功能关系为基础的翻译批评模式,从而提出了功能派理论思想的雏形。除了Skopos，另一著名德国译论家汉斯·弗米尔(Vermee)还使用了相关的“目标(aim)”、“目的(purpose)”、“意图(intention)”和“功能(function)”等词。为了避免概念混淆，费米尔认为，翻译中的最高法则应该是“目的法则”，也就是说,译文取决于翻译的目的。此外,翻译还须遵循“语内连贯法则”和“语际连贯法则”。前者指译文必须内部连贯,在译文接受者看来是可理解的,后者指译文与原文之间也应该有连贯性。翻译中到底是采取归化还是异化，都取决于翻译的目的。在弗米尔的目的论框架中，决定翻译目的的最重要因素之一是受众——译文所意指的接受者，他们有自己的文化背景知识、对译文的期待以及交际需求。每一种翻译都指向一定的受众，因此翻译是在“目的语情景中为某种目的及目标受众而生产的语篇”。弗米尔认为原文只是为目标受众提供部分或全部信息的源泉。可见原文在目的论中的地位明显低于其在对等论中的地位。弗米尔还提出了翻译委任的概念,即应该由译者来决定是否,何时,怎样完成翻译任务。也就是说,译者应该根据不同的翻译目的采用相应的翻译策略,而且有权根据翻译目的决定原文的哪些内容可以保留,哪些需要调整或修改。 另一德国译论家克里斯汀娜·诺德提议对意图和功能作基本的区分：“意图”是从发送者的角度定义的，而“功能”指文本功能，它是由接受者的期望、需求、已知知识和环境条件共同决定的。提出译者应该遵循“功能加忠诚”的,从而完善了该理论。 4) 翻译多元论(Pluralism in translation)： 这一理论突破了中外传统译学理论的藩篱，建构译学理论的多元框架体系。熔文化学、语义学、语境学、句法学、文体学、语用学、模糊语言学、接受美学等相关学科的最新理论于一炉，厘定了翻译理论的跨学科内涵。 5) Literature-oriented Approaches(描述论) These appoaches are based on the descriptive translation studies, starting from the hypothesis that a translation belongs exclusively to the literary sysytem of the target linguaculture.( Toury 1985, Bassnett and Lefevere1990) 6) Functionalistic and Avtion and Reception-theory Related Approaches(功能与接受论) It is the purpose of a translation, which is overridingly important. Given the primacy of the purpose of translation, it is the way target culture norms are heeded that is the most important yardstick for assessing the quality of a translation. (Vermeer1978/1996, Reiss and Vermeer 1984) 7) Post-modernist and Deconstructionist Approaches:(后现代主义论与解构论) Theorists in this approach “undertake to unmark the unequal power relations that are reflected in the translation directions from and into English, and the promotion of further English language hegemony through one-sided translations from English and an ever decreasing number of foreign texts being translated into English. “No answers are sought for the question of when a text is a translation, and when a text belongs to a different texual operation.(Graham1985, Spivak 1988) linguistic/text-oriented theories 8) 女性主义翻译论(gender theory)：西方女性主义以社会性别差异论(gender theory)为基础,以“从边缘走向中心”为行动纲领,起源于18世纪的自由女性主义(Liberal Feminism)。上个世纪七十年代,女性主义打出了“女性必须得到语言解放,女性的解放必须先从语言着手”的口号。性别与翻译本身并没有什么天然的本质联系,可当性别身份被带入到文本中,一切就会发生改变。 传统的翻译观以忠实作为衡量译作的唯一尺度,译作要求与原作达到别无二致的“化境”,而“不忠的美人”指的是只雅而不信的翻译。诚然,传统的翻译观已无法解释严复、林纾等已被公认的“不忠”的译作,“忠”与“不忠”显然已经不能成为评价的唯一。原作与译作之间不可能达到绝对的对等,翻译的艺术也就在于它是一门接近的艺术。女性主义者认为要求译文对原作的忠诚就如同要求女性对丈夫或父权的绝对忠诚一样不公平。 弗洛图总结了女性翻译家常用的三种翻译策略:增补(supplementing)、前言或脚注(prefacing and footnoting)以及“劫持”(hijacking)来翻译作品。女性主义译者选取女作家的读本作为译本,通过翻译研究中的性别化视角发出“让女性的声音在译文中能被听到，让女性的身影在译文中能被看到”的呐喊。女性主义提出了在女性主义的名义下重写,“重写”的过程中，译者不可避免地会改变原作者的初衷，融合自己的观点，对原作重构，并使之朝着女性主义的方向发展，这就无异于作者主观追求对原作的变形。女性主义译者提出要“woman handle”文本，用女性主义的方式重写。译者在重写过程中主观能动性发挥的大小尺度把握得如何直接决定读者的数量，若太过偏颇的强调女性主义的观点，把自身禁锢在二元对立的桎梏中，恐怕就难逃孤芳自赏的命运。 Asian Theories 1）Religious translation: There is a separate tradition of translation in South Asia and East Asia (primarily modern India and China), especially connected with the rendering of religious texts — particularly Buddhist texts — and with the governance（统治） of the Chinese empire. Classical Indian translation is characterized by loose adaptation（改编） rather than the closer translation more commonly found in Europe, and Chinese translation theory identifies various criteria and limitations in translation. 2）Translation Theories in China     从时间上看，中国翻译理论可分为传统、现代和当代三个时期。传统的翻译理论是指不以西方的“现代语言学”为方法论的翻译理论研究，具体又可分为“发生期”、“发展期”、“成熟期”和“转型期”等。这个时期分别见证了中国的几大翻译高潮，即东汉的佛经翻译‘明末清初的科技翻译及清末民国初的吸血翻译和“五四”时期的新文学翻译。 1 发生期：指传统翻译理论从无到有的时期，以支谦于公元224年的《法句经序》为起始，以公元988年的《宋高僧传·译经篇》为结束。发生期的理论建立在佛经翻译的基础上，对于哲学、宗教、文学、音乐和舞蹈都有很大影响。这一时期的译论有： 【1】支谦(in Eastern Han Dynasty)的“因循本旨，不加文饰”，“佛言，依其义不用饰，取其法不以严。其传经者，当令易晓，勿失厥义，是则为善。”（《法句经序》，emphasizing the conveyance of the original meaning and expressiveness of the translation） 【2】道安的“五失本”（“本”指的是经文“大意”）： 1）“一失本”：指经文形式的更改，是直译与意译的矛盾统一。 2）“二失本”：指经文文体风格的改变，指质直与文丽的矛盾和统一。他主张的译法是直译，甚至极端化为逐字译，连原文的语序都不能更改。 3）“三、四、五失本”：指经文内容的删简，是 “质”与“量”的矛盾和统一。他反对章法的删繁就简，认为译经应该“得本缘故”，不赞成“斥重省删，务令婉便”的作法，因为“钞经删削，所害必多。委本从圣，乃佛之至诫也”。 “三不易”：道安的“三不易”是中国历史上最早涉及读者的接受性问题和作者、译者和读者间关系问题的翻译论述。 1）“一不易”：“圣必因时，时俗有易，而删雅古，以适今时”，指的是古今时俗的差距。道安意识到要改古以适今很不容易，但又要努力去做，这显然是考虑到译本读者的接受性。    2）“愚智天隔, 圣或叵阶，乃欲以千岁之上微言，传使合百王之下未俗，二不易也”；以及“释氏弟子尚且慎重选经，现由凡人传译更难”的“三不易”，大意都是作者与译者因人不同而有智力、环境的差异，这种认识在当时也是难能可贵的。    【3】玄奘的五种不翻论：具体指在将梵文译成汉文时，遇五种情形不进行意译，而保留其原音，即进行音译。 1．秘密故，如陀罗尼。 甚深微妙而不可思议的佛之秘密语，不翻（意义）。如，般若心经最后一节的“羯谛　羯谛　波罗羯谛　波罗僧羯谛　菩提萨婆诃”的真言、陀罗尼等词类。 2. 含多义故，如薄伽梵具六义。 多种含义的词，不翻（意义）。如兼具自在、炽盛、端严、名称、吉祥、尊贵六意的薄伽梵（亦有翻译为世尊的情况）等词，不意译。 3. 此无故，如净净树、中夏实无此木。 本地（中国）没有的事物，不翻（意义）。如印度的阎浮树、乾闼婆、迦楼罗等事物，为中国所无，保留原音。 4．顺古故，如阿耨菩提、非不可翻、而摩腾以来常存梵音。 沿用以前既存的翻译方法。如“阿耨多罗三藐三菩提”，意为“无上正等正觉”，而自从东汉以来，历代译经者皆采用此音译，故保留前人规式。 5. 生善故，如般若尊重，智慧轻浅。 为让人对要翻译的事物存尊重之心，而音译。如般若、释迦牟尼、菩提萨埵等，不译为“智慧”、“能仁”、“道心众生”等，因为前者能令人生尊重之念，而后者则易被人轻视。 【4】颜宗的“八备说”及鸠摩罗什的“意译”主张。 2 发展期：指传统翻译理论由简单到复杂、由低级到高级的变化过程。这一时期的译论家思考翻译的社会功能，分别以公元1604年的徐光启对译书目的的论述及1894年马建忠的《拟设翻译书院议》为起止时间。这一期间的翻译多为自然科学和社会科学的书籍。 马建忠（writer of the first Chinese grammar book 《马氏文通》）：所有相当之实义，委屈推究，务审其音声之高下，析其字句之繁简，尽其文体之变态，及其义理精深奥折之所由然。夫如是，则一书到手，经营反复，确知其意旨之所在，而又摹写其神情，仿佛其语气，然后心悟神解，振笔而书，译成之文，适如期所译而止，而曾无毫发出入于其间，夫而后，能使阅者所得之益，与观原文无异，是则为善译也已”——The translator shoud carefully read and analyze the source text to get the real meaning, the structure, the style, the spirit, the tone, and the sound effect before he/ she begins to translate. The effect of the translation on the target readers should be the same of that of the original text on the readers. 3 成熟期：指传统的翻译理论的完善时期。这一时期的翻译思想日趋充实完善，表达方法日益精密得当。成熟期锁应对的是西学翻译与“五四”新文学翻译，以1894年严复的《天演论》为标志。具有代表性的译论有： 1） 严复的信（faithfulness）达、(expressiveness)、雅(elegance / refinement)《天演论﹒译例言》：“译”事三难：信、达、雅。求其新，已大难矣。顾信矣不达，虽译犹不译也，则达尚焉。……译文取明深意，故词句之间，时有所颠倒附议，斤斤于字比句次，而意义则不倍本文。……至原文词理本深，难于共喻，则当前思后衬，以显其意。凡此经营，皆以为达：为达，即以为信也。《易》曰：“修辞立诚”。子曰“词达而已！”又曰：‘言之无文行之不远’.三者乃文章正轨，亦即为译事楷模。故信达而外，求其尔雅。（注：王佐良教授解释：“信”faithfuness是指为读者准确传达原作的内容，“达”expressiveness指尽量运用译文读者所习见的表达方式，“雅”elegance or refinement是通过艺术地再现和加强原作的风格特色来吸引读者。） 2）林纾的“谈译书之难”、金岳霖的”译意与“译味”、郑振铎的“文学可译” （“译书自以能存真为第一要义……最好一面极力求不失原意,一面要译文流畅。”）、矛盾的“文学翻译创造论“、鲁迅的“信译”、傅雷的“神似”论（以效果而论，翻译应像临画一样，所求的不在形似，而是神似。）和钱钟书的“化境”论（文学翻译的最高理想可以说是“化”。把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字，既不能因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原作的风味，那就算得入于“化境”）等。这一时期的译论特点如下：翻译理论倾向的文学性质，团体论争的精彩纷呈，如严复与梁启超的问题、语言的论争，胡适、刘半农等对于严复、林纾的批评等，大量大翻译家及文学家出现在这个时期，如严复、矛盾、鲁迅、朱生豪等。期间的特例：林纾（林琴南）虽然不懂外文，但他通过口译者传授原文的大意并默记于心，再用自己的方式再创造，翻译了“茶花女》、《黑奴吁天录》等213部脍炙人口的外国小说，曾造成“洛阳纸贵”。有人批评他是暴利绑架原文，不忠实于原文，但却不能不承认并佩服他的“林式”再创作 4 转型期：指传统译论的核心问题开始转移的时期。主要对应于新中国的成立至语言学翻译研究期间的翻译理论。这一时期大多是引进稀饭基于语言学基础上的翻译理论，自创理论相对贫瘠。 相对而言，传统的翻译研究即“古典文论学派”更关心译作的文学性和译文的选词造句等方面的问题，其着眼的是翻译的本体性研究而非主体性研究，强调文本内结构与意义的转换，主张对文本自身的“内向性忠实”，其基本的理论命题有“写作与翻译的等级喻说”、“翻译的价值中立”、“语言的透明性以及语言规律（或文本内结构）对于意义的预设”等，其缺陷在于它的演绎式研究模式，即以点带面，讲某些基于经验和语言分析的论断的作用扩大化，带有明显的封闭性，缺少开放、综合和跨学科的系统性，也缺少基本的翻译理论体系，同时受制于传统美学的方法论，强调总体把握和模糊形象思维，缺少精确分析和严谨的科学论证。 二十世纪六十年代以后，国内开始摆脱翻译理论的这种传统，开始了历时三十年的西方当代语言学翻译理论的介绍与研究，期间学界关注的主要是翻译的技法以及英汉双语再技术层面上的比照等。 上世纪就是年代后期，一些译论家开始体积西方当代翻译理论体系中有关“多元系统论”、“解构主义”、“阐释说”、与“女性主义”等理论字眼，更着重于学习西方严格的方法论、科学而精确的理论描述以及细腻和定性定量的分析研究等。 