Tiffany诉eBay判决

Tiffany诉eBay判决08-3947-cvTiffany(NJ)Inc.v.eBayInc.1UNITEDSTATESCOURTOFAPPEALS2FORTHESECONDCIRCUIT3AugustTerm,20084(Argued:July16,2009Decided:April1,2010)5DocketNo.08-3947-cv6-------------------------------------7TIFFANY(NJ)INC.andTIFFANYandCOMPANY,8Plaintiffs-Appellants,9-v.-10eBayInc.,11Defendant-Appellee.12-------------------------------------13Before:SACKandB.D.PARKER,CircuitJudges,andGoldberg,14Judge.*1516AppealfromajudgmentoftheUnitedStatesDistrict17CourtfortheSouthernDistrictofNewYork.Thedistrictcourt18(RichardJ.Sullivan,Judge)concluded,interalia,thateBay--19theproprietorofawebsitethroughwhichcounterfeitTiffany20merchandisewassold--didnot,onthefactspresented,engage21intrademarkinfringement,falseadvertising,ortrademark22dilution.WeaffirmthejudgmentwithrespecttoTiffany's23claimsoftrademarkinfringementanddilution,butremandfor24furtherproceedingswithrespecttoTiffany'sclaimoffalse25advertising.TheHonorableRichardW.Goldberg,SeniorJudge,United*1JAMESB.SWIRE(H.PeterHaveles,Jr.,2PeterL.Zimroth,ErikC.Walsh,and3ElanorM.Lackman,onthebrief)Arnold4&PorterLLP,NewYork,NY,for5Plaintiffs-Appellants.6R.BRUCERICH(RandiW.Singer,Jonathan7Bloom,andMarkJ.Fioreonthebrief)8Weil,Gotshal&MangesLLP,NewYork,9NY,forDefendant-Appellee.10BruceP.Keller,DavidH.Bernstein,11MichaelR.Potenza,Debevoise&Plimpton12LLP,NewYork,NY,forAmicusCuriaeThe13InternationalAnticounterfeiting14Coalition.15JohnF.Cooney,JanetF.Satterwaite,16MeghanHemmingsKend,VenableLLP,17Washington,D.C.,forAmicusCuriae18Coty,Inc.19AlainCoblence,Coblence&Associates,20NewYork,NY,forAmicusCuriaeThe21CouncilofFashionDesignersofAmerica,22Inc.23PatricJ.Carome,SamirC.Jain,Wilmer24CutlerPickeringHaleandDorrLLP,25Washington,D.C.,forAmiciCuriae26Amazon.com,Inc.,GoogleInc.,27InformationTechnologyAssociationof28America,InternetCommerceCoalition,29Netcoalition,UnitedStatesInternet30ServiceProviderAssociation,andUnited31StatesTelecomAssociation.32MeredithMartinAddyandHowardS.33Michael,BrinksHoferGilson&Lione,34Chicago,IL,DavidS.Fleming,Brinks35HoferGilson&Lione,NewYork,NY,for36AmicusCuriaeYahoo!Inc.37FredvonLohmann,MichaelKwum,The38ElectronicFrontierFoundation,San39Francisco,CA,forAmiciCuriaeThe40ElectronicFrontierFoundation,Public41Citizen,andPublicKnowledge.1SACK,CircuitJudge:2eBay,Inc.("eBay"),throughitseponymousonline3marketplace,hasrevolutionizedtheonlinesaleofgoods,4especiallyusedgoods.Ithasfacilitatedthebuyingandselling5byhundredsofmillionsofpeopleandentities,totheirbenefit6andeBay'sprofit.Butthatmarketplaceissometimesemployedby7usersasameanstoperpetratefraudbysellingcounterfeit8goods.9PlaintiffsTiffany(NJ)Inc.andTiffanyandCompany10(together,"Tiffany")havecreatedandcultivatedabrandof11jewelrybespeakinghigh-endqualityandstyle.Basedon12Tiffany'sconcernthatsomeuseeBay'swebsitetosell13counterfeitTiffanymerchandise,Tiffanyhasinstitutedthis14actionagainsteBay,assertingvariouscausesofaction--15soundingintrademarkinfringement,trademarkdilutionandfalse16advertising--arisingfromeBay'sadvertisingandlisting17practices.Forthereasonssetforthbelow,weaffirmthe18districtcourt'sjudgmentwithrespecttoTiffany'sclaimsof19trademarkinfringementanddilutionbutremandforfurther20proceedingswithrespecttoTiffany'sfalseadvertisingclaim.21BACKGROUND22ByopiniondatedJuly14,2008,followingaweek-long23benchtrial,theUnitedStatesDistrictCourtfortheSouthern24DistrictofNewYork(RichardJ.Sullivan,Judge)setforthits25findingsoffactandconclusionsoflaw.Tiffany(NJ)Inc.v.26eBay,Inc.,576F.Supp.2d463(S.D.N.Y.2008)("Tiffany").eBayappearstobeshortforEchoBay--thenameof1eBay'sfounder'sconsultingfirmwasEchoBayTechnologyGroup.Thename"EchoBay"wasalreadyinuse,soeBaywasemployedasthenameforthewebsite.See#Origins_and_history(lastvisitedFeb.26,2010);(lastvisitedFeb.26,2010).Inadditiontoprovidingauction-styleandfixed-priced2listings,eBayisalsotheproprietorofatraditionalclassifiedservice.Id.at474.1Whenreviewingajudgmentfollowingabenchtrialinthedistrict2court,wereviewthecourt'sfindingsoffactforclearerrorand3itsconclusionsoflawdenovo.Giordanov.Thomson,564F.3d4163,168(2dCir.2009).Exceptwherenotedotherwise,we5concludethatthedistrictcourt'sfindingsoffactarenot6clearlyerroneous.Wethereforerelyuponthosenon-erroneous7findingsinsettingforththefactsof,andconsidering,this8dispute.9eBay10eBayistheproprietorofwww.ebay.com,anInternet-111basedmarketplacethatallowsthosewhoregisterwithitto12purchasegoodsfromandsellgoodstooneanother.It13"connect[s]buyersandsellersand[]enable[s]transactions,14whicharecarriedoutdirectlybetweeneBaymembers."Tiffany,15576F.Supp.2dat475.Initsauctionandlistingservices,it216"providesthevenueforthesale[ofgoods]andsupportforthe17transaction[s],[but]itdoesnotitselfselltheitems"listed18forsaleonthesite,id.at475,nordoesitevertakephysical1possessionofthem,id.Thus,"eBaygenerallydoesnotknow2whetherorwhenanitemisdeliveredtothebuyer."Id.3eBayhasbeenenormouslysuccessful.Morethansix4millionnewlistingsarepostedonitssitedaily.Id.Atany5giventimeitcontainssome100millionlistings.Id.6eBaygeneratesrevenuebychargingsellerstouseits7listingservices.Foranylisting,itchargesan"insertionfee"8basedontheauction'sstartingpriceforthegoodsbeingsold9andrangesfrom$0.20to$4.80.Id.Foranycompletedsale,it10chargesa"finalvaluefee"thatrangesfrom5.25%to10%ofthe11finalsalepriceoftheitem.Id.Sellershavetheoptionof12purchasing,atadditionalcost,features"todifferentiatetheir13listings,suchasaborderorbold-facedtype."Id.14eBayalsogeneratesrevenuethroughacompanynamed15PayPal,whichitownsandwhichallowsuserstoprocesstheir16purchases.PayPaldeducts,asafeeforeachtransactionthatit17processes,1.9%to2.9%ofthetransactionamount,plus$0.30.18Id.ThisgiveseBayanaddedincentivetoincreaseboththe19volumeandthepriceofthegoodssoldonitswebsite.Id.20Tiffany21Tiffanyisaworld-famouspurveyorof,amongother22things,brandedjewelry.Id.at471-72.Since2000,allnew23TiffanyjewelrysoldintheUnitedStateshasbeenavailable24exclusivelythroughTiffany'sretailstores,catalogs,and25website,andthroughitsCorporateSalesDepartment.Id.at472-2673.Itdoesnotuseliquidators,selloverstockmerchandise,or1putitsgoodsonsaleatdiscountedprices.Id.at473.Itdoes2not–-norcanit,forthatmatter--controlthe"legitimate3secondarymarketinauthenticTiffanysilveryjewelry,"i.e.,the4marketforsecond-handTiffanywares.Id.at473.Therecord5developedattrial"offere[d]littlebasisfromwhichtodiscern6theactualavailabilityofauthenticTiffanysilverjewelryin7thesecondarymarket."Id.at474.8Sometimebefore2004,Tiffanybecameawarethat9counterfeitTiffanymerchandisewasbeingsoldoneBay'ssite.10Priortoandduringthecourseofthislitigation,Tiffany11conductedtwosurveysknownas"BuyingPrograms,"onein2004and12anotherin2005,inanattempttoassesstheextentofthis13practice.Underthoseprograms,Tiffanyboughtvariousitemson14eBayandtheninspectedandevaluatedthemtodeterminehowmany15werecounterfeit.Id.at485.Tiffanyfoundthat73.1%ofthe16purportedTiffanygoodspurchasedinthe2004BuyingProgramand1775.5%ofthosepurchasedinthe2005BuyingProgramwere18counterfeit.Id.Thedistrictcourtconcluded,however,that19theBuyingProgramswere"methodologicallyflawedandof20questionablevalue,"id.at512,and"provide[d]limitedevidence21astothetotalpercentageofcounterfeitgoodsavailableoneBay22atanygiventime,"id.at486.Thecourtnonethelessdecided23thatduringtheperiodinwhichtheBuyingProgramswerein24effect,a"significantportionofthe'Tiffany'sterlingsilver25jewelrylistedontheeBaywebsite...wascounterfeit,"id.,26andthateBayknew"thatsomeportionoftheTiffanygoodssold1onitswebsitemightbecounterfeit,"id.at507.Thecourt2found,however,that"asubstantialnumberofauthenticTiffany3goodsare[also]soldoneBay."Id.at509.4Reducingoreliminatingthesaleofallsecond-hand5Tiffanygoods,includinggenuineTiffanypieces,througheBay's6websitewouldbenefitTiffanyinatleastonesense:Itwould7diminishthecompetitioninthemarketforgenuineTiffany8merchandise.Seeid.at510n.36(notingthat"thereisatleast9somebasisintherecordforeBay'sassertionthatoneof10Tiffany'sgoalsinpursuingthislitigationistoshutdownthe11legitimatesecondarymarketinauthenticTiffanygoods").The12immediateeffectwouldbelossofrevenuetoeBay,eventhough13theremightbeacountervailinggainbyeBayresultingfrom14increasedconsumerconfidenceaboutthebonafidesofothergoods15soldthroughitswebsite.16Anti-CounterfeitingMeasures17BecauseeBayfacilitatesmanysalesofTiffanygoods,18genuineandotherwise,andobtainsrevenueoneverytransaction,19itgeneratessubstantialrevenuesfromthesaleofpurported20Tiffanygoods,someofwhicharecounterfeit."eBay'sJewelry&21Watchescategorymanagerestimatedthat,betweenApril2000and22June2004,eBayearned$4.1millioninrevenuefromcompleted23listingswith'Tiffany'inthelistingtitleintheJewelry&24Watchescategory."Id.at481.AlthougheBaywasgenerating25revenuefromallsalesofgoodsonitssite,including26counterfeitgoods,thedistrictcourtfoundeBaytohave"an1interestineliminatingcounterfeitTiffanymerchandisefrom2eBay...topreservethereputationofitswebsiteasasafe3placetodobusiness."Id.at469.ThebuyeroffakeTiffany4goodsmight,ifandwhentheforgerywasdetected,faulteBay.5Indeed,thedistrictcourtfoundthat"buyers...complain[ed]6toeBay"aboutthesaleofcounterfeitTiffanygoods.Id.at7487."[D]uringthelastsixweeksof2004,125consumers8complainedtoeBayaboutpurchasing'Tiffany'itemsthroughthe9eBaywebsitethattheybelievedtobecounterfeit."Id.10BecauseeBay"neversaworinspectedthemerchandisein11thelistings,"itsabilitytodeterminewhetheraparticular12listingwasforcounterfeitgoodswaslimited.Id.at477-78.13Evenhaditbeenabletoinspectthegoods,moreover,inmany14instancesitlikelywouldnothavehadtheexpertisetodetermine15whethertheywerecounterfeit.Id.at472n.7("[I]nmany16instances,determiningwhetheranitemiscounterfeitwill17requireaphysicalinspectionoftheitem,andsomedegreeof18expertiseonthepartoftheexaminer.").19Notwithstandingtheselimitations,eBayspent"asmuch20as$20millioneachyearontoolstopromotetrustandsafetyon21itswebsite."Id.at476.Forexample,eBayandPayPalsetup22"buyerprotectionprograms,"underwhich,incertain23circumstances,thebuyerwouldbereimbursedforthecostof24itemspurchasedoneBaythatwerediscoverednottobegenuine.25Id.at479.eBayalsoestablisheda"TrustandSafety"26department,withsome4,000employees"devotedtotrustandInitsfindings,thedistrictcourtoftenusedthepast3tensetodescribeeBay'santicounterfeitingefforts.WedonottakethisusagetosuggestthateBayhasdiscontinuedtheseefforts,butonlytoemphasizethatitsfindingsareissuedwithrespecttoaparticularperiodoftimepriortothecompletionoftrialandissuanceofitsdecision.1safety"issues,includingover200who"focusexclusivelyon2combatinginfringement"and70who"workexclusivelywithlaw3enforcement."Id.at476.4ByMay2002,eBayhadimplementeda"fraudengine,"5"whichisprincipallydedicatedtoferretingoutillegal6listings,includingcounterfeitlistings."Id.at477.eBayhad7theretoforeemployedmanualsearchesforkeywordsinlistingsin8aneffortto"identifyblatantinstancesofpotentially9infringing...activity."Id."Thefraudengineusesrulesand10complexmodelsthatautomaticallysearchforactivitythat11violateseBaypolicies."Id.Inadditiontoidentifyingitems12actuallyadvertisedascounterfeit,theenginealsoincorporates13variousfiltersdesignedtoscreenoutless-obviousinstancesof14counterfeitingusing"dataelementsdesignedtoevaluatelistings15basedon,forexample,theseller'sInternetprotocoladdress,16anyissuesassociatedwiththeseller'saccountoneBay,andthe17feedbackthesellerhasreceivedfromothereBayusers."Id.In18additiontogeneralfilters,thefraudengineincorporates19"Tiffany-specificfilters,"including"approximately90different20keywords"designedtohelpdistinguishbetweengenuineand21counterfeitTiffanygoods.Id.at491.Duringtheperiodin22dispute,eBayalso"periodicallyconducted[manual]reviewsof31listingsinanefforttoremovethosethatmightbeselling2counterfeitgoods,includingTiffanygoods."Id.3Fornearlyadecade,includingtheperiodatissue,4eBayhasalsomaintainedandadministeredthe"VerifiedRights5Owner('VeRO')Program"--a"'notice-and-takedown'system"6allowingownersofintellectualpropertyrights,including7Tiffany,to"reporttoeBayanylistingofferingpotentially8infringingitems,sothateBaycouldremovesuchreported9listings."Id.at478.Anysuchrights-holderwitha10"good-faithbeliefthat[aparticularlisted]iteminfringedona11copyrightoratrademark"couldreporttheitemtoeBay,usinga12"NoticeOfClaimedInfringementformorNOCIform."Id.During13theperiodunderconsideration,eBay'spracticewastoremove14reportedlistingswithintwenty-fourhoursofreceivingaNOCI,15buteBayinfactdeletedseventytoeightypercentofthemwithin16twelvehoursofnotification.Id.17OnreceiptofaNOCI,iftheauctionorsalehadnot18ended,eBaywould,inadditiontoremovingthelisting,cancel19thebidsandinformthesellerofthereasonforthe20cancellation.Ifbiddinghadended,eBaywouldretroactively21cancelthetransaction.Id.Intheeventofacancelled22auction,eBaywouldrefundthefeesithadbeenpaidin23connectionwiththeauction.Id.at478-79.24Insomecircumstances,eBaywouldreimbursethebuyer25forthecostofapurchaseditem,providedthebuyerpresentedWenote,however,that,Tiffany's"AboutMe"pageonthe4eBaywebsitestatesthatTiffanydoesnotauthenticatemerchandise.Pl.'sEx.290.Thus,itmaybedifficultforapurchasertoprofferevidencetoeBaysupportingasuspicionthatthe"Tiffany"merchandiseheorsheboughtiscounterfeit.1evidencethatthepurchaseditemwascounterfeit.Id.at479.42Duringtherelevanttimeperiod,thedistrictcourtfound,eBay3"neverrefusedtoremoveareportedTiffanylisting,actedin4goodfaithinrespondingtoTiffany'sNOCIs,andalwaysprovided5Tiffanywiththeseller'scontactinformation."Id.at488.6Inaddition,eBayhasallowedrightsownerssuchas7Tiffanytocreatean"AboutMe"webpageoneBay'swebsite"to8informeBayusersabouttheirproducts,intellectualproperty9rights,andlegalpositions."Id.at479.eBaydoesnot10exercisecontroloverthecontentofthosepagesinamanner11materialtotheissuesbeforeus.12Tiffany,noteBay,maintainstheTiffany"AboutMe"13page.Withtheheadline"BUYERBEWARE,"thepagebegins:"Most14ofthepurportedTIFFANY&CO.silverjewelryandpackaging15availableoneBayiscounterfeit."Pl.'sEx.290(boldfacetype16inoriginal).Italsosays,interalia:17Theonlywayyoucanbecertainthatyouare18purchasingagenuineTIFFANY&CO.productis19topurchaseitfromaTiffany&Co.retail20store,viaourwebsite(www.tiffany.com)or21throughaTiffany&Co.catalogue.Tiffany&22Co.storesdonotauthenticatemerchandise.23Agoodjewelerorappraisermaybeabletodo24thisforyou.25Id.1In2003orearly2004,eBaybegantouse"special2warningmessageswhenasellerattemptedtolistaTiffanyitem."3Tiffany,576F.Supp.2dat491.Thesemessages"instructedthe4sellertomakesurethattheitemwasauthenticTiffany5merchandiseandinformedthesellerthateBay'doesnottolerate6thelistingofreplica,counterfeit,orotherwiseunauthorized7items'andthatviolationofthispolicy'couldresultin8suspensionof[theseller's]account.'"Id.(alterationin9original).ThemessagesalsoprovidedalinktoTiffany's"About10Me"pagewithits"buyerbeware"disclaimer.Id.Iftheseller11"continuedtolistanitemdespitethewarning,thelistingwas12flaggedforreview."Id.13Inadditiontocancellingparticularsuspicious14transactions,eBayhasalsosuspendedfromitswebsite"'hundreds15ofthousandsofsellerseveryyear,'tensofthousandsofwhom16weresuspected[of]havingengagedininfringingconduct."Id.17at489.eBayprimarilyemployeda"'threestrikesrule'"for18suspensions,butwouldsuspendsellersafterthefirstviolation19ifitwasclearthat"theseller'listedanumberofinfringing20items,'and'[sellingcounterfeitmerchandise]appearstobethe21onlythingthey'vecometoeBaytodo.'"Id.Butif"aseller22listedapotentiallyinfringingitembutappearedoveralltobea23legitimateseller,the'infringingitems[were]takendown,and24theseller[would]besentawarningonthefirstoffenseand25giventheeducationalinformation,[and]toldthat...iftheyAccordingtothedistrictcourt,"eBaytookappropriate5stepstowarnandthentosuspendsellerswheneBaylearnedofpotentialtrademarkinfringementunderthatseller'saccount."Tiffany,576F.Supp.2dat489.ThedistrictcourtconcludedthatitwasunderstandablethateBaydidnothavea"hard-and-fast,one-strikerule"ofsuspendingsellersbecauseaNOCI"didnotconstituteadefinitivefindingthatthelisteditemwascounterfeit"andbecause"suspensionwasaveryseriousmatter,particularlytothosesellerswhoreliedoneBayfortheirlivelihoods."Id.ThedistrictcourtultimatelyfoundeBay'sfromreturningtoeBayandre-listingpotentiallycounterfeit1dothisagain,theywillbesuspendedfromeBay.'"Id.2(alterationsinoriginal).53Bylate2006,eBayhadimplementedadditionalanti-4fraudmeasures:delayingtheabilityofbuyerstoviewlistings5ofcertainbrandnames,includingTiffany's,for6to12hoursso6astogiverights-holderssuchasTiffanymoretimetoreview7thoselistings;developingtheabilitytoassessthenumberof8itemslistedinagivenlisting;andrestrictingone-dayand9three-dayauctionsandcross-bordertradingforsomebrand-name10items.Id.at492.11Thedistrictcourtconcludedthat"eBayconsistently12tookstepstoimproveitstechnologyanddevelopanti-fraud13measuresassuchmeasuresbecametechnologicallyfeasibleand14reasonablyavailable."Id.at493.15eBay'sAdvertising16AtthesametimethateBaywasattemptingtoreducethe17saleofcounterfeititemsonitswebsite,itactivelysoughtto18promotesalesofpremiumandbrandedjewelry,includingTiffany19merchandise,onitssite.Id.at479-80.Amongotherthings,1eBay"adviseditssellerstotakeadvantageofthedemandfor2Tiffanymerchandiseaspartofabroaderefforttogrowthe3Jewelry&Watchescategory."Id.at479.Andpriorto2003,4eBayadvertisedtheavailabilityofTiffanymerchandiseonits5site.eBay'sadvertisementstrumpeted"Mother'sDayGifts!,"6Pl.'sExs.392,1064,a"FallFASHIONBRANDBLOWOUT,"Pl.'sEx.7392,"JewelryBestSellers,"id.,"GREATBRANDS,GREATPRICES,"8Pl.'sEx.1064,or"TopValentine'sDeals,"Pl.'sEx.392,among9otherpromotions.Itencouragedtheviewerto"GETTHEFINER10THINGS."Pl.'sEx.392.Theseadvertisementsprovidedthe11readerwithhyperlinks,atleastoneofeachofwhichwasrelated12toTiffanymerchandise--"Tiffany,""Tiffany&Co.under$150,"13"Tiffany&Co,""TiffanyRings,"or"Tiffany&Co.under$50."14Pl.'sExs.392,1064.15eBayalsopurchasedsponsored-linkadvertisementson16varioussearchenginestopromotetheavailabilityofTiffany17itemsonitswebsite.Tiffany,576F.Supp.2dat480.Inone18suchcase,intheformofaprintoutoftheresultslistfroma19searchonYahoo!for"tiffany,"thesecondsponsoredlinkread20"TiffanyoneBay.Findtiffanyitemsatlowprices.Withover521millionitemsforsaleeveryday,you'llfindallkindsofunique22[unreadable]Marketplace.www.ebay.com."Pl.'sEx.1065(bold23facetypeinoriginal).TiffanycomplainedtoeBayofthe24practicein2003,andeBaytoldTiffanythatithadceasedbuying25sponsoredlinks.Tiffany,576F.Supp.2dat480.ThedistrictThatsectionstatesinpertinentpart:6Anypersonwhoshall,withouttheconsentoftheregistrant--(a)useincommerceanyreproduction,counterfeit,copy,orcolorableimitationofaregisteredmarkinconnectionwiththesale,offeringforsale,distribution,oradvertisingofanygoodsorservicesonorinconnectionwithwhichsuch1courtfound,however,thateBaycontinuedtodosoindirectly2throughathirdparty.Id.3ProceduralHistory4ByamendedcomplaintdatedJuly15,2004,Tiffany5initiatedthisaction.Italleged,interalia,thateBay's6conduct--i.e.,facilitatingandadvertisingthesaleof7"Tiffany"goodsthatturnedouttobecounterfeit--constituted8directandcontributorytrademarkinfringement,trademark9dilution,andfalseadvertising.OnJuly14,2008,followinga10benchtrial,thedistrictcourt,inathoroughandthoughtful11opinion,setforthitsfindingsoffactandconclusionsoflaw,12decidinginfavorofeBayonallclaims.13Tiffanyappealsfromthedistrictcourt'sjudgmentfor14eBay.15DISCUSSION16Wereviewthedistrictcourt'sfindingsoffactfor17clearerroranditsconclusionsoflawdenovo.Giordanov.18Thomson,564F.3d163,168(2dCir.2009).19I.DirectTrademarkInfringement20TiffanyallegesthateBayinfringeditstrademarkin21violationofsection32oftheLanhamAct.Thedistrictcourt61describedthisasaclaimof"directtrademarkinfringement,"2Tiffany,576F.Supp.2dat493,andweadoptthatterminology.3Undersection32,"theownerofamarkregisteredwiththePatent4andTrademarkOfficecanbringacivilactionagainstaperson5allegedtohaveusedthemarkwithouttheowner'sconsent."ITC6Ltd.v.Punchgini,Inc.,482F.3d135,145-46(2dCir.),cert.7denied,552U.S.827(2007).Weanalyzesuchaclaim"undera8familiartwo-prongtest.Thetestlooksfirsttowhetherthe9plaintiff'smarkisentitledtoprotection,andsecondtowhether10thedefendant'suseofthemarkislikelytocauseconsumers11confusionastotheoriginorsponsorshipofthedefendant's12goods."SavinCorp.v.SavinGroup,391F.3d439,456(2dCir.132004)(alterationsincorporatedandellipsesomitted),cert.14denied,546U.S.822(2005).15Int