学术英语写作-范文17篇

学术英语写作-范文17篇Sample1NativeAmericanInfluencesonModernU.S.CultureWhenthefirstEuropeanscametotheNorthAmericancontinent,theyencounteredthecompletelynewculturesoftheNativeAmerican.PeoplesofNorthAmerica,NativeAmericans,whohadhighlydevelopedculturesinmanyrespects,musthavebeenascuriousaboutthem.Asalwayshappenswhentwoormoreculturescomeintocontact,therewasaculturalexchange.NativeAmericansadoptedsomeoftheEuropeans’ways,andtheEuropeansadoptedsomeoftheirways.Asaresult,NativeAmericanshavemademanyvaluablecontributionstomodernU.S.culture,particularlyintheareasoflanguage,art,food,andgovernment.Firstofall,nativeAmericansleftapermanentmarkontheEnglishlanguage.TheearlyEnglish-speakingsettlersborrowedfromseveraldifferentNativeAmericanlanguageswordsforplacesinthisnewland.Allacrossthecountryarecities,towns,rivers,andstateswithnativeAmericannames.Forexample,thestatesofDelaware,Iowa,Illinois,andAlabamaarenamedafterNativeAmericantribes,asarethecitiesofChicago,Miami,andSpokane.Inadditiontoplacenames,EnglishadoptedfromvariousNativeAmericanlanguagesthewordsforanimalsandplantsfoundintheAmericas,Chipmunk,moose,raccoon,skunk,tobacco,andsquasharejustafewexamples.AlthoughthevocabularyofEnglishistheareathatshowsthemostNativeAmericaninfluence,itisnottheonlyareaofU.S.culturethathasbeenshapedbycontactwithNativeAmericans.ArtifanotherareaofimportantNativeAmericancontributions.WoolrugswovenbywomenoftheNavajoTribeinArizonaandNewMexicoarehighlyvaluedworksofartintheUnitedStates.NativeAmericanjewelrymadefromsilverandturquoiseisalsoverypopularandveryexpensive.EspeciallyinthewesternandsouthwesternregionsoftheUnitedStates,nativecraftssuchaspottery,leatherproducts,andbeadworkcanbefoundinmanyhomes.Indeed,nativeartandhandicraftsareatreasuredpartofU.S.culture.Inadditiontolanguageandart,agricultureisanotherareainwhichNativeAmericanshadagreatandlastinginfluenceonthepeopleswhoarrivedherefromEurope,Africa,andAsia.Beingskilledfarmers,theNativeAmericansofNorthAmericataughtthenewcomersmanythingsaboutfarmingtechniquesandcrops.EveryU.S.schoolchildhasheardthestoryofhowNativeAmericanstaughtthefirstsettlerstoplaceadeadfishinaplantingholetoprovidefertilizerforthegrowingplant.Furthermore,theytaughtthesettlersirrigationmethodsandcroprotation.ManyofthefoodspeopleintheUnitedStateseattodaywereintroducedtotheEuropeansbyNativeAmericans.Forexample,cornandchocolatewereunknowninEurope.NowtheyarestaplesintheU.S.diet.Finally,itmaysurprisesomepeopletolearnthatcitizensoftheUnitedStatesarealsoindebtedto（感激）thenativepeopleforourformofgovernment.TheIroquois,whowereanextremelylargetribewithmanybranchescalled“nations”,haddevelopedahighlysophisticatedsystemofgovernmenttosettledisputesthatarosebetweenthevariousbranches.Fiveofthenationshadjoinedtogetherinaconfederationcalled“TheLeagueoftheIroquois.”Undertheleague,eachnationwasautonomousinrunningitsowninternalaffairs,butthenationsactedasaunitwhendealingwithoutsiders.TheleaguekepttheIroquoisfromfightingamongthemselvesandwasalsovaluableindiplomaticrelationswithothertribes.Whenthe13colonieswereconsideringwhatkindofgovernmenttoestablishaftertheyhadwontheirindependencefromBritain,someonesuggestedthattheyuseasystemsimilartothatoftheLeagueoftheIroquois.Underthissystem,eachcolonyorfuturestatewouldbeautonomousinmanagingitsownaffairsbutwouldjoinforceswiththeotherstatestodealwithmattersthatconcernedthemall.Thisisexactlywhathappened.Asaresult,thepresentfromofgovernmentoftheUnitedStatescanbetraceddirectlybacktoaNativeAmericanmodel.Inconclusion,wecaneasilyseefromthesefewexamplestheextentofNativeAmericaninfluenceonourlanguage,ourartforms,outeatinghabits,andourgovernment.ThepeopleoftheUnitedStatesaredeeplyindebtedtoNativeAmericansfortheircontributionstoU.S.Culture.Exercise:Completetheoutlinebyfillinginthemissingparts.NativeAmericanInfluencesonModernU.S.CultureI.IntroductionThesisstatement:NativeAmericanshavemademanyvaluablecontributionstomodernU.S.culture,particularlyintheareasoflanguage,art,food,andgovernment.___________________________________________________________II.BodyA.NativeAmericansleftapermanentmarkontheEnglishlanguage.1.Namesofplaces-cities,towns,rivers,andstatesa.States:Delaware,Iowa,Illinois,Alabamab.Cities:Chicago,Miami,Spokane2.Namesofanimalsandplantsa.Animals:chipmunk,moose,raccoon,skunkb.Plants:tobacco,squashB._____________________________________________________________1.Navajorugs2.Silverandturquoisejewelry3.______________________________________________________________a.Potteryb._____________________________________________________c._____________________________________________________c._________________________________________________1.Farmingtechniquesa._________________________________________________b.________________________________________________2._____________________________________________________a._________________________________________________b.________________________________________________D._1.Iroquois-largetribewithmanybranches("nations")Neededtosettledisputesamongvariousbranches2.FivenationsformedLeagueofIroquoisa._________________________________________________b.Actedtogetherwhendealingwithoutsiders3.Afterindependence,13coloniesadoptedsimilarsystem.a.Eachcolony(futurestate)wasautonomousinmanagingownaffairs.b.______________________________________________________III.Conclusion___wecaneasilyseefromthesefewexamplestheextentofNativeAmericaninfluenceonourlanguage,ourartforms,outeatinghabits,andourgovernment.ThepeopleoftheUnitedStatesaredeeplyindebtedtoNativeAmericansfortheircontributionstoU.S.Culture.________________________________________________________Sample2:AttheMoviesYouAreWhereYouSit:SeatingChoiceCanTellaLotaboutaPerson!1Whenhegoestothemovies,RavelCentenolikestositontheaisleandstretchhisfeetout-afactthatbyitselfspeaksvolumesabouthispersonality,accordingtoanewstudy.Thestudy,commissionedbytheBritishmovietheatercompanyOdeon,examinedhowtheaterseatinghabitsreflectpersonality.Andasthesummermovieseasonreachesitszenith,theresearchsaysyouarewhereyousit.PsychologistDonnaDawsondividedmoviegoersintofourdifferentpersonalitytypesbasedontheirseatingpreferencesandcitedexamplesofmoviecharacterswhofitthosetypes.2Thosewhositontheaisle,likeCenteno,are"detachedobservers"-peoplewholiketohavetheirownspace,whoareobserversandtendtobequieter."That'sfunny,becauseI'mawriter,"CentenosaidThursdayashewaitedtoseeAI.attheCineplexOdeonatUniversalCityWalk."Sothat'swhatIdo(observepeople)."Onecelluloidexampleofadetachedobserver,saidDawson,isJackNicholson'sMelvinUdallcharacterinAsGoodasItGets.3Otherpersonalitytypes,accordingtoDawson:4The"frontrowfilmfanatic":Extroverted,assertive,andcompetitive,thesearepeoplewholiketoseemovieswithothers,notontheirown.AnexamplefromthemoviesmightbeMikeMeyers'sAustinPowersorJuliaRoberts'sErinBrockovich.5The"middle-of-the-roaders":Thesearethepeoplewholiketositinthemiddle,fittingly.Theyarepeoplewhoareflexibleandtrytogetalongwithothers,suchasGwynethPaltrow'sEmma.GloriaandTomCandelariaofRedlandssaythatseemstofitthem."Welikethemiddlebecauseit'snottoofarbackandnottooclosetothefront,"GloriaCandelariasaidasshescannedthemarqueeatCityWalk.TomCandelariasaidthe"middle-of-the-roader"labelseemstofitthembecause"we'reeasygoing."6The"invisiblerebels":Thosewhositfarinthebackarepeoplewhoarerebelliousandlikeexcitementbutdon'tnecessaryseekthelimelight,thestudysaid.AtypicalexampleisClintEastwood'sManwithNoNameandSigourneyWeaver'sLt.RipleyintheAlienfilms."Thebackrowis,wherethingshappen;it'sanexcitingareaofdangerandlotsofpassionatesmooching,"DawsonsaidintheOdeonreport."Ittendstoattractpeoplewhoarerebellious."7Forsomepeople,though,sometimesachairisjustachair."Idon'tknowwhereverthere'sanemptyseat,"saidfilmgoerChrisMarshallofLakeHollywood,whenaskedwherehelikestosit."Thatworksforme."QuestionsAbouttheOrganization1.Whatkindofintroductiondoesthisnewspaperarticlehave?a.Itisafunnelintroduction-itbeginswithageneralstatementandnarrowsdowntothethesisstatement.b.Itbeginswithanexampleandendswiththethesisstatement.c.Itexplainsthereasonsforthestudyandendswiththethesisstatement.2.Whatkindofconclusiondoesithave?a.Itsummarizesthefourmainpersonalitytypes.b.Itgivesthewriter'sopiniononthestudy.c.Itgivesanexamplethatcontrastswiththemainpoints.3.Whatwordsinthethesisstatementindicatethatthearticleuseslogicaldivisionofideasasapatternoforganization?AbouttheSupport4.Whattwokindsofsupportingdetailsareusedinthisarticle?_________and_________5.Thepsychologistwhomadethestudyusedonekindofsupport,andthewriterofthearticlereportingtheresultsofthestudyusedanotherkind.Whichpersonusedwhichkind?a.Thepsychologistused_b.Thewriterused_AbouttheContent6.Howdoweknowifthepsychologistiscorrect?Doesthearticlementionthemethodssheusedinherstudytomatchseatingpreferenceandpersonalitytype,ordoesitreportonlytheresults?Sample3CultureShockMovingtoanewcountrycanbeanexciting,evenexhilaratingexperience.Inanewenvironment,yousomehowfeelmorealive:seeingnewsights,eatingnewfood,hearingtheforeignsoundsofanewlanguage,andfeelingadifferentclimateagainstyourskinstimulateyoursensesasneverbefore.Soon,however,thissensorybombardmentbecomessensoryoverload.Suddenly,newexperiencesseemstressfulratherthanstimulating,anddelightturnsintodiscomfort.Thisisthephenomenonknownascultureshock.Cultureshockismorethanjetlagorhomesickness,anditaffectsnearlyeveryonewhoentersanewculture-tourists,businesstravelers,diplomats,andstudentsalike.Althoughnoteveryoneexperiencescultureshockinexactlythesameway,manyexpertsagreethatithasroughlyfivestages.Inthefirststage,youareexcitedbyyournewenvironment.Youexperiencesomesimpledifficultiessuchastryingtousethetelephoneorpublictransportation,butyouconsiderthesesmallchallengesthatyoucanquicklyovercome.Yourfeelingsaboutthenewculturearepositive,soyouareeagertomakecontactwithpeopleandtotrynewfoods.Soonerorlater,differencesinbehaviorandcustomsbecomemorenoticeabletoyou.Thisisthesecondstageofcultureshock.Becauseyoudonotknowthesocialcustomsofthenewculture,youmayfinditdifficulttomakefriends.Forinstance,youdonotunderstandhowtomake"smalltalk,"soitishardtocarryonacasual,get-acquaintedconversation.Onedayintheschoolcafeteria,youoverhearaconversation.Youunderstandallthewords,butyoudonotunderstandthemeaning.Whyiseveryonelaughing?Aretheylaughingatyouoratsomejokethatyoudidnotunderstand?Also,youaren'talwayssurehowtoactwhileshopping.Isthisstoreself-service,orshouldyouwaitforaclerktoassistyou?Ifyoubuyasweaterinthewrongsize,canyouexchangeit?Thesearenotminorchallenges;theyaremajorfrustrations.Inthethirdstage,younolongerhavepositivefeelingsaboutthenewculture.Youfeelthatyouhavemadeamistakeincominghere.Makingfriendshasn'tbeeneasy,soyoubegintofeellonelyandisolated.Nowyouwanttobewithfamiliarpeopleandeatfamiliarfood.Youbegintospendmostofyourfreetimewithstudentsfromyourhomecountry,andyoueatinrestaurantsthatserveyournativefood.Infact,foodbecomesanobsession,andyouspendalotoftimeplanning,shoppingfor,andcookingfoodfromhome.Youknowthatyouareinthefourthstageofcultureshockwhenyouhavenegativefeelingsaboutalmosteverything.Inthisstage,youactivelyrejectthenewculture.Youbecomecritical,suspicious,andirritable.Youbelievethatpeopleareunfriendly,thatyourlandlordistryingtocheatyou,thatyourteachersdonotlikeyou,andthatthefoodismakingyousick.Infact,youmayactuallydevelopstomachaches,headaches,sleeplessness,lethargy,orotherphysicalsymptoms.Finally,youreachthefifthstage.Asyourlanguageskillsimprove,youbegintohavesomesuccessinmeetingpeopleandinnegotiatingsituations.Youareabletoexchangethesweaterthatwastoosmall,andyoucansuccessfullychatabouttheweatherwithastrangeronthebus.Yourself-confidencegrows.Afterrealizingthatyoucannotchangeyoursurroundings,youbegintoacceptthedifferencesandtoleratethem.Forinstance,thefoodwillneverbeastastyasthefoodinyourhomecountry,butyouarenowabletoeatandsometimesevenenjoymanydishes.Youmaynotlikethewaysomepeopleinyourhostcountrydressorbehaveinpublic,butyoudonotregardtheirclothesandbehavioraswrong-justdifferent.ConcludingParagraphATosumup,cultureshockisaveryrealphenomenonthathasbeenstudiedformorethan30yearsbypsychologistsandanthropologist$.Itsfivephasesare(1)positivefeelingstowardthenewculture,(2)awarenessofsmalldifferences,(3)growingdiscomfortandneedforcontactwithhomeculture,(4)negativefeelings,and(5)acceptanceandadjustment.Symptomsmayvary,andnotallpeopleexperienceallfivephases.Intheend,however,peoplewhosuffercultureshockarestrongerfromhavingovercomethedifficultiesandfrustrationsofadaptingtolifeinanewland.ConcludingParagraphBInconclusion,nearlyeveryonemovingtoanewcountryfeelssomedegreeofcultureshock.Symptomsmayvary,andnotallpeopleexperienceallfivestages.Newcomerswithastrongsupportgroupmayfeelathomeimmediatelyinthenewculture,whileothersmaytakemonthstofeelcomfortable.Stayingintouchwithfriendsandfamily,keepingapositiveattitude,and,aboveall,learningthelanguageassoonaspossiblearewaystoovercomethedifficultiesandfrustrationsofadaptingtolifeinanewland.Exercise:1.Whichconcludingparagraphbestsuitsthepassageandwhy?2.Whichconcludingparagraphisasummaryofthesubtopics?Whichoneparaphrasesthethesisstatement?3.Whichconcludingparagraphgivessuggestions?Whichonemakesaprediction?Sample4:CauseandEffectSample5:CauseandEffectSample6:ComparisonSample7:ComparisonCLASSROOMLEARNINGANDINTERNETBASEDTEACHINGSincethelate1990sinternet-basedteaching(alsoknownase-education)hasemergedasapotentialrivaltotraditionalclassroomlearning.Itnormallyinvolveshavingaccesstoasecuresiteontheinternetwhereagradedseriesoflessonsareavailable,andwhichhaveassignmentssentandreturnedbyemail.Althoughon-linecoursesarenowofferedbymanyinstitutions,itisbynomeansclearthattheyofferrealadvantagescomparedtoclassroomeducation.Littleresearchhasbeendonesofarontheireffectiveness,butthisessaysetsouttoexaminetheargumentsonbothsidesandattemptstodrawconclusionsfromthem.Twomainadvantagesofinternetuseineducationareputforward.Firstly,itisseenasmoreeconomical,inthatonceacourseisprepared,itcanbeusedbylargenumbersofstudents.Thesavingsmadebynothavingtoemploysomanyteachersshouldbereflectedincheapercoursefees.Thesecondbenefitisconvenience;insteadofhavingtoattendclassesatfixedtimesandplaces,studentsarefreetostudywhentheychooseandprogressattheirownpace.Furthermore,bystudyingfromhomethereisnoneedtotraveltothecollegeoruniversity,savingbothtimeandmoney.AstudentlivinginasmalltowninChina,forexample,cannowstudyacourseatanAmericancollegewithouttheworryoftravelling,accommodationorhomesickness.Despitetheconsiderationsmentionedabove,classroomlearningshowsnosignsofbeingreplacedbye-learning.Itseemsthatface-to-facecontactwithateacherisstillwidelyregardedasthebestwayforstudentstomakeprogress,despitetheexpenseandinconvenienceinvolved.Notonlythepersonalcontactwithateacher,but alsothesupportandencouragementgainedfrombeingpartofaclassmaybeonereasonforthis.Membershipofagroupmayalsocreateausefulspiritofcompetition,whichstimulateslearning.Giventheincreasingpressureonuniversityplacesinmanycountries,internet-basedteachingisoftenseenasaconvenientdevelopment.However,e-learningeliminatespersonalcontactandtravelfromeducation,whicharepossiblytheaspectsmanystudentsvalue.Sittingathomeworkingonacomputermaybeeconomical,butclearlycannotreplacethesocialexperienceofattendingcourses.However,therearemanypeoplewhoareunable,eitherthroughworkorfamilycommitments,orduetolackoffunds,togotoclasses,andwhowouldclearlyfindinternetlearningbeneficial.On-linecoursescanalsobeusedtosupporttaughtcourses,forinstancebyprovidingaccesstoextramaterials.Inmanywaysthesekindsofcoursesaresimilarto‘universitiesoftheair’,suchasBritain’sOpenUniversity,whichhavedevelopeddistancelearningsosuccessfullyinthelast40years.Facedbygrowingdemandforuniversityplaces,moreinstitutionsarelikelytodevelopon-linecourses,buttheapparentbenefitsofe-learningmaybelessthanaregenerallybelieved.Studentsseemtovaluethepersonalcontactoftheclassroomhighly,despiteitscostandinconvenience.Theremaybearoleforinternet-basedcoursestosupplementteacher-taughtones,andcertainlyforpeoplewithothercommitmentstheywillbetheonlypracticaloption.Thereisanurgentneedforresearchontheeffectivenessofthistypeoflearning,whichshouldhelpmaximiseitsadvantagesinthefuture.(Approximately550words)Sample8:ArgumentNowcompletetheoutlineofthemodelessay:SeparatingtheSexes,JustfortheToughYearsI.Introduction(explanationoftheissue)Thesisstatement:_______________________________________II.BodyA.Opposingargument1Opponentsofsingle-sexeducationclaimthattestscoresshowthatthereisnoadvantagetoall-girlorall-boyclasses.Rebuttaltoargument11.Researchisinconclusive-showoppositeresults2.Otherresultsthatcannotbecalculateda.Girls_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________b.Boys ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________B.Opposingargument2____________________________________________________________Rebuttaltoargument2_________________________________________________________a.Settlingsquabbleswithsiblingsb.Negotiatingwithopposite-sexparentC.Opposingargument3_________________________________________________________Rebuttaltoargument3___________________________________________________________a._______________________________________________________b.TeacherscallonboysmoreoftenIII.Conclusion1.Same-sexclassesprovideabetterlearningenvironmentReasonsa.Boysandgirls______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________b.Girl_____________________________________________________________________c.Boys____________________________________________________________________2.______________________________________________________________________3._________________________________________________________________________Sample9AmajorchangethathasoccurredintheWesternfamilyisanincreasedincidenceindivorce.Whereasinthepast,divorcewasarelativelyrareoccurrence,inrecenttimesithasbecomequitecommonplace.Thischangeisborneoutclearlyincensusfigures.ForexamplethirtyyearsagoinAustralia,onlyonemarriageintenendedindivorce;nowadaysthefigureismorethanoneinthree(AustralianBureauofStatistics,1996:p.45).Aconsequenceofthischangehasbeenasubstantialincreaseinthenumberofsingleparentfamiliesandtheattendantproblemsthatthisbrings(Kilmartin,1997).Animportantissueforsociologists,andindeedforallofsociety,iswhythesechangesinmaritalpatternshaveoccurred.InthisessayIwillseektocriticallyexamineanumberofsociologicalexplanationsforthe'divorcephenomenon'andalsoconsiderthesocialpolicyimplicationsthateachexplanationcarrieswithit.Itwillbearguedthatthebestexplanationsaretobefoundwithinabroadsocio-economicframework.Onetypeofexplanationforrisingdivorcehasfocusedonchangesinlawsrelatingtomarriage.Forexample,Bilton,BonnettandJones(1987)arguethatincreasedratesofdivorcedonotnecessarilyindicatethatfamiliesarenowmoreunstable.Itispossible,theyclaim,thattherehasalwaysbeenadegreeofmaritalinstability.Theysuggestthatchangesinthelawhavebeensignificant,becausetheyhaveprovidedunhappilymarriedcoupleswith'accesstoalegalsolutiontopre-existentmaritalproblems'(p.301).Biltonetal.thereforebelievethatchangesindivorceratescanbebestexplainedintermsofchangesinthelegalsystem.Theproblemwiththistypeofexplanationhowever,isthatitdoesnotconsiderwhytheselawshavechangedinthefirstplace.Itcouldbearguedthatreformstofamilylaw,aswellastheincreasedrateofdivorcethathasaccompaniedthem,aretheproductofmorefundamentalchangesinsociety.Anothertypeofexplanationisonethatfocusespreciselyonthesebroadsocietalchanges.Forexample,NickyHart(citedinHaralambos,1995)arguesthatincreasesindivorceandmaritalbreakdownaretheresultofeconomicchangesthathaveaffectedthefamily.Oneexampleofthesechangesistheraisedmaterialaspirationsoffamilies,whichHartsuggestshasputpressureonbothspousestobecomewageearners.Womenasaresulthavebeenforcedtobecomebothhomemakersandeconomicproviders.AccordingtoHart,thecontradictionofthesetworoleshasleadtoconflictandthisisthemaincauseofmaritalbreakdown.ItwouldappearthatHart'sexplanationcannotaccountforallcasesofdivorce-forexample,maritalbreakdownisliabletooccurinfamilieswhereonlythehusbandisworking.Nevertheless,her