机动车第三者责任强制保险的利益衡平问题研究(之二)

机动车第三者责任强制保险的利益衡平问题研究(之二) 机动车第三者责任强制保险的利益衡平问题研究(之 二) 赵明昕 关键词: 强制保险/利益/博弈/衡平 内容提要: 为配合我国《道路交通安全法》的实施，有关部门正在抓紧制定《机动车第三者责任强制保险条例》(以下简称“《强制保险条例》”)。而条例制定过程中最棘手的问题恐怕就是相关诸主体的利益冲突与衡平问题。就机动车第三者责任强制保险(以下简称“强制保险”)涉及的各方主体利益诉求及其博弈来说，应该坚持以公平正义、着重权利保护、有利于预防交通事故和适应我国国情等为原则，以妥善衡平各方利益，建立健全我国的强制保险。 四、建立健全我国强制保险制度，妥善衡平各方利益 (一)制定我国《强制保险条例》应当遵循之原则 从前文的分析可以看出，强制保险涉及的主体及其利益冲突是多种多样的，《强制保险条例》应当充分考虑并妥善衡平这些利益，才能确保其公正性和可实施性，为此应遵循以下原则: 1. 遵循《道路交通安全法》的相关规定的原则 Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 就法律级别来看，条例属于行政法规，其效力等级要低于宪法和法律，因此条例不能与宪法和法律相抵触。具体而言，制定《强制保险条例》的直接法律依据是《道路交通安全法》，该法不仅明确了我国要建立强制保险制度，而且其中的一些条文已经对强制保险的某些主要内容进行了原则性的规定。例如《道路交通安全法》76条第1款规定:“机动车发生交通事故造成人身伤亡、财产损失的，由保险公司在机动车第三者责任强制保险责任限额范围内予以赔偿。”这就为我国强制保险的责任范围划定了界限，即既包括人身伤亡，也包括财产损害。虽然这一规定的合理性值得商榷，但国务院制定的《强制保险条例》是不能对全国人大常委会通过的《道路交通安全法》作出实质性修改的。 2. 有利于预防和减少交通事故及损失的原则 近年来，随着人们对保险本质认识的深入，有学者提出，保险不只是一种灾后补偿的消极手段，它同时还具有防灾防损的积极意义 [12]。强制保险当然也不例外。虽然其所牵涉的各个权利主体和权力主体存在着诸多利益冲突，但他们在防灾防损方面无疑具有共同利益。从权利主体的角度看，首先，交通事故及损害的减免可使第三人免于遭受肉体之痛苦和财产损失;其次，交通事故及损害的减免可使保险人降低赔付率，减少赔偿和费用支出，增进其收益;再次，交通事故及损害的减免导致的赔付率减少可以有效降低保险费率，减轻投保人的负担。从社会和权力主体的角度看，首先，损失的出现毕竟意Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 味着人身伤亡和社会财富的损毁灭失，而有些损失是金钱无法替代的，而且由损失带来的其他影响也是无法估量的;因此从某种意义来说，做好防灾防损工作比其在保险事故发生后及时提供经济补偿更为重要，也更为社会所需要 [13]。其次，交通事故及损害的减免必然会有效减少因此而发生的纠纷，不仅可以维持社会关系之和谐，亦可保障道路畅通无阻，方便人们出行。这毫无疑问是公共管理部门梦寐以求的。来自实践的资料表明，交通事故主要是由交通违章造成的。据公安交管部门统计，交通违章，尤其是机动车驾驶人违章是我国目前交通事故的主要原因。2004年，我国因机动车驾驶人违章造成的事故起数、死亡人数和受伤人数分别占总数的89.8%、87.4%和90.6% [14]。而其他因素造成的交通事故仅占总数的很小一部分比例。因此预防和减少因当事人违章导致的交通事故是改善我国道路交通安全状况的根本出路，这就要求我们的制度建设必须要有利于促进交通行为参与者的安全意识，充分发挥法律制度的阻慑作用。有些学者主张应对交通事故适用过错责任原则也是基于同样的理由，他们认为传统的过失责任规则在交通事故处理方面通常被认为能给驾驶者以阻慑作用 [15]。