Brief Introduction of Machine Translation 1.6.1 About Machine Translation The specific date when this type of translation did emerge as stated in Olivia Craciunescu's article " Machine Translation and Computer-Assisted Translation: a New Way of Translating" is believed to be "the beginnings of the Cold War… in the 1950s competition between the United States and the Soviet Union" The role of human translators is manifested in what is known as the process of pre-editing of the intended source text to be translated, and post-editing of the translated version provided by the machine translation. 机器翻译的想法可以追溯到17世纪。1629年，笛卡尔（René Descartes）提出一种通用语言，相当于用一种共享的符号来表示不同的语言的概念。20世纪50年代，美国乔治敦实验（Georgetown experiment） (1954)把60个俄语句子全自动地翻译成了英语。实验获得了巨大成功，并开创了一个耗费巨资用于机器翻译研究领域的时代。作者声称，在三至五年内，机器翻译解决问题将得到解决了。 然而，实际的进展要慢的多，ALPAC报告（ 1966年）之后发现，10年之久的研究未能完成预期，资金大为减少。从八十年代末期开始，随着计算能力的提高，成本更低，更多兴趣表现在统计模型的机器翻译上(statistical models for machine translation)。 用数字计算机进行自然语言翻译的想法是1946 由A. D. 布斯（A. D. Booth）。可能还有其他人提出的。乔治敦实验决不是第一个这样的应用，1954年在APEXC机伯克贝克学院（伦敦大学）展示了最起码的把英文翻译成法文。关于此题目有几篇论文在当时发表，甚至在流行的期刊上也有些这样的文章（例如，参见1955年年9月的Wireless World,，Cleave 和Zacharov的文章）。类似的应用程序，当时还率先在伯克贝克学院诞生，是用计算机来阅读和撰写盲文文本的。 机器翻译过程（Translation process） 主要文章：翻译过程（Translation process）  翻译过程（translation process） 可以表述为： 1. 解码（Decoding）源文本（source tex）的意义（meaning）及 2. 用 目标语言（target language）重新编码（encoding）这种意义（meaning）。 在这表面上简单的过程是一个很复杂的认知（cognitive）操作。要解码源文本含义的全部内容，翻译者必须解释和分析文字的所有特征，这是需要深入了解源语言的语法，语义，句法，成语等，以及原作者文化的一个过程。翻译者需要同样深入地了解要重新编码其意义的目标语言。 这就是机器翻译面临的挑战：如何为计算机编制程序，如同一个人那样“理解”的文本，并用目标语言“创造”一个新的文本， “听起来” ，仿佛就是一个人写出来的。 这个难题可以用几种方式处理： 方法（Approaches） 金字塔表示中间表示的深度的比较，顶端为多种语言之间的机器翻译，然后是基于转换的翻译，再其后是直接的翻译。机器翻译可以用基于语言学规则（linguistic rules）的方法，意思是，将被翻译词语用语言学的方式翻译---目标语言最合适的（口头表达）的词语替换源语言的词语。 人们常常认为，成功的机器翻译首先需要解决自然语言理解（natural language understanding）的问题。 一般来说，基于规则的方法通常是先分析文本，建立一个中间的符号表示，由此生成目标语言。根据中间表示的性质，有种方法叫做多语种间机器翻译，或者叫基于转换的机器翻译。这些方法需要大量的词汇与形态，句法和语义信息，及大规模的规则集合。 给予足够的数据，机器翻译的程序对于把一种语言作为母语的人来说往往感到足够好，很接近其他把这种语言作为母语的人所说的。困难在于获得足够的数据，正好能够支持这种特定的方法。例如，统计方法需要大型的多语种语料库，，对于基于语法的方法就是不必要的。但是，语法方法需要资深语言学家精心设计他们所使用的语法。 要翻译比较接近的语言，可以用叫做浅层转换机器翻译（hallow-transfer machine translation）的技术。 基于规则的（Rule-based） 基于规则的机器翻译包括基于转换的机器翻译，多语种机器翻译和基于字典的机器翻译程序。 主要文章: 基于规则的机器翻译（Rule-based machine translation） 基于转换的机器翻译（Transfer-based machine translation） 主要文章： 基于转换的机器翻译（Transfer-based machine translation） Inter-lingual 主要文章： 语际种机器翻译（Interlingual machine translation） 语际机器翻译是基于规则机器翻译方法的一个实例。用这种方法，源语言即要翻译的文本被转换为中间语言，即源/目标独立于语言的表示。然后从中间语言生成目标语言。 基于字典的（Dictionary-based） 主要文章： 基于字典的机器翻译（Dictionary-based machine translation） 机器翻译可以用一种基于字典（dictionary）条目的方法，意思是词语的翻译就如同用一本字典一样。 统计的（Statistical） 主要文章：统计机器翻译（Statistical machine translation）  统计机器翻译试图产生翻译使用统计方法基于双语文本语料库，如加拿大Hansard 语料库，加拿大议会英语-法国语纪录，和EUROPARL ，欧洲议会记录的语料库。如果有这样的语料库可用，那么类似种类文本的翻译会得到给人印象深刻的结果，但这种语料库仍然并不多见。第一个统计机器翻译的软件是IBM的CANDIDE。谷歌使用了几年SYSTRAN，但是在2007年10月，换成了统计机器翻译。最近，他们通过从联合国材料输入近两千亿词训练其系统而改善了其翻译能力。翻译准确性有所提高。 基于实例的（Example-based） 主要文章：基于样本的机器翻译（Example-based machine translation） 基于实例的机器翻译（ EBMT ）的做法往往是特点为在运行时使用双语语料库作为其主要的知识库。本质上是一种类推翻译，可以看作是机器学习基于实例推理的一种方法的实现。 混合方法的机器翻译（Hybrid MT） 混合机器翻译（HMT），折中利用了统计和基于规则的翻译方法的长处。 主要问题（Major issues） 消除歧义（Disambiguation） 主要文章： 词义歧义消除（Word sense disambiguation） 词义消歧关注词在有一个以上的意义时，找到合适的一个单词翻译。难题是在20世纪50年代首先是由Yehoshua Bar-Hillel提出的。他指出没有“普遍百科全书”，机器不可能会区别一个词的两个意思。今天人们设计出很多方法来克服这个困难。这些大致可分为“浅层”和“深层”的方法。 浅层方法假定不需要有关文本的知识。他们只是简单地运用统计方法于模棱两可的词周围的词。深层的方法假定需要对词有的全面知识。迄今为止，浅层方法是更成功些。. 后来，为联合国和世界卫生组织长期工作的翻译，克劳德Claude Piron，写道，机器翻译，即使最好的，自动化了译者的工作比较容易的部分; 更难和更加费时的部分通常都是进行广泛的解决源文本的二义性研究，这也是目标语言语法和词汇迫切要求解决的问题： 理想的深层方法要求翻译软件为这种消歧独自地进行所有必要的研究; 但是这将要求比现在已经达到的高得多AI。Piron提及的一种浅层方法，简单地猜测模棱两可的英语词组的意义，或许将有相当经常猜测错误的一个合理的机会。 Piron估计，总涉及“关于歧义问问用户”的浅层的方法，大约只有25%是一个专业翻译的工作，而75%更难的将由人类完成。 命名实体（Named entities） Related to named entity recognition in information extraction. 应用程序（Applications） 现在有很多翻译自然语言的软件，其中几种是在线的，诸如： ∙ SYSTRAN, 提供援助了雅虎的宝贝鱼（巴别塔鱼 Babel Fish ）。 ∙ Promt, 支持援助Voila.fr 和Orange.fr的在线翻译服务。 ∙ AppTek, 2009年发布的混合 MT 系统。[6] 虽然还没有哪个系统能够得到全自动高质量的无限制文本机器翻译（ FAHQUT ）的圣杯 ，但是许多全自动化系统能够产生合理输出。机器翻译的质量，如果是限于领域而且受控的，那么已经有了极大地改进。 尽管有其固有的局限，但MT程序仍然环球皆用。 大概最大的机构用户是欧共体（European Commission）了。 Toggletext 使用一个基于转换的系统( 叫作Kataku)在英语和印度尼西亚语之间进行翻译。 谷歌声称使用一个私有的统计机器翻译引擎，结果得到了改善。谷歌语言工具（Google language tools）所用来进行阿拉伯语和英语之间，及汉语和英语之间的统计翻译引擎，在美国家标准局进行的测试的结果是以0.4281分胜过IBM BLEU-4 的0.3954分（2006年夏）。 由于最近恐怖主义成为热点，已有来自美国军方相当大数量的财政投资于自然语言工程。n-Q-Tel ，（主要由美国智力社团提供的投机资本基金资助，通过私人部门企业家激励技术) 建立了像Language Weaver这样的公司。 目前军事社团对象阿拉伯语、帕施图语和达里语的翻译及语言处理感兴趣。国防部高级研究局（DARPA ）的信息处理技术办公室主持了象浪潮（TIDES）和巴比伦译者（Babylon Translator）的程序。 美国空军斥资一个一百万美元合同来开发语言翻译技术。 近年来网上著名的社会网络（social networking）的兴起，为机器翻译软件的应用找到了另外适当位置，例如Facebook或者及时信息客户端程序例如Skype、 GoogleTalk， MSN信使等允许讲不同语言的用户互相沟通。 也为为多数移动设备发布了机器翻译应用程序，包括移动电话、袖珍PC， PDA等。由于他们的轻便，这样设备被选定为移动翻译工具，使得移动商业网络伙伴之间能讲不同的语言，既促进了外语学习，又可以到外国旅游而不用翻译人员伴随中介。 评测（Evaluation） 主要文章：机器翻译评测（Evaluation of machine translation） 评测试机器翻译系统的性能有各种各样的手段。最老的是由人类判断]评测翻译的质量。即使人类判断很耗时，但是与不同的系统，如基于规则的统计的比较，它仍然是最可靠的方式。自动化的手段包括BLEU, NIST  和METEOR.。 专注地依靠未编辑的机器翻译忽略了这样的事实，用人类的语言交流是嵌入在上下文中的，并且它使人以合理程度的可能性领会原文的上下文。可以确定为真的是，即使纯粹人类的翻译也是容易出错的。因此，要确保机器生产的翻译有用，并且达到适于出版的翻译质量，这样翻译必须由人审阅与编辑。后来Claude Piron写道，机器翻译，即使是最好的，自动翻译的是翻译工作较容易的部分，而较难和费时的部分通常还是要研究解决源文本的歧义，迫切要求解决目标语言的语法和词汇。 这样研究是对预编辑的一个必要的开端，为了给机器翻译软件提供输入，以便产品不会是无意义的。 然而，在某些应用程序中，如，用受控语言写的产品说明，一个基于字典的机器翻译系统生产了不需要保存为质量检测的人类干预而得到了令人满意的翻译。 1.6.2 Famous software of Machine Translation: 1. 协同翻译系统 GE-CCT 2009 英汉、汉英版 2. 金山词霸2009 3. 金山快译2009    4．译星智能翻译平台 5、有道词典 6．万能对译20057 7 . Light英汉机器翻译系统v1.41汉化绿色版_国产机器翻译软件 8. 整句翻译工具Ⅱ 2005 豪华版 9. 思拓智能翻译系统CipolMT2002 1.0 10. Hunter Dictionary 简明英汉/汉英双向翻译 11. IBM 翻译家 2000 12. 雅信CAT英汉双向翻译平台 V3.5 13. Magic Translator 魔术翻译家 3.0 14. 翻译转换 3.01 15. 时代翻译通 V4.2 16.译经计算机翻译系统 (简体中文翻英文) 8.0 17.wwstar pro(文言文翻译) 1.61 18.译经计算机翻译系统 (英文翻简体中文) 8.0 19.译友翻译环境 V1.01 20.大众翻译软件 V4.2 21.wwstar pro(文言文翻译) 1.61 22.USAShow-贸易任我行-多国文字翻译工具 1.1.28 23.Google网页翻译工具 Beta 24.英文缩略词翻译系统 V2.0 1.6.3机器翻译误译举例： 1) He is a slow student.他学习比较困难。 机器误译：他是一个动作很慢的学生。 2) “What do you think of the man?" “You've stolen my question!”.“你觉得这个人怎么样？”“我正要问你呢！” 机器误译：“你怎么看这个人？”“你偷了我的问题！ 3) There is a bit of old Adam in us all. 机器翻译：在我们里面有一点旧的亚当所有的。 分析：如果读者没有对英语文化有所了解，那么他看了这种翻译就会不知其所云。因为Ａｄａｍ在汉语中的对应词只表示一个人名，机器就是这样翻译的，没有代表任何的文化意义。而在英语中ｔｈｅｏｌｄＡｄａｍ则是一个被赋予了特定文化内涵的短语，它指的是《圣经》中的人类始祖亚当违背了上帝旨意的行为，，源出于人类自私，罪恶的本性。因此这个句子译成汉语应该为：我们大家都有一点干坏事的本性。 4）She is a fox. 机器翻译：她是狐狸． 分析：机器翻译对这个句子进行了直接字面翻译，似乎没有错。在中英文中，“狐狸”一词都可以与狡猾或诡计多端的人联系在一起。但是当“狐狸”一词与女性联系在一起时，汉语与英语却分别具有了不同的色彩和暗示。按照中国人的心理“狐狸”形容女性是贬义，指“狐狸精”，这无疑是错误的，因为在英语中”ＦＯＸ“形容女性是指时髦迷人的女子。如果直译为：“她是只狐狸”，便容易在中国读者心中唤起一种传统上遭到贬斥的形象。因此这个句子应该翻译为：她是位时髦迷人的女郎。 5）Whoever is goldbricking when I came back gets a real talking. 机器翻译：任何人当我回来时是金砖得到一个真的说话。 分析：对于这个句子翻译且不论它的好坏，就goldbrick这个词，机器翻译按照字面翻译“金砖”，明显没有顾及到它背后的文化内涵。这个词源自美国西部淘金时期。美国加州发现金矿后，淘金者纷至沓来，他们把开采出来的金子铸成金砖（goldbrick）以便搬运。后来，有些骗子为骗取钱财，把铅铸成快，再镀上一层金膜出售，因此，goldbrick就被用来表示“冒牌货”。二战时期，美军用此词来形容那些装病的士兵。所以，在goldbrick用作动词时应表示“偷懒”。这个句子的正确意思是：我回来时谁要是在偷懒的话，可别怪我不客气。 6) The job gives him plenty of responsibility—he is in charge of several thousand workers—and plenty of ccash. 机器翻译：工作给他许多职责－他是掌管一些千个工人－和许多现金。 分析：原文中的plenty of cash是与plenty of responsibility并列的，同是gives的宾语；而破折号之间的内容是对responsibility的补充说明，但机器翻译忽视了这种并列关系，单纯把破折号原版拷贝。正确的意思是：他担任此项工作，责任重大（主管着几千名工人），报酬丰厚。这样翻译才符合我们汉语的语法和思维习惯。 7) Those of us who have the ability to do this job will be sent to carry ou the task. 机器翻译：我们谁的那些有能力做这件工作愿意送以便实行任务。分析：定语从句是英语语法中最常见的，主要涉及到限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句。上面这个句子中，who引导的限制性定语从句对先行词those of us 起到限制和修饰的作用。此句可翻译为：我们当中那些有能力做此事的将被派去执行这个任务。 