水库除险加固工程施工质量技术交底

ResponsestotheDiscussionQuestionsofChapter1:1.Thisquestionhighlightsthesignificantbutwidely-overlookedfactthatagreatdealofimportantcooperationoccursamongpeoplewhoknowabsolutelynothingaboutoneanother.Amarriedcoupleplanningavacationtogethertypicallycooperatesbyusingextensiveanddetailedknowledgeofeachother'spreferences,habits,allergies,andsoon.Butthepeoplewhocooperatedtomakeorangejuice,cereal,milk,andcoffeeavailabletoBoettkethismorningdidn'tevenknowthatBoettkeexistsor,forthemostpart,abouttheexistenceoftheotherswhosecooperationhelpedtoproducehisbreakfast.Economictheoryisespeciallyusefulinexplaininghowcooperationoccursincasesofthelattersort,andalsowhycooperationsometimesfailstooccur.2.Driverswouldhavelittletroubledecidingtheywereonurgentmissions,andthe"urgent"lanewouldprobablybejustascrowdedasalltheothers.Eveninaworldofunselfishdrivers,itwouldbeimpossiblefordriverstoassesstherelativeurgencyoftheirownandotherdrivers'missions.Moreover,themoreinconsideratedriverswouldbemostreadytousethe"urgent"lanes,sothatsuchasystemwouldendupprovidingatimesubsidytotheprojectsofmoreselfishdriversthroughatimetaxontheprojectsofmoreconsideratedrivers.3.SinceMotherTeresawasinterestedinbuildingaleprosarium,sheclearlyfurtheredherowninterestindoingso.Butitwouldbeoddtocallthis"selfishbehavior."Actinginone'sowninterestisselfishonlyifone'sinterestsareselfish.Contrarytowhatmanyeconomistscarelesslyassert,economictheorydoesnotassumethateveryonebehavesselfishly.Perhapseconomistsevenmisleadpeoplewhentheysaythat"peopleactintheirowninterest."Itmightbebettertosaythatpeopleacttopromotetheprojectsinwhichtheyareinterested.Thatavoidsthemisleadingsuggestionthateconomictheorypostulatesselfishorgreedybehavior.Itdoesnotdoso.DidMotherTeresaeconomize?Sure.Shedecidedhowtobestuseher$190,000award.ShecouldhavedonateditalltotheJerryLewisTelethon,investeditinYahoo!stock,ordonateditforthepurchaseofnewbooksattheCalcuttaLibrary.Sheinsteadusedtheawardtopromotewhatshebelievedwasthemosturgentprojectdemandingherattention.Becausethatawardcouldhavebeenusedforothervaluableprojects,sheeconomized.Sheselectedthemostvaluableuse–inherview--forthatmoney.4.Theauthorofthatnewspaperitemwasprobablytryingtodistinguishbetweenmotherswhoseprimarygoalisadditionalincomewhentheychoosetowork,andmotherswhoseprimarygoalissomethingelse,suchasthesatisfactionofafulfillingcareer,oranopportunitytoescapetheinsistentdemandsoftheirchildren.Butbothkindsofmotherschoosetowork,althoughsomechoosejoyfullyandothersnodoubtchoosewithsadnessandregret.5.Wecouldinterprettheseresultsasevidencethatpeopleareashamedtoadmitaninterestinfinancialrewards.Alternatively,theresultsmayindicatethatpeoplearelesscharitableinjudgingotherpeople'sbehaviorthaninjudgingtheirown.Peoplerecognizethecomplexityoftheirownmotivationsmorereadilythantheyconcedethecomplexityofotherpeople'smotivations.Butevenifthefinancialrewardsarenotaprimefactorinmostpeople'sdecisiontoattendlawschool,theysurelyplaysomeroleinalmosteveryone'schoice.Changesintheincomeprospectsoflawyerswillthereforeaffectthenumberofpeoplechoosingtoenterlawschool.6.AdamSmitharguedinTheTheoryofMoralSentiments(alsowritteninthe1700s)thatpeoplewanttoincreasetheirmoneyincomesprimarilyinordertoenhancetheirstatus.ButColinCampbell,aBritishsociologist,recentlyarguedthatanotherfactorisimportant.Hearguesthattheinsatiabledesireforadditionalconsumergoodshasitsrootsinthepracticeofdaydreaming,andthatitexpressesadesiretoexperienceinrealitysomethingthathaspreviouslybeenenjoyedinimagination.Ifthistheorystrikesyouasfar-fetched,readCampbell'scogentessayon"ConsumingGoodsandtheGoodofConsuming"inCriticalReview,Vol.8,No.4(Fall,1994).7.Peoplewillstartplanningtoarrivelater(becausethemeetingsneverstartontime),whichwillinducenonpunctualpeopletoarrivestilllater,andsoonuntiltardinessbecomesgeneral.Theactualstartingtimeformeetingswillbecomeincreasinglydifficulttopredict.8.Manyruleshavedevelopedtodefinetherightsandresponsibilitiesofuniversityemployees—president,deans,professors,registrar,custodians,departmentheads,andmanyothers.Thehumanandphysicalresourcesofuniversitiesareorganizedeachterminacomplexdancethatproducesmoreorderthanchaosbecauseuniversityemployeesareforthemostpartdiligentlyexercisingtheir"propertyrights"(andobligations!)andfulfillingtheirresponsibilitiesinfaithfuladherencetotherulesofthegame.Hundredsofstudentsmanagetoslipintoclassroomseatswithoutconflictorconfusionbyfollowingthesimplerule,"Seatsbelongforthishourtothosewhofirstoccupythem."9.Beaviscanflunkbothcoursesifhewasteshisstudyingtime.Forexample,hegoestothelibrarywithhistextbooksandassignments,butspendsthreehoursplayingGameboy.HowcanheearnatleastaCinbothcourses?Hecanincreasehisoverallstudytimefromthreetosixhoursperweek(andnotwastehistime,ofcourse)and/orattendastudyskillsworkshopinordertoincreasehisproductivity.Thisisanissueofmakingtradeoffssubjecttoaresourceconstraint,andbreakingthroughtheresourceconstraint.WewillgointomoredetailinChapter2,usingthenotionofaProductionPossibilitiesFrontier.10.Wemeanthatweseenocausalconnectionbetweenobservedevents.Forexample,manypeoplebelievethatgetting"chilled"causesthemtocatchacold;andeverytimetheycomedownwithacoldtheywillrecallsittinginadraftorgettingtheirfeetwetorgoingoutbareheadedonawindyday.Yourauthorsthinkthat'sjustacoincidence,becauseourtheoryofcoldshasthemtransmittedbyvirusesandleavesnoroomfor"chills"asaneffectivecause.Moreover,sincewehaveatheorytoexplainwhypeoplerecallgetting"chilled"eachtimetheycatchacold,wecan"explainaway"theevidencetheothertestimonyprovides.Yourauthors’theoriesdeterminewhatevidenceyourauthorswillaccept.Don’tforget,thedataneverspeakforthemselves.Datahavetobereadandinterpretedthroughsometheoreticalframework.11.Ofcoursephysiciansarebiased.Yourauthorswouldn'twanttobediagnosedortreatedbyonewhowasnot.Weacquireknowledgeaswegothroughlife.Thefactthatsomeofitwillturnouttobemistakendoesn'timplythatwewouldbebetteroffthrowingawayallouraccumulatedpreconceptions.Sincewedon'thavetimetotesteveryhypothesisthatcomesourway,it'ssensibletodiscardwithoutexaminationthosethatappearabsurdfromtheperspectiveofwhatwethinkwealreadyknow.HereisamarvelousquotationfromJamesMcCawley:"Reasondoesnotestablishthataconclusionistrue,butatmostthatitinvolvesnoerrorsbeyondthosethatoneisalreadycommittedto."FromCriticalReview,Volume4,Number3(Summer,1990),p.379.12.Ourtheoreticalframeworktellsusthatwomenwhodon'twantchildrenorwhodon'twantthemforquiteawhile(andsomayneverhaveany)aremorelikelytopursuepostgraduateeducation.Ourtheoriesrejectasutterlyimplausibletheclaimthatawomanwhowantstohavechildrenlowersherfertilitybytakingafifthyearofhighereducation.Butweconcedethepossibilitythatafifthyearofcollegeandthecareeropportunitiesitopensupmaychangethemindofawomanwhobegangraduateschoolfullyintendingtohavechildrensomeday.It'samazinghowmuchwethinkwe"know"evenwithoutanydirectexperienceorexplicitknowledgeoftheexperienceofothers.ResponsestotheDiscussionQuestionsofChapter2:1.ThebullygainsJack’sglove.Jacklosesaglove,andgetsalumponhisheadaswell(notaneconomicgood,butinsteadaneconomicbad!).Clearlythebullyincreaseshiswealth,andJackloseswealth.Thisoccursbecausetheexchangewasnotagreeduponbybothparties;itwasacoerced,orinvoluntarytrade.2.(a)Manypeopledoinfactincludethem.Buttheonlyconsequenceisadeepenedsenseoflossandregretoverthepassingofsteamlocomotives.(b)Iftheycouldcollectthefeeatalowenoughcost,thosewhomakethedecisionswouldbepersuadedtoincludethevalueofotherpeople'saestheticpleasureswhencalculatingthevalueofasteamlocomotive'soutput.It'sthehightransactioncoststhathavedeprivedallussteamlocomotiveloversofsomuchdeepsatisfaction.(c)Thiswouldincreasetheirefficiency,perhapsbyenoughtobringsomebackintoregularuse.MostofthesteamlocomotivesstillinoperationintheUnitedStatestodayseemtobepullingtourists.3.Italldependsonwhatthemusicianistryingtoaccomplish.Ifshecan“getby”withacheapguitar,sheprobablywon’tbeinclinedtospend$12,000onthe1956Fender.BigJackJohnson,theNorthMississippibluesguitaristandformermemberoftheJellyRollKings,oftenusesarelativelycheapSquireguitarasopposedtoaFender.Itismuchlessexpensive,andhecanstillgetthesoundandthestyleheseekswiththeSquire.Priceoftendoesmakeabigdifference…iftheFenderweretosellforlessthantheSquire,BigJackmightbeinclinedtoswitchguitars.ThesameholdsforPrychitko,whofindshisGuildacousticguitarisjustfineforplayingwithhisfamilyandfriends.Yet,ifhecouldgetamuchnicer-soundingMartinforacouplehundreddollars(one-tenththegoingprice)hemightverywellbeinclinedtoswitch.Atcurrentprices,however,it’sjustnotworththecost!4.Italldependsonwhatthemusicalactistryingtoaccomplish.BookingaconcertatMadisonSquareGardenscouldcosttensofthousandsofdollars;bookingaconcertatthelocalbarwillcostsignificantlyless.Sowhydoesn’tEricClaptonbookatyourlocalbar?Becausethebenefitstohimarefarlessthanhiscosts.Ontour,ifClaptonbooksanightatalocalbar,hesacrificesanightatanamphitheater,whichcouldhavegeneratedtensofthousandsofdollarsforhim.Again,thequestionofwhichismoreefficientcanonlybesensiblyanswered,intheeconomicwayofthinking,byassessingwhattheindividualsaretryingtoaccomplishwiththeirtalentsandresources.Whatisefficientforsomeonemightnotbeefficientforothers.Ontheotherhand,ifyourbandbooksatthelocalbar,atbestyougiveuptheopportunitytobookatanotherbaronthesameevening.Youdidn’tgiveupsomethinglikeaMadisonSquareGardenspossibility.Perhapsthecosttoyourbandisonlyacouplehundreddollars.5.Perhapsyouarenowgettingtheidea.Howcananyonepossiblyanswerthisquestion?Statedthisway,itisameaninglessquestion.Efficiency,intheeconomicwayofthinking,canonlybeassessedinthecontextofone’sprojects.Whatistheexpectedbenefitofhavinganeight-cylinderSUVvs.asolar-poweredcar?Andthatmustbeweighedagainsttheexpectedcostofowningandusingone.6.Thosewhoinsistthathouseholdswastemoneybypurchasingexpensiveconveniencefoodsarebehavingasiftheybelievethatmoneyistheultimategoodforhouseholds.Aneconomizingorefficienthouseholderwillweightheopportunitycostoftimespentpreparingfoodagainsttheopportunitycostofpurchasingsomeoneelse'sfood-preparationservicesaspackagedin"convenience"foods.7.