还有，受害者在过失责任制下也能采取符合效益的避免事故的行为规则 [16]。故任何可以促进交通参与者的安全意识，增进其谨慎行为和其他减少安全隐患的措施皆应在制定《强制保险条例》过程中予以考虑，并对其中具有可行性者加以采纳。 Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 3. 有利于建立健全我国交通事故保障体系的原则 对交通事故所致损害的补偿机制决不仅仅是某一个法律制度，而是一个保障体系。例如日本在实施汽车第三者责任强制保险后，又相继设计了汽车第三者责任相互保险制度和政府的汽车损害赔偿事业制度，再加上社会保险的有关制度，形成了多种制度并存且互为补充的格局 [17]。依笔者之见，商业责任保险制度、车损险制度、车上人员责任险制度、财产损害险制度和人身意外伤害险制度等保险制度和侵权赔偿制度也应视为该保障体系之一部分。这些制度应当相互协调，相互补充，才能实现纠正正义和分配正义的和谐统一。因此强制保险在责任范围和责任限额等设置上，要将其置于整个保障体系之内来通盘考虑，既不能对其他制度不予保障的空白视而不见，也不能过分挤占其他制度的生存空间，造成不必要的冲突与浪费。 4. 权利优于权力的原则 现代社会民主的发展与法治的兴盛，必然导致权利观念大彰;而对权利的重视则必然意味着对权力的制约。在道路交通安全与秩序的博弈中，交通行为参与者、保险人和权力部门之间的权利义务从来都处于不平等状态，因此《强制保险条例》必须要秉承《道路交通安全法》已经体现出来的着重权利保护，制约权力的先进思想。在诸权利主体中，受害人的利益应当得到优先保障，否则就违背了建立强制保险制度的初衷;同时也要考虑投保人的保费负担能力和我国保险行业的发展水平，对平等主体之间的利益冲突依据公平原则和我国国情予Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 以协调;而对权力主体的利益诉求，在无关公共利益的情况下，如果其与权利主体的利益一致或没有原则性冲突应予以考虑;反之则不予采纳。 5. 有利于我国保险业健康发展的原则 目前，我国保险业尚处于初级阶段，保险深度和保险密度都很低(注:保险深度是指一国年保费收入占当年国内生产总值的比重;保险密度是指一国按全国人口计算的人均保费数额。2002年我国保险深度为3%，世界平均水平为8.1%，我国的世界排名为第48位，而我国国民生产总值世界排名第6位;同年我国的保险密度为29美元，世界平均水平为423美元，我国排名第71位。)，与经济发展和社会需求还很不协调。从市场情况看，保险市场尚不成熟、不完善，而且随着加入WTO后，对外开放进程的加快，竞争日益激烈，保险业的行业利润不断走低;从市场主体看，国内保险公司的偿付能力、竞争实力还普遍不高，而且短期内很难有实质性的改变;从业务结构看，车险占财险公司的业务比重接近2/3，所以强制保险制度的建立对财险公司的经营具有举足轻重的影响。如果《强制保险条例》制定失当，要求保险业承担超过其负担能力之责任，就有可能使我国保险公司的发展空间受到严重挤压，盈利渠道和能力都将受到很大限制。因此，在着重保护交通事故受害人利益的同时，决不能以牺牲我国保险业为代价;否则，如保险业不能健康发展，必将使其承担风险和损失的能力大打Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 折扣，最终使社会公众利益无法得到有效的保障，这恐怕就与立法者的本意大相径庭了。 (二)制定《强制保险条例》之建议 1. 准确定位保险人在强制保险中的角色 为配合《道路交通安全法》的实施，通过推行强制保险来保障道路交通事故加害人的赔偿能力，进而补偿受害人的损失，促进交通安全和人际关系和谐无疑是社会发展的需要。因此保险业应责无旁贷地承担起相应的社会管理责任，对建立健全强制保险制度给予大力支持。