8) We don’t read books for amusement.机器翻译：我们为了消遣而不读书。 分析：原文中的not位于read前，形式上是否定谓语，而在实际意义上是否定后面的for amusement，原文的正常语序应是：We read books not for amusement.但英语中习惯把not提到前面去，这叫“否定前置”。又如我们常说的：“我们活着不是为了吃饭，而吃饭是为了活着”，译为英语就是：We don’t live to eat, but eat to live.原译单纯在形式上与原文相对应，但意思却完全错误。正确的译文：我们读书不是为了消遣。 Chapter Two  About Translating 2.1 The Process of Translating Generally speaking, the process of translating may be described as follows: 1. The translator’s (as the first reader) understanding of the source language text 2. The translator’s analysis of the source language text (the background, the structure, the use of words) 3. The expression of the source language text into target language text 4. The translator’s modification and embellishment（润色） of the target language text 5．The translator’s checking of the translated text 2.2 Understanding the Meaning 2.2.1 Understanding the words and choosing the appropriate meaning in the dictionary 1）Understanding and Translating Polysemic Words(多义词) in the Context e.g. book (1) the Book —— 圣经 (1) a book of matches ——一盒火柴 (2) Her face was an open book. ——她心里有什么事都表现在脸上。 (3) It’s a sealed book to me. ——我对此一窍不通。 (4) Henry Ford is a pretty wonderful person in my book. ——亨利·福特在我心中是一位相当了不起的人物。 (5) The huge treaty books were ready at last. ——蔚为壮观的条约文本终于准备完毕了。 (6) President Jimmy Carter pored over briefing books crammed with profiles of the visitor from the Middle Kingdom. ——吉米·卡特总统仔细阅读各种汇报卷宗，里面充塞着有关这位来自中央王国的贵宾的资料。 (7) They tried every trick in the book to win the election. ——他们施展了浑身解数来夺取选举的胜利。 (8) They threw the book at him. —— 他们把罪名往他头上甩。 (9) Curran’s aides originally consisted of three lawers and an accountant, who focused mainly on the books of the Carter warehouse in Plains. ——柯伦的助手原先包括三名律师和一名会计师，后者主要集中清查卡特在普兰斯的仓库的账目。 (10) New Carter Aides Open Their Book ——卡特锁委任的新官公布他们的财产情况。 (11) As it was, our house was mortgaged to the hilt, and some winters the grocer carried us on his books. ——事实上，我们把房子全部抵押了，有几年冬天，我们要想服饰店赊账度日。 (12) Ration books insured that all Cubans receive at least enough food for living. ——古巴人有各种配给本，保证所有人至少可以获得生活所必需的食品。 (13) You are lucky to have got off with a caution; most policemen would have brought you to book. ——你很幸运，只是挨了警告，要换上别的警察，准会狠狠地罚你。 2）According to the structure of phrases and sentences: ① look sb. In the face, a black sheep ( verb + noun, adj. +noun ) ② go over, look up  (verb + adv.) ③ come true (verb + adj.) ④ Practice makes perfect.(subject) He laughs best who laughs last (pron. subject) ⑤ as soon as, as a matter of fact (the first key word) ⑥Although the recession has reached every corner of the planet, the impact is uneven. ——虽然这场经济衰退波及全球的每个角落，但个体受到的影响不尽相同。 2.2.2 Understanding the Meaning Semantically and Culturally A.  Understanding some concepts 1) What is the category of “meaning”? Geoffrey Leech said in his “Semantics” that “meaning” can be divided into seven types. They are : 1 Conceptual Meaning（外延意义） (Denotative Meaning or cognitive meaning):the most basic meaning which can be found in the dictionary. 2 Connotative Meaning（内涵意义）: It is the complementary meaning to conceptual meaning .Different people may give different connotative meaning to the same word. E.g. 英美人提到pig时，习惯将其与迟钝、懒惰、肮脏、贪婪等意义联系在一起，与此相关的表达方式也有很多，如pigsty，pigpen都指“猪圈或肮脏的地方”;to make a pig of oneself指“吃得太多”;to be a pig about…指“对……贪得无厌”; 　  a pig in a poke/bag 未经过目而购进的货   on the pig's back / ear 走运、幸福之极、洋洋得意   drive (one's) pigs to market 打鼾   get the wrong pig by the tail 捉错了人;搞错了对象   give sb. a pig of his own sow(大母猪) 以其人之道还治其人之身   pigs might fly 无稽之谈;奇迹不可能会发生   The pigs ran through it. 事情因有人干预而不能进行。 3 Stylistic Meaning（风格意义）:There are different degrees of formality in different discourses: formal, colloquial, familiar, slang. E.g. The different stylistic meanings: Home一般用语，residence正式用语，domicile官方正式用语, abode诗体语 4 Affective Meaning（情感意义）: It refers to the affection or attitude of the addresser. It is based on conceptual meaning and connotative meaning, and the tone of the speaker, the exclamation may help to express the affective meaning. E.g. That guy is an ass. 5 Reflected Meaning or Associative Meaning（关联意义）: It may arouse the association of something else when the addressee hears or reads the word, such as the taboo words or euphemistic expressions. e.g. water closet, loo, W.C., toilet, wash room, restroom, the important room; 干杯与bottoms up! Cheers! Toast! (Let’s drink a toast!)； 年年有鱼（余） 6 Collocative Meaning（搭配意义）: the meaning is different in different connotation. E.g. pretty 漂亮的，美丽的，俊俏的，标致的，秀丽的，优美的boy (girl, flower, village) ; handsome（英俊的，仪态端庄的，可观的 man, woman, income） raise vegetables——种植蔬菜 raise a family——养家糊口 raise fears——引起恐惧 raise the dead——使死者起死回生 raise an embargo——解除禁运 raise a monumenise——树立纪念碑 raise a fleet集结一支舰队 7 Thematic Meaning （主题意义）:The thematic meaning is usually expressed by means of the “word order”, “emphasis”, and other special sentence structures. It is related to the information emphasis. e.g. Mr. Smith donated the first prize.---- What did Mr. Smith donate?     The first prize was donated by Mr. Smith. ----Who donated the first prize? B. Undersanding the meaning culturally     在拿钱文提到的“pig”来举例说明译者在理解英文原文本和用汉语表述时要注意辨别两两种语言之间的文化差异。同英美人一样，中国人在日常的语言中常常将猪与愚蠢、懒惰、肮脏联系在一起，形容人长得难看叫“猪头狗脸”;形容人格低下、品行极坏用“猪狗不如”;汉语还有俗语“猪八戒照镜子——里外不是人”“龙生一子定乾坤，猪生一窝拱墙根”。除了上述贬抑的含义外，“猪”在汉语中也具有褒美之义。在古代，猪不仅没有任何贬义，相反还是衡量勇敢的尺码。只是后来在被长期驯养的过程中，凶暴、勇猛的野猪逐渐丧失其本性。由于能同时为人们提供美食和经济收入，家猪慢慢地成为民间吉祥物的象征，“肥猪拱门”由此也变成了人们祈愿新年吉庆和丰收的吉利话。可以说猪曾是深受人们崇拜的生殖之神和风雨之神，后来慢慢演化成了“性”和“色欲”的象征。总之，猪在汉文化中褒贬兼有，一方面代表着愚笨、懒惰、贪吃、好色，另一方面又象征着厚道、忠诚、谨慎。翻译时要注意与汉文化相对应。如： to teach a pig to play on a flute指“做荒诞或不可能的事”。但更佳的翻译时：“赶鸭子上架” Never offer to teach fish to swim.不要班门弄斧. 还有：teach one's granny how to suck eggs 教老奶奶吸吮鸡蛋——班门弄斧 C. Understanding the meaning pragmatically: (1) Analyzing the Discourse of the Original Text Generally speaking, texts/discourse need to be understood before they’re translated. In the field of pragmatics, discourse analysis helps understand how people use utterances to perform actions. Discourse analysis also describes social influences connected with historical changes in patterns of language use, such as individual and group identity. Discourse analysis shows that knowing a language means not just knowing its grammar and vocabulary but also knowing how to structure paragraphs and arguments and participate in conversations the way speakers of the language do, and it means understanding which sentence-types will accomplish which purposes in social interaction: what will work as an apology, for example, or how to decline an invitation. Cohesion (in structure): Coherence (in logic): Implication: e.g. 1)  A. Who is making breakfast?     B. Dan, I think.       A. Oh, no!       Daniel: How do you guys want your eggs?       A, B: cooked! （cooked的含义：只求你把鸡蛋煮熟就行了!） (2) Speech Acts Theory Speech Acts Theory:英国哲学家约翰奥斯汀认为，言语行为不仅仅指“言之所述”，而且指“言之所为”，甚至涉及“言后之果”。“有所述之言”只涉及句法和逻辑语义的问题，“有所为之言”却以语境为转移，是指“以言行事”。 前者被称为“表述句”(constatives)后者是“施为句”(performatives)。 Locutionary Act:以言指事 He said to me “shoot her”。 Illocutionary Act:以言行事 He urged (ordered, advised) me to shoot her. Perlocutionary Act:以言成事He persuaded me to shoot her, and I did it. He got (made) me to shoot her. 言语行为从“以言指事”到“以言行事”以至“以言成事”实际上都是在传递信息。     