(a)Economictheoryassumesthateveryoneisbehavingefficiently.Weinferthevaluesthatdriversinsingle-passengervehiclesplaceuponinputsandoutputsbyseeinghowtheybehave.Ofcourse,peopledomakemistakes,andthenlookbackatwhattheyhavedoneanddecideitwasinefficient.Butitwasanefficientactionatthetime,whentheactorhadlessadequateinformation.AsChapter7willemphasize,itiscostlyandthereforesometimesinefficienttoacquireadditionalinformationbeforedeciding.(b)Whetherbecauseofdifferencesinsituationordifferencesincharacterandtemperament,thepeopleridingthebusassigndifferentrelativevaluestocertaininputsandoutputs.(c)Suchcriticsareassigningevaluativeweightstotheinputsoroutputsofotherpeoples'actionsdifferentfromtheweightsassignedbytheactors.Theymaybeobjectingtothecosts(airpollution,trafficcongestion)thatdriversimposeonothersandignoreintheirdecisionmaking(atopicforChapter13);theymaybeclaimingthatdriversofsingle-passengervehiclesaremisinformedinsomeway;theymaysimplybeassertingimplicitlythattheirownvaluesaresuperiortothevaluesofsuchdrivers.Ortheymaybesayingthatiftransactioncostsdidnotexistoriftheyhadallknowledgeandpowertheycouldarrangethesocialworldinawaymoresatisfactorytoeveryone.Butwhocouldnot?8.Fuddisahigh-cost,thatis,inefficienttypist,becausehistimeissovaluableinproducinglegalservices.9.(a)Sincecomparisonsofvolume,weight,orcalorieswouldobviouslymakenosense,wemayreasonablyconcludethatthecomparisonswereofmonetaryvalues.(b)Reflectonthatforabit,andyouwillstarttorealizethatthefoodtheUnitedStatesimportsismostlyalotoffancyluxuryitems,forwhichwedoindeedpayhighprices.Butthebasicstuffthatfeedsuscomesoverwhelminglyfromourownland.IftheUnitedStatesisindeedimportingmoredollarsworthoffoodthanit'sexporting,thatisaresultofourenormouswealthandourconsequentabilitytoaffordexpensivedelicacies.Itisinnowayanindicationthatwehavelosttheabilitytofeedourselves.10."Obsolete"equipmentcontinuestobeusedaslongasitsusegeneratesmorefuturerevenuethanfuturecosts.Newequipmentwouldgeneratemorerevenue;butunliketheequipmentnowinplace,itsacquisitionwouldentailadditionalcosts.Anairlinereplaces727swith767swhenthatisexpectedtoenlargeitsanticipatedstreamoffuturenetrevenue(revenueminuscost).11.Somepeoplebelievethatusingaresourceforentertainmentpurposesismorewastefulthanusingitfor"serious"purposes.Thisalwaysstrikestheauthorsasanextraordinarilysolemn,joylesswayoflookingatlife.Moreover,itisahardpositiontomaintainconsistently.Weprobablywouldnotneedtoconsumeanygasolineatall.Wheredoeswastebegin?12.(a)Thiswillincreasetherelativeefficiencyofno-tillfarmingbyraisingthecosttofarmersoftilling.(b)Thiswillincreasetherelativeefficiencyofno-tillfarmingbyloweringthecostofcontrollingtheweedsandpeststhataremoreabundantwithno-tillfarming.(c)Thiswillincreasetherelativeefficiencyofno-tillfarmingthroughitsimpositionofadditionalcostsonmaximum-tillagefarming.(d)Thiswilldecreasetherelativeefficiencyofno-tillfarmingbecauseanuntilledfieldwillprovidelessaestheticsatisfaction.(e)Thiswilldecreasetherelativeefficiencyofno-tillfarmingbyraisingthecostofaninputthatisemployedmoreliberallyinno-tillfarming.13.