但须知，保险是分散风险，消化损失的一种经济制度 [18]。保险人参加交通事故风险管理，承担社会责任只能以保险制度特有的方式来进行，即在对承保风险进行充分的评估和精算的基础上，通过大数法则在众多被保险人中分散风险和损失。故保险人在强制保险实施过程中承担的主要义务是依法与投保人签订保险;依据法律法规和保险合同承担风险和损失;为被保险人提供必要的风险管理服务。但对于强制保险推行中的很多问题保险人都是力不从心的。例如，保险公司无权也没有能力强制社会上的机动车参加强制保险;另外，商业保险公司的营利性本质亦使其以追求利润而不是社会管理为第一目标。故由保险公司牵头来推行强制保险的想法是不切合实际的。而其他社会力量，尤其是政府的公共职能在强制保险实施中具有不可替代之作用。 Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 2. 按照“无亏无盈”原则来经营强制保险 强制保险主要是为了保障交通事故受害人的利益而建立的制度，它通过强制投保人投保来加强被保险人的赔偿能力，但强制投保无疑是对投保人财产权的一种限制，这种限制应当出于社会公益目的，而不应用于获取经济利益，因此“无亏无盈”原则是必然的选择。否则，如果一方面强制投保人投保，另一方面又允许保险人获取利润，实行商业化经营，不仅有剥夺他人财产之嫌，而且与重点保障受害人的立法意旨相背离。另外，奉行“无亏无盈”原则，保险人在制定保险费率时不必考虑利润因素，有利于降低保费水平，减轻投保人的保费负担，从而提高投保率。再者，“无亏无盈”虽然看似不利于调动保险人的积极性，但从我国目前的道路交通安全状况来看，强制保险的赔付率多半会居高不下，如果采取“自主经营，自负盈亏”的经营原则，保险人很可能亏损而不是盈利。若保险人意图在高赔付率的条件下获取利润，就只好提高保费;而如果保费水平超过一般公众的负担能力，投保率就无法保障，所以实行“无亏无盈”对保险人来讲也未尝不是一种保护。另外，虽然强制保险实行“无亏无盈”不能为保险人带来直接收益，但因其覆盖面广、影响大，有利于大大提高社会公众的保险意识，从而带动商业责任保险等险种的发展，为保险业的做大做强提供机遇。 3. 强制保险责任范围的界定 Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 按照强制保险制度的目的，应当将其赔偿责任范围仅仅限于人身伤害的赔偿。事实上，很多国家或地区的强制保险制度都是这样规定的。例如，日本《机动车损害赔偿保障法》第1条即开诚布公地宣布:“为建立因汽车行驶所致他人生命或身体伤害之损害赔偿保障制度，加强对受害人的保护以及促进汽车运输的健康发展，特制定本法。”但遗憾的是，我国《道路交通安全法》却将财产损失也纳入了强制保险的赔偿范围，虽然立法者自有其理由，但这无疑将大大加重保险公司的责任负担，并导致保费水平很难降低。不过无论如何，《道路交通安全法》已然生效，《强制保险条例》只能在其划定的范围内进行适度调整。笔者建议:第一，对人身损害和财产损害适用不同的归责原则，即人身损害依无过错原则，财产损害依过错原则，此举可将被保险人无过错所致之财产损害排除在强制保险责任范围之外，适度减轻保险人责任。第二，即使是人身损害也应仅对由此而发生的经济损失，如医疗费用等给予赔偿，对非金钱损失不予赔偿并允许被告在赔偿时减去原告因为同一损害而从其他来源获得的赔偿以减少超额保险 [19]。把损失只限制在经济损失是基于保险原理。从投保人方面考虑，理性的投保人是不会购买精神损害险的。从保险人方面看，精神损害赔偿会加剧逆选择和道德风险现象 [20]。因为精神损害赔偿在人身损害赔偿中的比例很大，受害人也有夸大精神损害的动机。逆选择问题和道德风险问题都会影响保险市场的正常运作。美国的实践证明，在精神损害赔偿越高的州，投保人保费的增长率越大 [21]。第三，在赔偿顺位上，坚持人身损害赔偿优先。