言语行为可以通过逻辑—语义、句法结构、语境信息以及感情意义来表现。 1）一般而言，陈述句表示陈述，疑问句表示询问，祈使句表示命令。但不同的以言行事可以有相同的命题内容。如： A. John beat Mary. (陈述) B. John beat Mary?（询问） C. John, beat Mary! （命令） 2)　但有时候陈述句并非表示“陈述”，疑问句并非都表示“询问”。如： A. Could you be a little quiet? （委婉而礼貌的请求） B. You could be a little more quiet. （命令或劝告） 3）通过情感意义表现的言语行为： A. Mary is disgusting. B. Well, she is your best friend. （别乱说。她可是你最好的朋友。） A. Bob likes playing computer games so much. B. children are children.  （孩子总是爱玩的） 2.3. Understanding the text according to the sense groups The addresser will facilitate the addressee to share the message completely by giving him or her clues to brief units of meaning, each at a time, in order to reach the total meaning of the utterance without confusion. Each brief unit, discretely spoken, is called a sense group and the clue to understand it is the silence (or pause) that occurs before and after it. The meaning of an utterance will depend on how we identify sense groups with the pauses. Division of sense groups depends on the identification of parts of sentences, which make convenient units of sense. The separation of units is according to some grammatical cues. 意群就是指句子中按意思和结构划分出的各个成分，每一个成分即称为一个意群。同一意群中的词与词的关系紧密相关，密不可分，否则就会引起误解。   “意群”是一个稍长的句子分成的具有一定意义的若干个短语；“停顿”是在意群之间进行的。它是根据语意、语速的需要而自然产生的一种语音停顿现象；“连读”是在一个意群内进行的，它是在说话较快时自然产生的一种语音连读现象。   在中文中，也就是我们通常说的句子切分的具有相对完整性的成分。   意群其实就是概念的组合。概念并不是无序的组合，而是根据一定的关系组合在一起的。所以意群和单个概念相比，包含了关系。   在人们头脑里，其实活跃的，不仅仅是一个个独立的概念，还有其间的关系。意群更注重与关系的结合。所以其中必然有明示的或隐含的联系。   举个例子，我们要以“中国”这个词，而不是“中”和“国”两个字记住这个意群，然后与“美国”“尼加拉瓜”等联系区分；我们要记住“新中国”这一整体而不是“新”+“中国”，并且与“旧社会”比较。意群越完整越好。（这和现在的汉字输入一样，真正想输入快，就不是打字，而是打词，尽可能以词组的方式录入。）   整个句子、整段话、整篇文章、甚至整个类别系统都可以如法炮制。   我们在文章、对话中要获得的是一个完整的意群，而不是支零破碎的片断，这个整体越大，就越容易识别和记忆。 意群的存在，可以让我们更容易理解或学习。比如说，你掉了一大滴墨水在书上，有一两个字看不清了，但这不妨碍你对阅读内容的理解。一句话出现错字或者漏字、适当省略等也不妨碍我们交流。这就是意群关系在补足或修正相应的部分。 例如： （1）Wearing a seatbelt saves lives; it reduces your chances of death or serious injury by more than half. Wearing a seatbelt /saves lives; it reduces your chances of death or serious injury /by more than half. 系好安全带能挽救生命，能将丧生和重伤的概率减少一半以上。（这样做能减少一半以上的伤亡事故。） （2）It will be the driver’s responsibility to make sure that children under 14 do not ride in the front unless they are wearing a seatbelt of some kind. It will be the driver’s responsibility / to make sure / that children under 14 / do not ride in the front / unless they are wearing a seatbelt of some kind. 司机有责任确保14岁以下儿童不要坐在前排，除非他们系好了安全带。 （3）The petition asked that during June, July, and August the working hours be changed from 8 to 5 with an hour off for lunch to 7 to 3:30 with a half-hour for lunch. The petition asked / that during June, July, and August / the working hours be changed / from 8 to 5 with an hour off for lunch / to 7 to 3:30 with a half-hour for lunch 分析：如果我们能够分清此句的意群，我们就不至于读不懂整句话，本句结构为：The petition [主语]+asked[谓语]+that[后接宾语从句]。当我们看到be changed时，便会一眼看到change 后的from……to……to……to，这时，问题便出现了，这里存在两个意群：1) 8 to 5 with an hour off for lunch; 2) 7 to 3:30 with a half-hour for lunch, 当我们理清这两个意群以后，整个句子开始变得流畅了许多。 译文：此申请书请求6，7，8三个月份间的工作时间应从原来早8晚5改为现在的早7点上班晚3：30下班的工作时间制，而午餐时间则由原来的1小时改为现在的半小时。 (4) In the Weary Blues, Hughes chose to modify the traditions that decreed that African American literature must promote racial acceptance and integration, and that, in order to do so, it must reflect an understanding and mastery of Western European literary techniques and styles. In the Weary Blues, / Hughes chose to modify the traditions / that decreed / that African American literature must promote racial acceptance and integration, / and that, in order to do so, / it must reflect an understanding and mastery / of Western European literary techniques and styles. 分析：这段话中出现了，三个That,往往读者会在这几个that之间踌躇不定，尤其是第三个that后面的意群，in order to do so作为一个插入成分将that与紧跟that后的宾语从句分隔开来，第一个that起引导定语从句的作用，且第一个that可用which 来替代，而第二与第三个that起引导宾语从句的作用，第三个that前省略了动词decreed。当句子当初出现复合句时，尤其是宾语从句或定语从句，会以that为标志出现，而只要我们将that及其所引导的成分视为一个意群进行分析，我们读时才不会出现那种不得要领的阅读感觉 翻译：在 “忧郁的蓝调”一诗中，休斯选择改变这样一些传统：即，那些曾经规定美国黑人文学必须以倡导种族容忍及种族团结为宗旨的文学传统，并规定为实现这一目标，美国黑人文学还须反映出对西欧文学技巧及风格的理解和娴熟运用能力的文学传统． 2.4 Analyzing the Stylistic Features of the Original Text There is no doubt that texts in different styles have different features. For example, The stylistic features of oral English differ from written English in many aspects: oral English is informal in the choice of words, with loose and elliptical sentences, while written English is more formal in wording, with more cohesion and coherence in the context. e.g.          1) My dear grandfather has joined the heavenly choir.her 2) My dear grandfather has passed away. 3) My grandfather (grandpa) has died. 4) My old man has just kicked the bucket.       1）吾祖父升天矣。 1） 我亲爱的祖父已经过世了。 2） 我爷爷（我家老爷子）已经死了。 3） 我家那个老东西翘辫子了。 2.5 A Brief Introduction of Tanslating Skills The general translating skills may be classified into three: metaphrase (liberal translation直译), paraphrasis ( free translation意译), and transliteration（音译） We should learn how to analyze and solve problems. (我们应该学会如何分析问题和解决问题。) Rockets have found application for the exploration of the universe.（火箭已用于探索宇宙。） Flowers bloom all over the yard. （朵朵鲜花开满了庭院。） A radio or wireless set is very useful. （无线电收音机很有用。） I shall lose no time in doing this job. （我要抓紧时间做好这件事。） The power increased with their number. （他们的人数增加了，势力也随之壮大。） She had to go back home to look after her husband. He was seriously ill. （她得回家照顾病重的丈夫。） Specific translating skills may include: 1. Amplification（增词法）： 2. Omission（省略法）： 3. Conversion of Parts of Speech （词类转译法）： 4. Repetition（重复法）： 5. Division （分句法）： 6. Combination（合句法）： 7. Affirmation and Negation（正反译法） Chapter Three  The Translating of Words 3.1 The Differences in Words Between English and Chinese 1) In word formation, there are quite a few differences between English and Chinese.   English words are usually formed in the ways as follows:   ①compounding (合成法）：homesick(思乡，想家)，wholesale(批发)；   ②derivation or affixation(派生法): bright——brighten, survive——survival   ③conversion（转换法）：Jimmy is to chair the meeting. Your support furthered my career.你的支持促进了我的事业。   ④clipping（截断法）：influenza—flu；kilogram—kilo   ⑤abbreviation（略缩法）：VIP—very important person；OPEC—Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries石油输出国组织   ⑥back formation（逆成法）：television--televise（电视播放）；editor—edit Chinese words are usually formed in two ways: 合成法（复合法），附加法，重叠法，略缩法 (1) 合成法有以下几种： ①联合式——由意义相同、相近或相反的语素并列组合而成。如：是非，多少，反正，始终 ②偏正式——前一个语素对后一个语素加以修饰限制。如：茶杯，深夜，高速 ③主谓式——前一语素为陈述对象，后一语素对之加以陈述。如：脸红，心跳，首肯，臣服 ④动宾式——前一语素表示行为或动作，后一语素表示行为或动作的对象。如：操心，说话，示威，捐款 ⑤补充式——后一语素对前一语素加以补充说明。如：说明，治安，提前，退后 (2) 附加法（加綴法）是指通过在词根前后加前缀或后缀构成新词的方法。 老外，阿哥，小工，非凡，花儿，理性，党员，美化，效率，回头率，桌子，读者，作者…… 英语合成词的构成也可描述成类似的形式： ①联合式：deaf-mute聋哑，dead-alive半死不活的 ②主谓式：earthquake, sunrise, daybreak ③动宾式：handshake, faultfinding, haircut, birth-control，peace-loving（注：但有的合成词中表达行为活动作的语素需用现在分词或过去分词，其词序也与汉语有别。） (3) 重叠法是指通过将语素重叠构造新词的方法。人人，太太，说说，看看，恭恭敬敬，条条，个个，……英语也有少量的重叠词：bye-bye, dum-dum(笨蛋)，tut-tut啧啧，haw-haw呵呵，哈哈 (4) 略缩法（简称法）是指按照一定的规则将包含若干个词的词组减缩成尽量少的语素构成新词。