英语语言学

nullA Course on Linguistics for Students of English --Cheng Zhenquan School of Foreign Studies, SCNUA Course on Linguistics for Students of English --Cheng Zhenquan School of Foreign Studies, SCNUThe Goals for this CourseThe Goals for this CourseTo get a scientific view on language; To understand some basic theories on linguistics; To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……; To prepare for the future research work. The Requirements for this courseThe Requirements for this courseClass attendance Classroom discussion Fulfillment of the assignment Examination Reference BooksReference Books戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社。 胡壮麟，(2001)，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。 刘润清，(1995)，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。 Fromkin,V. & R. Rodman, (1998), An Introduction to Language the sixth edition, Orlando, Florida: Holt, Ranehart & Winston, Inc.Chapter 1. Introduction Chapter 1. Introduction 1. What is language? 1. What is language? Language can meanLanguage can meanwhat a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions) the way of speaking or writing (e.g. Shakespeare’s language, Luxun’s language) a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. language for special purpose, colloquial language) the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community (e.g. Chinese language, first language) the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language) a tool for human communication. (social function) a set of rules. (rule-governed) Sapir’s definition (1921)Sapir’s definition (1921)“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”Hall’s definition (1968)Hall’s definition (1968)Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”Chomsky’s definition (1957)Chomsky’s definition (1957)“From now on I will consider language to be a set of (finite or infinite) sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”Language can be generally defined asLanguage can be generally defined asa system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a systemLanguage is a systemSystematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.Language is arbitraryLanguage is arbitraryArbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.Language is symbolic in natureLanguage is symbolic in natureSymbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare Language is primarily vocalLanguage is primarily vocalVocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form. Language is human-specific Language is human-specific Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett)The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett)Arbitrariness Productivity/Creativity Duality Displacement Cultural transmissionArbitrarinessArbitrariness ----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings. Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… ) Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…Productivity/creativity Productivity/creativity ----Peculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world. A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible. The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee dance; bees do not “talk” about themselves, the hives, or wind, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desires Duality (double articulation) Duality (double articulation) Lower level----sounds (meaningless) Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning) A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (we make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language.DisplacementDisplacement ----Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last year There is something special about the bee dance though. Bees communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future discoveries.Cultural transmissionCultural transmission----Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct). Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees. A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language. Functions of language Functions of language Phatic: establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact. Directive: get the hearer to do something. Informative: give information about facts. Interrogative: get information from others. Expressive: express feelings and attitudes of the speaker. Evocative: create certain feelings in the hearer (amuse, startle, soothe, worry or please) Performative: language is used to do things, to perform actions. The origin of language The origin of language The divine-origin theory---- Language is a gift of God to mankind. The invention theory---- imitative, cries of nature, the grunts of men working together. The evolutionary theory---- the result of physical and psychological development.许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是达相互反应的中介; 当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具; 当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.2. What is linguistics? 2. What is linguistics? ----Linguistics is the scientific study of language. ----A person who studies linguistics is known as a linguist. Four principles of linguistic studiesFour principles of linguistic studiesExhaustiveness/adequacy Consistency Economy Objectivity The scope or major branches of linguisticsThe scope or major branches of linguisticsTheoretical linguistics Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Use of linguistics Applied linguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics ……Theoretical linguisticsTheoretical linguisticsPhonetics----speech sound (description, classification, transcription): articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics. Phonology----sound patterns of languages Morphology----the form of words Syntax----the rules governing the combination of words into sentence. Semantics----the meaning of language (when the meaning of language is conducted in the context of language use----Pragmatics)Use of linguisticsUse of linguisticsApplied linguistics----linguistics and language teaching Sociolinguistics---- social factors (e.g. class, education) affect language use Psycholinguistics----linguistic behavior and psychological process Stylistics----linguistic and literature Some other applications Some other applications Anthropological linguistics Neurolinguistics Computational linguistics (e.g. machine translation)Some important distinctions in linguistics Some important distinctions in linguistics Descriptive vs prescriptiveDescriptive vs prescriptiveDescriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern linguistic) Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)Synchronic vs diachronicSynchronic vs diachronicSynchronic study---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study---- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time) Speech vs writingSpeech vs writingSpeech ---- primary medium of language Writing ---- later developedLangue vs parole (F. de Saussure)Langue vs parole (F. de Saussure)Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community. Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.Competence and performance (Chomsky)Competence and performance (Chomsky)Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.Traditional grammar vs modern linguisticsTraditional grammar vs modern linguisticsTraditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based framework Modern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework Chapter 2 Phonology Chapter 2 Phonology Language is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds----sounds that convey meaning in human communication. Phonetics Phonetics ----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop. Three branches of phonetics Three branches of phonetics Articulatory phonetics----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds” Auditory phonetics----from the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived” Acoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another. Articulatory phonetics Articulatory phonetics Speech organs: three important areas Speech organs: three important areas Pharyngeal cavity ---- the throat; The oral cavity ---- the mouth; Nasal cavity ---- the nose. The diagram of speech organsThe diagram of speech organsLips Teeth Teeth ridge (alveolar) Hard palate Soft palate (velum) Uvula Tip of tongue Blade of tongue Back of tongue Vocal cords Pharyngeal cavity Nasal cavity Orthographic representation of speech sounds Orthographic representation of speech sounds ---- A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound. Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. clear [ l ], [ pit ] Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ] Some major articulatory variables Some major articulatory variables ---- dimensions on which speech sounds may vary: Voicing---- voiced & voiceless Nasality ---- nasal & non-nasal Aspiration ----- aspirated & unaspirated Classification of English speech sounds Classification of English speech sounds ---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories: Vowels Consonants Note: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the airstream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.Classification of consonants Classification of consonants ---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions: The manner of articulation The place of articulationThe manner of articulationThe manner of articulationstops/plosives: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g]; fricatives: [f], [v], [s], [z], [W], [T], [F], [V], [h]; affricates: [tF], [dV]; liquids: [l](lateral), [r]; nasals: [m], [n], [N]; glides/semivowels: [w], [j]. The place of articulationThe place of articulationbilabial: [p], [b], [m], [w]; labiodental: [ f ], [v]; dental: [W], [T]; alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r]; palatal: [F], [V], [tF], [dV], [ j ]; velar: [k], [g], [N]; glottal: [h].The place of articulationThe place of articulationBilabial; Labiodental; Dental or interdental; Alveolar; Palatoalveolar; Palatal; Velar; Uvular; Glottal.The description of English consonantsThe description of English consonantsClassification of vowels Classification of vowels ---- English vowels can be divided into two large categories: Monophthongs or pure/single vowels Diphthongs or gliding vowels Monophthongs or pure/single vowelsMonophthongs or pure/single vowels----According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as: front vowels: [I:], [I], [e], [Z], [A], [B]; central vowels: [E:], [E], [Q]; back vowels: [u:], [u], [C:], [C], [B:]. According to the openness of the mouth According to the openness of the mouth Close: [I:], [I], [u:], [u]. Semi-close: [e], [E:]; Semi-open: [E], [C]; Open: [A], [B], [C], [B:], [Q];The diagram of single vowel classification by applying the two criteria so far mentioned: The diagram of single vowel classification by applying the two criteria so far mentioned: According to the shape of the lips or the degree of lip rounding According to the shape of the lips or the degree of lip rounding rounded: [u:], [u], [C:], [C]; unrounded: [I:], [I], [e], [Z], [A], [B], [E:], [E], [Q], [B:]. According to the length of the vowels According to the length of the vowels long: [I:], [E:], [u:], [C:], [B:] short: [I], [e], [Z], [A], [E], [Q], [B], [u], [C]. Diphthongs/gliding vowels Diphthongs/gliding vowels [ei], [ai], [aU], [EU], [Ri], [iE], [ZE], [UE].Exercises: underline the words that begin with a sound as required.Exercises: underline the words that begin with a sound as required.A bilabial consonant: mad sad bad cad pad had lad A velar consonant: nod god cod pod rod Labiodental consonant: rat fat sat mat chat vat pat An alveolar consonant: nick lick sick tick kick quick A palato-alveolar consonant: sip ship tip chip lip zip A dental consonant: lie buy thigh thy tie rye A glide: one war yolk rushUnderline the words that end with a sound as required:Underline the words that end with a sound as required:A fricative pay horse tough rice breath push sing wreathe hang cave message A nasal train bang leaf limb A stop drill pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack through tip An affricate: rack such ridge boozeUnderline the words that contain the sound as required:Underline the words that contain the sound as required:A central vowel: mad lot but boot word A front vowel: reed pad load fate bit bed cook A rounded vowel: who he bus her hit true boss bar walk A back vowel: paid reap fool top good father Describe the underlined consonants according to three dimensions: Describe the underlined consonants according to three dimensions: vd/vl place manner Letter Brother Sunny Hopper Itching Lodger Calling Singing Robber eitherPhonologyPhonologyPhonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.Phonetics & phonologyPhonetics & phonologyBoth are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phone, phoneme, allophone Phone, phoneme, allophone PhonePhoneA phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].PhonemePhonemeA phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt]. AllophoneAllophoneAllophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair. Phonemic contrastPhonemic contrastPhonemic contrast----different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g. /b/ and /p/ in [ bIt ] and [pIt].Complementary distributionComplementary distributionComplementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g. dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p]. Minimal pairMinimal pairMinimal pair----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g. beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat. Some rules of phonology Some rules of phonology Sequential rules Assimilation rule Deletion rule Sequential rulesSequential rulesSequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, e.g. in English, “k b i I” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb. If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.Sequential rulesSequential rulesIf three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, scream. a)  the first phoneme must be /s/, b)  the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/, c)  the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/. * [ N ] never occurs in initial position in English and standard Chinese,but it does occur in some dialects, e.g. in Cantonese: “牛肉，我， 俄语……”Assimilation ruleAssimilation ruleAssimilation rule----assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in is pronounced differently when in different