《强制保险条例》(草Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 案)第22条:“„„在强制保险责任限额内优先对人身伤亡进行赔偿。”就是这一原则的体现。第四，对财产损害赔偿设定免赔额或共同保险条款，此问题后文详述。 4. 责任限额的确定 强制保险的责任限额由法律直接规定，并根据经济发展水平由政府予以调整。赔偿责任限额法定也是强制保险的强制性表现之一。确定责任限额应当坚持如下原则:第一，公平保障原则，即交通事故受害人从强制保险处得到的保障水平应当大体相当，不至于存在较大差异，以示法定保险的公正性。第二，基本保障原则，强制保险具有很强的社会公益性质，因此其保障应当是基本的而不是充分的。因为公益性保险具有“宜升不宜降”的特性，否则会引起公众的不满，对国家公共政策的推行不利。第三，符合我国经济发展水平的原则，强制保险责任限额并非一成不变，而是随着经济的发展和社会的进步而不断调整的。例如，日本1955年制定《机动车损害赔偿保障法》，实施强制保险时对死亡的赔偿金额仅为30万日元，后经过数次调整，到1991年时已经涨至3000万日元，涨幅达100倍。而这30多年正是日本从一个发展中国家成长为发达国家的历史时期。因此，我国强制保险责任限额也应与经济和社会发展相协调。第四，以承保风险为基础的原则，责任限额只有建立在对承保风险充分认识并估算的基础上，才能设计出相对准确合理的保险费率。 Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 责任限额的设定主要包括责任限额模式的选择和责任限额数额的确定两个方面。 关于责任限额模式，我们需要考虑以下问题:第一，在每次事故的受害人并非一人(如群死群伤事故)时，是否应有每个受害人的责任限额和每次事故总的责任限额的区别?第二，对每个受害人的不同伤亡情况和财产损失情况，责任限额应当如何分配?我国目前的责任保险并未对责任限额构成层次加以区别，而是采取了单一限额模式(注:责任限额模式分为单一限额模式和分项限额模式。前者指对每次事故仅设定一个限额，并不根据受害人的人数和损害的不同加以区分;后者指为每次事故中的每个受害人、每个受害人的不同损害和每次事故分别设定责任限额。)，很明显这是无法适应交通事故损害多样化的要求的。因此笔者建议采取分项限额模式，即分别设定每次事故对每个受害人的责任限额、每个受害人的不同人身和财产损害的责任限额和每次事故总的责任限额。对前两项限额，应设定较低金额，以满足保障的基本性和公平性的要求;对最后一项限额，可设定较高的金额，以满足保障的广泛性要求。国外的立法例也有仅设定每次事故每人的赔偿限额，而对每次事故总的赔偿额度并不限制的情况，日本即采这种模式。之所以敢如此规定，关键是日本通过国家再保险制度为保险人可能出现的亏损提供补偿。而我国政府财政的实力和道路交通安全状况是无法同日本相比的，故不适宜采纳日本模式。(注:当前，日本强制三责险60%以上的亏损都是由政府财政负担的，因此即使是财力雄厚的日本政府也存在不堪重负之虞。) Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 关于责任限额的数额确定不仅涉及技术问题，还要考虑社会因素。因为如果责任限额过低，首先将会使被保险人和第三人无法得到有效保障，这不仅有违社会正义，而且可能导致交通事故肇事者选择逃逸。事实上，我国交通肇事逃逸案件的数量一直很大，1997年和1998年分别为10752起和11499起 [22]。其次，由于强制保险保险费率水平不高，较低的保险金额将使保险人的保费收入亦较低。一些保险公司主张采用较低限额是考虑到强制保险为公益性很强的险种，经营效益将会较差，因此希望通过压低限额为商业责任保险等险种留出更大的空间。但应当看到，我国目前保险市场的成熟程度将导致在强制保险限额之上购买商业超赔补充保险的规模不会很大。