(a)Whosevaluesareweusingtodecide?Ifit'sthevaluesofthosewiththelegalrighttodecidehowthewaterwillbeused,wehavetoseewhattheychoosetodo.(b)Ifwehadnofoodandnoelectricity,wewouldallpreferfoodtoelectricity.Butwearen'tonthatmargin.Manypeoplewouldmuchratherhavealittlemoreelectricitythanalotmorefood—perhapstokeeptheirrefrigeratorrunningandpreventtheirfoodfromspoiling!(c)It’sallocatedtotheusethattheownersdeemofmostvaluetothemselves.(d)Adverselyaffectedgroupsincludeconsumersofthefoodpreviouslygrown;ownersofbusinessesthatservefarmersintheSevierValley;downstreamwateruserswhofindtheirflowdecreasing;peoplewhowanttomaintainthesmalltownsintherivervalley;peoplewhodislikeindustrialization;andsoforth.14.(a)Landdowntownistoovaluableinotherusestobeallocatedtoagasolinestation.Whenoneisfound,it'salwaysinatiny,constrictedspace.(b)Thelandwouldstillbetakenfrommoreproductiveuses,atleastasthemarketassessesproductivity,ifitweretakenunderthepowerofeminentdomain.15.Publictransportationsystemsthatcannotpassthistestdogetbuilt.Someonemustthinktheyareefficient.Whatisgoingintothenumeratoroftheefficiencyratio,valueofoutputovervalueofinput?Re-electionforlegislatorsrespondingtospecial-interestlobbying?Fantasiesabouttrains?Let’swaitforChapter14.16.(a)Overbookingenablestheairlinestoholddownthenumberofemptyseatsandtosellmorepassengerstheseatstheyaskfor.(b)Passengersareabletogetontoflightstheywanttotakeandfromwhichtheywouldhavebeenexcluded,despiteemptyseats,underapolicyofnooverbooking.(c)Underthenewsystem,passengersinahurry(whoprovedhowvaluabletheirtimewasbyarrivingattheairportshortlybeforetheflight)alwaysgetontheirflight;passengersnotinahurrygetmoneyfortakingalaterflight;airlineagentsatthegateavoidnastyargumentswithpassengerswhoarebeingbumped;theairlinescontinuetheefficientpracticeofoverbooking,anddon'treapthewrathofvaluablepassengerswhohavebeeninvoluntarilydeniedboarding.Italmostseemsasifeveryoneisbetteroff.(d)Thereisnofeasiblewaytoconductthenecessarynegotiations.Thetransactioncostsaretoohighgiventhepresentpoliticizedsystemofassigninglandingslots.(e)Thecrucialstepwasthelawthatgavepassengersalegally-establishedrighttospaceonanyflightforwhichtheyhadconfirmedreservations.Thismeansthattheairlinehastopurchasesomeone'srightswhentherearemorepassengersthanseats.Asystemfordoingsoconsequentlyevolved.Ifequallycleartitletolandingslotswereestablished,amechanismwouldalmostcertainlyevolvewherebythosewhovaluedthemleastwouldbeinducedbyrelativepricechangestoletthosewhovaluedthemmosttakeoverthescarcestslots.Clearly-established,well-definedentitlementsareoftencrucialtotheevolutionofcooperativearrangements.17.(a)Putcornonthehorizontalaxisandstrawberriesontheverticalaxisineachgraph.Gomercanproduce200bushelsofcorn,andzerostrawberries(onepointonhisproductionpossibilitiesfrontier,orcurve)orzerocornand200bushelsofstrawberries(anotherpointonhisfrontier).ConnectthetwopointswithastraightlinetoillustrateGomer’sentireproductionpossibilitiesfrontier.Noticeithasaslopeof–1(asyoulearnedinmiddleschool,slope=rise/run).ForGoober,histwopointsare100bushelsofcornandzerostrawberriesorzerocornand50strawberries.ConnectingthosepointsgivesusGoober’sPPF.Noticeithasaslopeof–1/2.(b)onebushelofstrawberries.(c)1bushelofcorn.(d)2bushelsofstrawberries.(e)½bushelofcorn.(f)Goober.(g)Gomer.Pleasenoticesomethingveryimportanthere.Gomerappears“better”atbothcornandstrawberryproduction–hecanproducealargerquantityofeithergood,relativetoGoober.Butthenotionofcomparativeadvantagedoesnotsimplyfocusontotaloutput.Itfocusesontheopportunitycostofproducingaparticularoutput.GomerandGooberhavedifferentcostsofproducingcornandstrawberries.We’vejustseenthatGooberismoreefficient(“hasacomparativeadvantage”)atproducingcorncomparedtoGomer.Rememberthatallquestionsregardingefficiency(andtherefore,comparativeadvantage)requiresustolooknotonlyattotalbenefitoroutput,butatthesacrificesoropportunitycoststhatanindividualmustincurtoproducethatbenefitoroutput.Reconsiderquestion4again.EricClaptoncanfillbothMadisonSquareGardenandyourlocalbar.Thatdoesn’tmeanhe’smoreefficient,orhasacomparativeadvantage,atplayingboththebigamphitheatersandthelocalbars,comparedtoyourowngarageband.That’swhyhetypicallydoesn’tdoso.YourbandcanplaythelocalbaratamuchlowercostthanEricClaptoncan.That’swhyyourbandtypicallybooksthesmallgigs(perhapsdreamingofmuchlargerfuturegigs)andClaptonbooksthehugegigs.Eachofyouhavefollowedyourcomparativeadvantage.(h)BothGomerandGooberwouldgainwithanytermsoftradeinthefollowingrange:1bushelofstrawberriesbeingexchangeformorethan1bushelofcornbutlessthan2bushelofcorn.Forexample,1bushelofstrawberriesbeingexchangedfor1½bushelsofcorn(1½isinbetween1and2).18.Asweemphasizedinthetext,tradeisalwaystradebetweenindividuals,asopposedtostreets,cities,counties,states,orevennations.Neitheranationalpoliticalbordernoratime-zoneboundarywithinagivencountrynegatesthemutuallybeneficialeffectsofvoluntarytrade.Bothtradingpartiesenjoyalargermixofscarcegoods(greaterwealth,economicgrowth)asaresult;that’swhytheychoosetotradewithoneanotheracrosspoliticalborders.MillionsofAmericanspurchaseforeigngoods,butthatfactdoesnotnecessarilymeanthateverycitizenineachcountryisbetteroff.CheapforeignimportsareattractivetomanyindividualsinAmerica.Thoseindividualsincreasetheirwealththroughsuchpurchases.TotheextentthatthecheaperimportsleadconsumerstobuyfewerAmerican-producedsubstitutes,someofthoseworkers(andbusinessowners)maylosetheirjobs(andtheirbusinesses),astheynowfailtoprovideconsumerswithadesirableproduct.Butthatistruewhetherthesourceofcompetitionisfromaforeigncountryorinternal.Tounderstandthispoint,let’ssupposeyounowhaveaccesstoanAmericaninternetbookstore,onethatofferssuperiorpricesandservicecomparedtothelocalold-fashionedbookstoresinyourregion.(Comparedbywhom?Thecustomers.)Theywincustomersfromtheotherlocalestablishments,evenforcingoneormoretoshutdown.Clearythelocalbookstoreownersandemployeeshaven’tgainedbytheincreasedcompetition.Clearlytheirwealthhasnotincreasedascustomersseektotradewithotherswhonowofferabettersubstitute.Butthat’salargepartofthenatureofmarketcompetition--theattempttoprovideconsumerswithabetterproductorservice,and/oramoreappealingprice.Consumersareconstantlyonthewatchforabetter,moreattractivedeal.That’swhy,totakeanotherrecentexample,traditionalAmerican-madetypewritershavebeenreplacedbyandlargewithAmerican-madepersonalcomputers.Afreemarketprocess–nationallyandinternationally--allowspotentialproducerstheopportunitytocreatemoredesirableoptionsforconsumers.Itdoesn’tguaranteethatallorevenmostexistingproducerswillalwaysenjoyprofitsan