如：环境保护——环保，民用航空——民航，通货膨胀——通胀，工商银行——工行，人们代表大会——人大会，包修、包退、包换——三包，工业现代化、农业现代化、国防现代化、科学技术现代化——四化 英语中也有类似的缩略词：the three P’s (peace, petroleum, Palestine中东三大问题——和平、石油、巴勒斯坦， In conclusion, English words have more flexible and abstract meanings, but Chinese words are comparatively more fixed and concrete. English suffixes –ness, -ion, -ship, -dom, -ment, -ty, etc are typical examples. In order to match the meaning of this kind of words, there must be some changes in the equivalent Chinese by adding “化”，“论”，“性”，“度”: abstraction抽象化, relativity相对论 2) In parts of speech, both English and Chinese have nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, but there is no quantifier in English or an article in Chinese.                 英语                      汉语               Noun ,                      名词 实词          verb                        动词 （content or    adjective                    形容词 notional words） adverb                      副词               pronoun                      代词               numeral                      数词               ……                        量词 虚词            preposition                  借词 （form or        conjunction                  连词 Function words)  article                      ……                 Interjection                  叹词                 …..                        助词     Even though there are similarities in classification, the two languages have differences in the use of words, particularly in the frequency of use and grammatical functions of words. In English, some words have more than one functions but the function of words is much less flexible in Chinese.     For instance, in the use of prepositions and conjunctions, Chinese has fewer prepositions than English. According to some statistic analysis, among 100 most frequently-used words, the frequency of the use of prepositions in English is 15%, whereas it is 6% in Chinese; the frequency of the use of conjunctions is 13% in English, 2% in Chinese. However, the use of numerals is much more in Chinese than in English. Another difference lies in the use of verbs and nouns. Chinese uses more verbs and verbal phrases than English, therefore, there must be changes in translation accordingly.     Comparatively, the functions of a word in sentences are more limited than those of a Chinese words. A Chinese word may be used as more than one function, with no change of the form, but an English word may have only one function if the form is not changed. For example: compare and contrast the uses of clear, and 清楚 (1) She made a clear explanation. (attributive定语) (2) The explanation is quite clear.（ predicative表语） (3) The explanation must be made clear. ( complement 补语) (4) 清楚十分重要。（subject主语） (5) 他的解释很清楚。（predicate谓语） (6) 大家都喜欢清楚。（object宾语） (7) 他做了清楚的解释。（attributive） (8) 他清楚地做了解释。（adverbial状语） (9) 他解释得很清楚。（complement 补语) Look at the following chart: English                                Chinese Nouns  subject, object, attributive, predictive    subject, object, attributive, predicate, adverbial Verbs    predicate                  predicate, subject, object, attributive,                                         complement Adjectives  attributive, predicative,      subject, object, attributive, complement                                         Adverbial, predicate            complement                 3)  There are not many words in English that may be completely identical in meaning and function except proper nouns, terms, and words with only referential meanings. The following examples may explain the differences in meaning: (1) Words in English have more meanings in English than in Chinese: Cousin——堂兄弟，表兄弟，堂姐妹，表姐妹 School ＞ 学校 ——There will be no school tomorrow. 明天不上课。 ——The headmaster gave a talk to the school at assembly.校长在喧嚣学生大会上讲了话。 ——Susan works at the school of Africa and Asian Studies. 苏珊在亚非研究学院工作。 ——The scholar does not belong to the Kantian school. 那位学者不属于康德学派。 ——The professor was well schooled in foreign languages. 那位教授在外语方面受过良好的训练。 (1) Words in English have fewer meanings in English than in Chinese: 吃 ＞ eat 吃药——to take medicine              吃后悔药——to regret, feel remorse    吃亏——to suffer losses              吃惊——to be amazed 吃老本——to live off one’s past gains    吃回扣——to get commission 吃香——to be very popular            吃苦——to bear hardships 吃软不吃硬——to be open to persuasion, but not to coercion（强迫） 吃一堑长一智——A fall into pit, a gain in your wit. (3) Almost all the words about the parts of body can be used as verbs: eye, nose(探问，侦查), arm（武装）, hand(递交), … ., but it is not the same case in Chinese. 4) There are more polysemies or polysemic words in English, and the meaning of words is closely related to the context (i.e. more collocative meanings), while there are more two-word compound words and fewer polysemies and the reliance on the context is not so obvious as in English. For example:  kill time打发时间, kill the peace扼杀和平, kill the mood破坏气氛, kill one’s appetite倒胃口, kill a marriage解除婚约 5) As far as word formation is concerned, English words have more flexible and abstract meanings, but Chinese words are comparatively more fixed and concrete. English suffixes –ness, -ion, -ship, -dom, -ment, -ty, etc are typical examples. In order to match the meaning of this kind of words, there must be some changes in the equivalent Chinese by adding “化”，“论”，“性”，“度”: abstraction抽象化, relativity相对论 3.2 Changing the Functions of Words in Translating 3.2.1 The Transformation of Nouns 1) Differences in Nouns: English is a noun dominant language, while Chinese is a verb dominant language. English nouns may have the function of verbs, adjectives, adverbs. English nouns have singular or plural forms, but there are no such forms in Chinese, and words of numbers or quantities must be added to express the same meaning, and sometimes the plural nouns can be translated by adding “们”: two books两本书,  students学生们 2) Differences in Verbs: In an English sentence, there is usually only one main verb with some non-verbal expressions, but there are more than one verbs in a Chinese sentence.      E.g. I forgot my key.我忘了带钥匙.  English verbs have the changes of tense, but some words must be used to express the tense in Chinese. E.g. It’s going to rain. 要下雨了。 The constructions in verbs are very complicated in verb + verb structures. E.g. ① 他打开抽屉拿出书来：Opening the drawer, he took out a book.  He opened the drawer and took out a book. ( order)       ② 他到老师那儿请假。He went to the teacher to ask for leave. (purpose)       ③ 她哼着歌走出房间。Humming a tune, she went out of the room. (accompanying)       ④ 我请他教我法语。I asked him to teach me French. ( “Him” is the object of “ask” and the logical subject of “teach”)     Transitive verbs（及物动词） in English must be followed by objects, but the object in Chinese can sometimes be omitted.     e.g. Do you like this book?  你喜欢这本书吗？         Yes, I like it very much.  我很喜欢。 ① From English Nouns to Chinese Verbs According to the bilingual analysis of both English and Chinese, we could find there is an obvious difference between these two languages in the use of Nouns and Verbs. English, as a noun predominant language, is comparatively more static, while Chinese, as a verb predominant language, is more dynamic in the use of words. That is to say, nouns are more frequently used in English while in Chinese verbs appear more often. Therefore, in translating English nouns or noun phrases, there must be some changes in accordance with this variety. e.g. 1) I am an amateur actor. He is a better player than I. (“ player” is derived from play.) ——我是个业余演员。