因此如果强制保险的责任限额过低，则无论强制还是商业责任保险业务的规模都很难在现有责任保险的基础上有实质性的扩展，这对保险人的长远发展很不利。反之，如果限额水平过高，首先将导致保险人无法合理控制风险。由于强制保险的承保面大大超过商业责任保险，赔偿方式也由合同约定改为法律规定，另外侵权赔偿和医疗费用都在逐年提高，所以高责任限额必将大幅度提高保险人的经营风险。其次，高限额亦可能诱发心理风险和道德风险，被保险人会因为有高额保障而疏于谨慎驾驶;第三人亦可能因为高限额而夸大所受损失。再次，高责任限额不可避免地导致保费水平较高，如果超出我国投保人(尤其是低收入机动车保有人)的负担能力，必然会降低投保率，影响强制Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 保险的承保面。因此，执法者应当在保险精算的基础上，根据我国现实国情合理制定并调整强制保险的责任限额水平。 5. 保险费率的确定 强制保险的费率水平是否合理将直接决定该制度的推行能否成功。由于费率制定主要是一个精算问题，因此本文仅对制定费率应遵循之原则加以阐述。 (1)费率的确定要依据承保风险和经营成本进行精算，并留出一定的安全空间。由于强制保险的责任原则和赔偿方式发生了较大变化，因此费率的制定面临大量不可预见的风险，同时交通事故赔偿标准的迅速上升都要求费率要反应这些情况并具有前瞻性。所以强制保险要在风险保费的基础上增加一定比例的风险附加。另外，由于强制保险保费收入将按照固定比例划入救助基金，这要求费率制定时要考虑救助基金比例。因此要根据保险业以往的赔付数据、公安交管部门的交通事故处理数据等进行全面系统的分析测算，再加上对保险公司的经营成本进行评估，并为难以确定的风险因素留出安全空间，采用精算技术，确定保险费率。 (2)考虑社会的负担能力。费率的确定一定要立足我国的国情，当前我国的人均收入水平仍然不高，贫富分化的悬殊更使得广大的低收入群体无力承担较高的保费支出。事实上，我国机动车中占有最大比重的并不是汽车，而是拖拉机等农用车辆和摩托车，这些机动车的Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 保有人大多为收入不高且缺乏社会保障的农村人口，要他们承担较高的保费不仅违背他们的意愿，而且也会超出其承担能力。虽然我们可以将一部分很少在道路上行驶的农用车辆排除在强制保险之外，并推迟对摩托车等实行强制保险，但将大多数机动车纳入强制保险范围内只是时间问题，因此制定保险费率一定要考虑社会的负担能力。 (3)实行弹性费率，发挥保费在防灾防损方面的杠杆作用。从根本上讲，对交通事故的预防主要还是依靠约束驾驶人的行为来实现，而保费的制定在此方面具有独特的杠杆作用。我国《强制保险条例》制定之初，有的权力部门认为强制保险宜采统一条款、统一费率来经营，但遭到保险公司的一致反对。其最有力的理由就是不利于预防或减少交通事故。因为实行强制保险后，以前不购买保险的驾驶人会因有保险保障而降低谨慎程度;统一费率的采用又会使高风险驾驶人的肇事成本显著下降，这容易诱发心理风险。另外，强迫低风险驾驶人和高风险驾驶人承担相同的代价，有违公平正义原则。同时，统一的保险费率，使得费率不能对风险因素进行灵活的调整和反应，很不利于保险人的经营。因此如果要提高驾驶人的谨慎程度，实行弹性费率，将保费和驾驶行为记录相挂钩是不可或缺的。国外的保险实践也充分实行弹性费率的作用，加拿大魁北克省1992年把保费和驾驶行为记录挂钩后，其交通事故发生率显著降低。虽然魁北克的完全性无过失保险机制不允许对年龄和性别进行歧视，但是有不良驾驶行为的Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 驾驶者在延续他们的驾驶执照时会被要求支付更多的保费 [23]。大量的调查也证实更严格的同经验挂钩的保费评估制度会降低死亡事故率 [24]。反之，如果保费的评估不能反映投保者前一时期的事故经历，违反交通规则的情况和驾驶执照的扣分现象，交通事故的发生率就会显著上升 [25]。由于交通事故不仅跟驾驶者的谨慎程度而且还和驾驶量成正比，保费的确定还应该反映这些因素，如果交通事故的发生率随驾驶次数和里程的增长而上升[26]，那么就应对高风险驾驶者通过支付高保费或高赔偿的而迫使他们减少或不能驾驶车辆而减少交通事故[27]。鉴于此，我国《强制保险条例》(草案)已对此前的草稿作出了具有建设性意义的变更，其第8条规定:“被保险人没有发生道路交通安全违法行为和道路交通事故的，保险公司应当在下一年度降低其保险费率。在此后的年度内，被保险人仍然没有发生道路交通安全违法行为和道路交通事故的，保险公司应当继续降低其保险费率。被保险人发生道路交通安全违法行为或者道路交通事故的，保险公司应当在下一年度提高其保险费率。多次发生道路交通安全违法行为、道路交通事故，或者发生严重道路交通事故的，保险公司应当提高其保险费率的幅度。在道路交通事故中被保险人没有责任的，不提高其保险费率。”希望条例出台时能予以进一步完善，加入对驾驶量的考虑。 6. 不保事项的设置 Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 不保事项系指依合同约定或法律规定不予承保之事项，是对保险契约原则性保险责任之限制[28]。有人称不保事项为免责事由，但事实上保险合同中的不保事项无论是内涵还是外延均与合同法上的免责事由有所差异。免责事由是指免除违反合同的债务人承担违约责任的原则和理由。而不保事项则是法律或保险合同明确排除在保险责任之外的事项，保险人不予承保并不构成违约。强制保险的不保事项包括不保第三人、不保风险事故和不保损失等。不保损失就是保险责任范围之外的损失，前文讨论责任范围时已有论述，于此不赘，此处着重对不保第三人和不保事故加以分析。 (1)强制保险的不保第三人 这个问题其实就是强制保险第三人范围的界定问题。通常，第三人泛指除被保险人之外的不确定主体，但第三人是否包括交通事故发生时被保险汽车上的乘客呢?在我国《强制保险条例》制定过程中，有关部门曾希望将乘客责任险纳入强制保险之内，于条例第五次修改稿中规定:“客运出租汽车和从事营业性公路客运的机动车乘客责任强制保险适用本条例。”以期通过一个强制保险即可解决交通事故中除被保险人之外所有受害人的损害赔偿问题。但实践中因有车上人员责任险之存在，使这种做法变得没有必要。如果将车上乘客纳入第三人范围，不仅加重了保险人的负担，而且使车上人员责任险变得可有可无，将严重挤压保险人的利润空间，使我国保险公司的经营更加被动。故后来鉴于我国保险行业的现Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 状和保险公司的强烈反对，在《强制保险条例》(草案)中作出了修改:“第三者，是指被保险机动车发生道路交通事故的受害人，但不包括被保险机动车本车人员、被保险人。”可见将第三人限定为车外人员更为合理。另外，由于对被保险人的解释较为宽大，故即使是车外第三人范围的认定也颇为复杂。被保险人不仅指保险单中所载明之被保险人，即指名被保险人，以及其同居之全体家属，并包括经指名被保险人或其配偶所许可使用其汽车之人，以及对被保险汽车之使用负有法律责任之任何人，此即额外被保险人[29]。由于被保险人定义之广泛，在若干情形下，保险人可能因某一被保险人对另一被保险人有损害责任而支付保险金。例如指名被保险人出借其汽车于邻居，此邻居开车撞伤指名被保险人。指名被保险人可能提出控诉其邻居所致之伤害。此邻居为保单承保范围内之额外被保险人，保险人应为邻居提出抗辩，并支付任何有利于指名被保险人之判决[30]。在另一案例中，指名被保险人及其配偶各有一车，两车发生碰撞，在此种情形下，配偶一方可能控诉对方，而保险人亦当提出抗辩[31]。