他演得比我好。 2）It seems that most countries of the world have a strong desire to mutually expand their trade. ——世界上的大多数国家都似乎强烈地希望扩展彼此之间的贸易。 EX. 1) The restaurant is a real money-maker. 2) She jumped up for joy at the news of Beijing’s success in biding for 2008 Olympics. 3) The sight of our Shenzhou 5 landing filled me with a tremendous thrill. 4）Before China’s entry into WTO, there were fears that China would have to make too much concessions. 参考译文： 1）这个饭店真挣钱。 ２）一听到北京申办2008年奥运会成功的消息，她就高兴得跳了起来。 ３）看见我国神州5号着陆的消息，我感到异常激动。 4）在中国加入世界贸易组织之前，人们担心中国要做出过多的让步。 ② From English Nouns to Chinese Adjectives In English, some nouns are derived from adjectives：happiness, tiredness, importance, necessity….And English nouns can be used to modify another noun. In these cases, English nouns can be translated into adjectives in Chinese. 1) Life on earth depends on water, and there is no substitute for it. (P. 58) —— 地球上的生命依赖水而生存，而水是不可替代的。 2) Amy Tan returned to these themes with a renewed poignancy and lyricism in The Bonesetter’s Daughter. ——谭恩美哉小说《接骨师的女儿》中，以辛酸而抒情的全新笔触再次表现了这些主题。 3) This couple enjoy moonlight strolls very much. ——这对夫妻很喜欢月下漫步。 EX.  1) Independent thinking is an absolute necessity for college students. 2) A newly-elected Senator is a power. 3) It is a great honor for me to be charged with such an arduous task. 参考译文 1) 独立思考对大学生来说是觉得必要的。　 ２）一个新当选的议员的确是威风十足。 3) 能担任如此艰巨的任务，我真是倍感荣幸。 ③ From English Nouns to Chinese Adverbs e.g. 1）I have the honor to inform you that your request is granted. ( P.58) ——我荣幸地通知您，您的请求已得到批准。 2) When he felt the potential threat this young man might pose to his marriage, his instinct was to get away from him as soon as possible. ——当他感觉到这个年轻人对自己的婚姻可能造成威胁时，就本能地想尽快摆脱他。　 EX. 1)The instant they were married, Lydia and James set out in great haste for London. 2) Most tech companies are approaching the end of the year with extreme caution. 参考译文： １）莉迪亚和詹姆斯刚举行完婚礼就匆匆忙忙地动身前往伦敦。 2）多数高科技公司在临近年终时都非常谨慎。 3.2.2 The Transformation of Adjectives Differences in Adjectives:     There are three degrees of adjectives in English, but in Chinese, some words(such as 比较、较为、更、还、非常、很、最、…极了 are used to express the degrees.     In order to emphasize the meanings, some Chinese adjectives can be formed by repeating the words in such ways as :AA, AABB, ABB. There is no equivalent expressions in English. 红红的， 亮亮的，明明白白，红彤彤.     Some adjectives can be used to be a complimentary element of the verb, as in 说明白，看清楚，but In English adverbs are used to express the same meaning: explain… plainly, see… clearly.  ① From English Adjectives into Chinese Nouns Tip 1: In English, the expression “the + adjectives” is used to refer to a kind of … , and it can be transformed into a noun in Chinese. e.g. The rich are not always happy.\ ——富人未必总是幸福的。 Tip 2: Adjectives describing the state or quality of things can be translated into Chinese nouns with “…性” ，“…度”， “…期”， “…体” e.g. 1) The cutting tools must be strong, tough, hard, and wear resistant. ——刀具必须有足够的强度、韧性、硬度，而且要耐磨。 2) We recognize that intellectual property protection is important to the development of new medicines. ——我们认识到知识产权保护对于发展新药的重要性。 ②　From English Adjectives into Chinese Verbs Tip 1: In translating be + adjectives into Chinese, the adjectives are usually transformed into verbs in Chinese.  e.g. 1) In such cases the patients are often desirous to be operated on. ——在这种情况下患者常常渴望接受手术。 2) He was truly sorry for his past and had promised to give up PC games. ——他对过去追悔莫及，保证再也不玩电脑游戏了。 Tip 2: Adjectives derived from verbs (with the implied meaning of the verbs) or with the suffix “ible, able”can usually translated into verbs in Chinese. e.g. 1) A solar cell is reproductive (can be reproduced) by itself under any circumstances. ——太阳能电池再任何情况下都能自行充电。 2) She is sociable, and always seems to be on good terms with others. ——她很爱社交，似乎总能与他人相处融洽。 Tip 3: Be + No-verbal words(present participles and past participles) imply the actions related to the non-verbal words, so they can be translated into verbs in Chinese. e.g. 1) She is very pushy with the strangers. ——她很爱在陌生人面前出风头。 2) We have been exhausted with a whole day’s work. ——工作了一天，我们都累坏了。 Tip 4: Adjectives with the meaning of sense may often be translated into verb into Chinese with “使人感到…，令人…” 1) Spring in the south is always warm and comforting. ——南国的春天总是让人倍感舒适温暖。　 2) If you don’t watch TV every day, you will be ignorant of the developments both at home and abroad.(P.53) ——如果不是每天都看电视，你就有可能不了解当前的国际国内的发展形势。 ＥＸ. 1) Those seats are saved for the old, the infirm, the ill, the disabled or the pregnant. 2) Nylon is nearly twice as strong as natural silk. 3) Everyday experience shows us that heavy objects are more stable than light ones. 4) If we are exposed frequently to English, we will master it naturally. 5) My tutor is very demanding and is always critical of my work. 参考译文： １）这些座位是为老弱病残孕者准备的。 ２）尼龙的强度几乎是天然丝的两倍。 ３）日常生活经验告诉我们，重东西比轻东西的稳定性药好些。 ４）如果我们常接触英语，就会自然而然地学会这门语言。 ５）我的导师要求严格，对我的工作总是很挑剔。 ③　From English Adjectives into Chinese Adverbs: Tip 1: With the transformation of some English nouns into Chinese verbs, the adjectives as the modifiers of the nouns are translated into adverbs. e.g. 1) At last, he whispered a hurried good-bye to his host and rushed to the door. ——最后他在主人的耳边匆忙地说了地说了声拜拜就冲出门外。 2) With slight modification each type can be used for all three systems. ——每种型号只要稍微低改动就能用于这三种系统。 Tip 2: In the sentence structure “It is +adj. that…”and in verbal phrases . 1) It is obvious that the designs of export garments are out of fashion. (P. 59) ——很明显，出口服装的样式过时了。 2) Only when we give full play to man’s initiative can we make full use of machines to transform nature. ——只有充分发挥人的主观能动性，才能充分利用机器来改造自然。 3.2.3 The Transformation of Adverbs: Compared with Chinese adverbs, English adverbs have more categories and appear more frequently with more flexible positions in sentences. ① Translating English Advs. Into Chinese Nouns. 1) Premature marriages have statistically proved to end prematurely. ——统计数据表明，不成熟的婚姻容易夭折。 2) The paper said editorially that the first trip to Asia by Condoleezza Rice as United States Secretary of State could set the tone for US relations wit hAsia in the coming years. ——这家报纸的社论说，美国国务卿康多利扎·赖斯的第一次亚洲之旅为今后数年美国与亚洲各国的关系定下了基调。 ② Translating English Advs. Into Chinese Verbs: 1) .There are more people in the country sleeping in the streets than any other place in the world. A dominant power is dominant inherently.(P60) ——在那个国家，无家可归的人比任何国家都多。一种占优势的阶层总是一出生就占优势。 2) Several of my siblings had gone to college and none had ever failed a course---- hence my humiliation. Instead I decided to join the US Marines. ——我的几个兄弟姐妹都上了大学，也没有哪门功课不及格——这让我感到羞愧。于是我决定参加美国海军陆战队。 ③ Translating English Advs. Into Chinese Adjectives: He was deeply impressed by what they did in the crucial moment. ——他们在关键时刻的行为给他留下了深刻的印象。 EX. Originally Ingrid Bergman was from Sweden. ——英格丽·褒曼的原籍是瑞典。 3.2.4 The Transformation of Prepositions: Generally, Prepositions in English ( 280 in number) can be used with nouns and noun phrases, they can also be used as adverbials, attributives or predicatives to replace the function of nouns and adjectives. In Chinese, there are only about 30 prepositions. Mostly originated from verbs, Chinese prepositions have the function of both the verbs and prepositions. Therefore, English prepositions may be translated into Chinese with the help of verbs. Specifically, the differences may be listed as follows: ——Most Chinese propositions are originated from verbs, so they can function as both verb and propositions. E.g. 他把门。(verb)  他把门关上了。(propositions) ——propositions or propositional phrases can be used as predicatives, but Chinese propositions have no such function. e.g. They are from the same country. ——Nouns, pronouns, noun clauses, gerunds and even some adjectives can be used as the objects of English propositions, but in Chinese only nouns and pronouns can be used as the objects of propositions. e.g. After finishing the job,… It is far from perfect. ——English propositions, with more lexical meanings, can express the same meaning as the verbs in Chinese. e.g. across the road:横过马路；by train 乘火车 ① In be + prepositional phrases (prepositions + nouns) We were at the same school when we were kids. ②Prepositions with the function of attributives or adverbials imply the meanings of verbs. 1) Through the forest, they found the small village. ——穿过森林，他们找到了那个村庄。 2) What are they after, fame or position? ——他们在追求什么，名利还是地位？ ③Verbs + prepositions with the function of aims, directions 1) He invited me to his home for lunch. ——他邀请我去他家吃午饭。（汉语为连动式结构） 2) They warmly welcome me to the seminar.　 ——他们热烈欢迎我参加这次研讨会。 ④ be + prepositions with comparative meanings 1) The novel is above me. 我理解不了这篇小说。 2)It’s beneath my dignity to do such a thing. ——做这样的事有辱我的尊严。 ⑤ Fixed prepositional phrases 1) Dorothy’s clothes are always in good taste. ——多萝西的穿着总是很有品位。 2) Who is on duty today? ——今天谁值班？ ⑥ The Reduction of Prepositions 1) The space shuttle will return to the earth on next Monday as scheduled. (followed by expressions of time) ——下星期一航天飞机将如期返回地面。 2) Now complaints are heard in all parts of that country. (followed by some expressions of places) ——现在该国各地怨声载道。 3) Mount the meter on that panel. ——把仪表仪装在那块板子上。( after verbs, the prepositions have to be translated.) 4) Most substances expand on heating and contract on cooling. 5) ——多数物质热胀冷缩。(in order to make the translation concise) EX. 1) I know him quite well, for we are in the same office. 2) Mary would like to take her child to the street for a walk after dinner. 3) On reaching the city he called up his uncle. 4) After thirty, fame seems still beyond reach, yet being as rich as my boss at forty   becomes my new dream. 5）The products manufactured by this factory are good in quality and low in price. 1) 因为我们在同一个办公室工作，我非常了解他。 2) 吃过晚饭后，玛丽喜欢带着孩子上街去走走。 3) 他一到城里就给叔叔打了电话。 4) ３０岁之后，出名是不指望了，只希望在４０岁的时候能像我老板一样有钱。 5）该厂生产的产品物美价廉。 3.2.5 The Translating of Articles, conjunctions, and pronouns: ① The Translating of English Articles: Since there is no equivalent articles in Chinese, it is usually unnecessary to translate English articles. e.g. 1) Any substance is made of atoms whether it is a solid, a liquid, or a gas. 2) A child needs love. 3) The number of vibration a second is called the frequency. 4) The moon was slowly rising above the sea. 1）任何物质，不论是固体、液体还是气体，都是由原子构成的。 2）孩子都需要爱。 3）每秒钟的振动次数称作频率。 4）月亮慢慢从海上升起来。 ② The Translating of English Conjunction: Differences: Conjunctions are used more frequently in English than in Chinese, because hypotaxis(形合) is used to connect words, expressions and sentences in English, and parataxis（意合） is used in Chinese in the construction of sentences.  Tip 1 In English, conjunctions are used to connect the parallel words with the same functions, but it is unnecessary to connect the same with in Chinese. Therefore, in translating this kind English words, the conjunctions are often omitted. e.g. 1) Capital is only the fruit of labor, and could never have existed if labor had not first existed. 2) When I sing, I sing off-key. １）资本只不过是劳动的成果。如果不是先有劳动，资本就不可能存在。 ２）我一唱歌就跑调。 Tip 2: Sometimes the conjunctions in English can be translated into verbs in Chinese. e.g. 1) Five and five is ten. 2) The price is 66 Yuan or 10 dollars. １）五加五等于十。 ２）价格是６７元人民币，折合为１０美元。 ③ The Translating of English Pronouns Differences: ——There are changes of gender, number, and case（格） in English pronouns, but Chinese pronouns only have the change in gender as in 他（们），她（们），它（们）. ——Chinese pronouns such as 我们，他（们），你(们) have the referential meaning, but in English they may have the general reference. e.g. You can’t eat your cake and have it. They say he is a genius. He who tells lies can’t be trusted. ——There is no possessive pronoun in Chinese, so “你的”、“我的”、“他的”are used to express the same meaning of the possessive pronouns in English. ——There is no reflexive in Chinese. The equivalent words of English reflexives can be “ a pronoun + 自己（本人）”，or 亲自，亲身，自我… . ——There are more demonstratives in Chinese than in English, and they can be used as subject, predicate, object, attributive, adverbial or compliment. Therefore, the English demonstratives may not be equal to the functions of the Chinese demonstratives. e.g.  你别这样吧！(predicate)     我不喜欢这里。(object) 你怎么说那样的话呢？（attributive） 你作业做得怎样了？(predicative compliment) ——There are relative pronouns, but Chinese has none of this kind. Tip 1: The omission of English personal pronouns in translation. 1) He could see that she had been patient all her life, so that now, after years of it, her lips were set in a gentle and saintly smile. ——他看得出，她一生含辛茹苦，如今苦尽甘来，嘴边总是带着温柔、圣洁的微笑 2) Don’t put your hands in your pocket. ——别把手放在口袋里。 Tip 2: The reduction of English pronouns functioned as subjects in translation. They had ground him beneath the heel, they had taken the best of him, they had murdered his father, they had broken and wrecked his wife, they had crushed his whole family. ——他们把他踩在脚下，压得粉碎，他们榨干了他的精髓，害死了他的父亲，摧残了他的妻子，毁灭了他的家庭。 Tip 3: The reduction of English pronouns functioned as objects in translation. That dishonest boy is not at all ill. He is alive and kicking in the swimming pool. We all saw him. ——那个不诚实的男孩子根本没生病，他在游泳池里还活蹦乱跳，我们都看见了。 Tip 4: The reduction of English possessive pronouns in translation. John got up very early in the morning. He put on his clothes, sat down at desk and began to do his homework. ——清晨约翰起得很早。他穿上衣服就在书桌前坐下开始写作业。 Tip 5: The translating of referential pronouns 1) That’s right. 2) That’s all. 3) Those are the problems we want to solve. 4) For these reasons we’ve decided to conceal the trip. １）这就对了。 ２）到此为止。 ３）这就是我们想解决的一些问题。 ４）我们决定取消此次旅行，理由如下： Tip 6: The translating of Relative pronouns: 1) There are many people who want to see the film. ——很多人想看这部电影。（combine into an independent sentence） 2) This note was left by Anna, who was here a moment ago. ——这张条子是安娜留的。她刚才来过这里。(two coordinate sentences) 3) A man who doesn’t try to learn from others can’t hope to achieve much. ——一个不向别人学习的人，不能指望有多少成就。(an attributive expression with “的”) 4) We used a plane which almost every part carried some indication of national identity. ——我们驾驶的飞机几乎每一个部件都有国家的某些标志。(a predicate) 5) He insisted building another house, which he has no use for. ——他坚持要再造一幢房子，尽管他并不需要。(an adverbial of concession) 6) There was something original, independent, and heroic about the plan that pleased all of us. ——这个富于创造性，独出心裁、，很有魄力，所以我们都很喜欢。(an adverbial of reason) Tip 7: The translating of “it”: 1) Who is knocking at the door? ---- It’s me. (when the personal pronouns are unknown to others) 2) The delegation has arrived. I read it in the paper yesterday. (referring the precious things) 3) It doesn’t make any difference.(in sentence structures) 4) It won’t help to do it alone. (used as a logical subject) 5) It is May who told the lie (in emphatic sentences) 6) The pilot was starting to take off when the control tower ordered: “Hold it!” （used as an object） 7) The students get with it just before exams. 参考译文： 1）谁在敲门？——是我。 ２）代表团已到达。我昨天在报上看到这个消息。 3）这没有什么分别。 ４）单独一人去做这件事于事无补。 5）是玛丽撒了谎。 6) 飞行员正要起飞，控制塔命令道：“停住！” 7) 临考前学生们十分忙碌。 3.3 Understanding and Translating Polysemic Words(多义词) e.g. book (1) the Book —— 圣经 (14) a book of matches ——一盒火柴 (15) Her face was an open book. ——她心里有什么事都表现在脸上。 (16) It’s a sealed book to me. ——我对此一窍不通。 (17) Henry Ford is a pretty wonderful person in my book. ——亨利·福特在我心中是一位相当了不起的人物。 (18) The huge treaty books were ready at last. ——蔚为壮观的条约文本终于准备完毕了。 (19) President Jimmy Carter pored over briefing books crammed with profiles of the visitor from the Middle Kingdom. ——吉米·卡特总统仔细阅读各种汇报卷宗，里面充塞着有关这位来自中央王国的贵宾的资料。 (20) They tried every trick in the book to win the election. ——他们施展了浑身解数来夺取选举的胜利。 (21) They threw the book at him. —— 他们把罪名往他头上甩。 (22) Curran’s aides originally consisted of three lawers and an accountant, who focused mainly on the books of the Carter warehouse in Plains. ——柯伦的助手原先包括三名律师和一名会计师，后者主要集中清查卡特在普兰斯的仓库的账目。 (23) New Carter Aides Open Their Book ——卡特锁委任的新官公布他们的财产情况。 (24) As it was, our house was mortgaged to the hilt, and some winters the grocer carried us on his books. ——事实上，我们把房子全部抵押了，有几年冬天，我们要想服饰店赊账度日。 (25) Ration books insured that all Cubans receive at least enough food for living. ——古巴人有各种配给本，保证所有人至少可以获得生活所必需的食品。 (26) You are lucky to have got off with a caution; most policemen would have brought you to book. ——你很幸运，只是挨了警告，要换上别的警察，准会狠狠地罚你。 “书”： （1） 琴棋书画 handwriting （2） 他是说书的tales, stories （3） 《报任少卿书》letter （4） “尽信书不如无书”Better not to read at all than to believe all one reads （5） 书不尽言There is more what I want to say but cannot. （6） 磬竹难书 write Tip 1：Choose the Correct Meaning from the Dictionary. ① look sb. In the face, a black sheep ( verb + noun, adj. +noun )       ② go over, look up  (verb + adv.)       ③ come true (verb + adj.)       ④ Practice makes perfect.(subject) He laughs best who laughs last (pron. subject)       ⑤ as soon as, as a matter of fact (the first key word) ⑥Although the recession has reached every corner of the planet, the impact is uneven. ——虽然这场经济衰退波及全球的每个角落，但个体受到的影响不尽相同。（the choice of correct words from different meaning in the dictionary） Tip 2.  According to Grammatical Rules Rule 1: functions of words e.g. like 1)They are as like as two peas . ——他们相似极了。（形容词） 2) He likes mathematics more than physics . ——他喜欢数学甚于喜欢物理。（动词） 3) Wheat, oat, and the like are cereals . ——小麦、燕麦等等皆系谷类。（名词） (P. 45) The Best cure for the national economy would be economy. ——拯救国家经济的最好的办法就是节约/发展经济。 (P. 49) Attending out-of–school activities with other students gives him some perspective, and helps him to realize he is different but not that different. ——他和其他学生一道参加校外活动，从而能够全面地勘问题，意识到自己虽然与众不同，但是差异并不像原先以为的那么大。 Rule 2: Single or Plural Form of the Nouns 1) The world will never starve for want of wonders, but only want of wonder. ——世界上决不缺缺少奇迹，却缺少好奇心。 2) Our defenses are unbreakable. ——我们的防御措施是坚不可摧的。 3) The great ship slipped beneath the waves. ——巨轮沉入水中(海中)。 Rule 3 : The Use of Articles 1）He is in hospital. ——他在住院 。 2) He works in the hospital. ——他在这家医院上班。 3) He met a poet and novelist at the station. ——他在车站接了一位诗人兼小说家。 4) He met a poet and a novelist at the station.  ——他在车站接了一位诗人和一位小说家。 Rule 3 : The Use of Conjunctions 1)  While I was watching TV, the bell rang. ——我看电视时，铃响了。 2) While he is in poor health， he works hard. ——虽然他身体不好，但他还是努力工作。 3) I like singing while she likes dancing. ——我喜欢唱歌，而她喜欢跳舞。 4) I stayed there for a short while. ——我在那儿呆了一小会儿。 Tip 3： According to the Context: e.g. last 1) He is the last man to come . ——他是最后来的。 2) He is the last person for such a job . ——他最不配干这个工作。 3) He should be the last man to blame. ——怎么也不该怪他。 4) This is the last place where I expected to meet you . ——我怎么也没料到会在这个地方见到你。 (P.46) Good manners means that when you meet people, we ‘d say something, say anything, but acknowledge the other people around you. It shows respect and consideration for others. Simply acknowledge the other person exists. And that’s good etiquette. ——当你遇到别人，你应该说点什么，随便什么都可以，只要让你周围的人知道你和他们打招呼，这是好的礼仪。表现出你对他人的尊重和顾念，仅仅是承认其他人的存在，就是很好的礼仪。 Tip 4: According to the Stylistic and Affective Meaning: 词义有感情色彩(如憎恶、蔑视、讽刺、诅咒、尊敬、亲昵等等)和语体色彩(如庄严、高雅、古朴、俚语、方言词语、公文用语、委婉词等等)的不同。如“死”就有许多委婉的说法： to expire 逝世 to pass away 与世长辞 to close (end) one's day 寿终 to breathe one's last 断气 to go west 归西天 to pay the debt of nature 了结尘缘 to depart to the world of shadows 命归黄泉 to give up the ghost 见阎王 to kick the bucket 翘辫子 to kick up one's heels 蹬腿 (P.49) After the Gulf War he joined the faculty of New York University and began further revising and publishing his ideas. ——海湾战争后他到纽约大学任教，并进一步完善和宣传他的思想。 (P.49) Real options derive their values from managerial flexibility. You’ll need to consider, for example, whether to invest or abandon a project, or to expand or contract a project. ——实际选择的价值取决于管理层的灵活性。例如针对某一个项目你需要考虑是该投资还是该放弃?是扩大还是收缩? Tip 6: According to the specialized fields : (P. 76) I want to buy 100 dollars with Renminbi. ——我想用人民币兑换１００美元。 (P. 76) A firm uses various factors of production based on the relative prices charged on them. ——企业根据生产要素的相关价格来使用各种生产要素。 (P. 77) Some 3.2 million people are eligible to vote for parliament, which sits for four years, and there is no mechanism for early elections in Norway. ——挪威约有３２０万人有选举过会议员的选举权。挪威过会一届四年，没有提前选举的规定。 (P. 78) The insurance policy will mature at the end of year. ——这份保单年底到期。 Tip 7: According to the Universally Accepted Translation (Common Sense): The Central Intelligence Agency ——中央情报局 The General Assembly ——联合国大会 Downing Street ——唐宁街 ABC （American Broadcasting Company）（American Born Chinese） ——美国广播公司　（在美国出生的中国人） Coco-Cola (Coke) ——可口可乐 Seven-Up ——七喜 diet coke ——减肥可乐 Sprite　【鬼怪,小妖精,调皮鬼,（童话中的）小仙子，小精灵】 ——雪碧： Hi-C ( or orange soda ) ——橘子汽水     EX. 1) The exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong and Macau marks the successful return of Hong Kong and Macau to the motherland. 2) If your liabilities exceed your assets, you may go bankrupt. 3) This suggests that green business is good business to a great many firms. 4）Man is characterized by his intellectual culture, but it is his moral culture that distinguishes him from other animals. 参考译文： ——对香港和澳门行使主权标志着香港和澳门顺利回归祖国的怀抱。 ——负债额超出资产值的话，你就面临破产的危险了。(常：50) ——这表明绿色产业对众多企业来说很有前途。（常：51） ——智育是人类的一个特点，但真正使人类区别于其他动物的是德育。 4) tell: ① Tell me another. ② I'm telling you. ③ I can tell you. ④ I tell you what. ⑤ Tell it like it is. ⑥ You can never tell. ⑦ Don't let him tell you that. ⑧ Tell me, it was a misunderstanding. ⑨ You are telling me. 翻译: 1 我不相信这件事。（不是“告诉我另一件”） 2 注意听我说（这是很重要的）。（译成“我在告诉你”毫无意思。） 3 真的。/我敢断定。 4 我有个主意。 5 老实说。 6 谁也不知道。 7 千万别信他。 8 这肯定是一场误会吧？（表示说话人不相信某事的心情，希望这是一场误会。） 我早就知道。（还可译为“不用你告诉我”或者“这还用你说吗？”跟“你正在告诉我”毫无关系。）