因此从理论上讲，被保险人和第三人之间并没有一个不可逾越的界限，无论是指名被保险人还是额外被保险人都可以因被保险汽车在经授权的合格驾驶人驾驶时所致的损害而向保险人主张赔偿，从而成为第三人。但按照我国现有责任保险条款，指名被保险人及其家庭成员是不能视为第三人的。(注:中国人民财产保险股份有限公司机动车辆第三者责任保险条款第6条:“保险车辆造成下列人身伤亡或财产损失，不论在法律上是否应当由被保险人承担赔偿责任，保险人均不负责赔偿:(一)Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 被保险人及其家庭成员的人身伤亡、所有或代管的财产的损失;(二)本车驾驶人员及其家庭成员的人身伤亡、所有或代管的财产的损失;„„”其他公司的责任保险条款也有类似的内容。)很明显此条款不妥，因为它机械地理解了被保险人和第三人的概念，将相当一部分人排斥于责任保险的保障范围之外，可能使我国交通事故保障体系出现盲区，故笔者主张第三人和被保险人的确定应当以交通事故发生时为准。 (2)强制保险的不保风险事故 所有保险合同中皆有不保风险事故之规定，以便从反面明确保险人之责任范围。强制保险之主旨是为交通事故受害人提供保障，故其风险事故以交通事故为限。但何谓“交通事故”呢?我国《道路交通安全法》规定:“‘交通事故’是指车辆在道路上因过错或者意外造成的人身伤亡或者财产损失的事件。”可见，交通事故应当是机动车在道路上行驶时发生的致损事件，而非因机动车上路行驶带来的损害，即使是与机动车有其他物理上的联系也应列为强制保险的不保事故。但《强制保险条例》(草案)却规定:“机动车在道路以外的地方通行时发生事故，造成人身伤亡、财产损失的赔偿，比照适用本条例。”笔者认为此规定欠妥，因为这不仅不合理地加重了被保险人和保险人的责任，而且有违反《道路交通安全法》相关规定之虞，建议条例出台时予以删除。另外，道路交通事故中亦有若干情形为强制保险的不保风险事故:第一，驾驶资格欠Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 缺的驾驶员驾车所致之交通事故。如尚未取得驾驶执照或驾驶执照被吊销的人员肇事;第二，驾驶人故意造成的交通事故;第三，受害人故意造成的交通事故;第四，驾驶人与受害人恶意串通造成的交通事故;第五，因驾驶人酗酒、吸毒或服用麻醉药物等原因造成的交通事故;第六，驾驶人或第三人从事犯罪活动引发的交通事故;第七，被保险人自愿在暂时或永久对公众人士封闭的区域参加赛车活动所致损害，受害人也是不能获得无过失保险机制的赔偿的[32]。排除这些事故的原因在于，责任保险中的交通事故应当是通常情况下发生的，而以上情形，或者是当事人故意造成事故，或者是当事人因严重违法行为引发事故，或者二者兼而有之。按照保险原理，故意造成事故或者从事严重违法行为的人是不应得到保险保障的，否则就不利于正确引导人们的行为，造成“鼓励”引发事故或违法犯罪的倾向。另外，当事人故意或严重违法的风险也是保险人在进行风险评估时难以测算的，因此应当将这些事故从强制保险的保障范围排除出去。当然，将这些事故排除在强制保险的保障范围之外，并不等于强制保险对这些事故中的受害者(尤其是无辜的受害人)采取视而不见的态度，而是应当秉承以人为本的理念首先为受伤的受害人垫付抢救费用。此时，保险人实际上承担着一定的社会保障责任，是保险业社会管理功能的体现。为衡平当事人利益，补偿保险人因此支出的费用，法律应当赋予保险人于事后向责任人追偿的权利。 7. 对财产损害设定免赔额( Deductible Franchise) 或共同保险条款( Coinsurance clause) Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 免赔额是指当承保事故发生后，保险人只赔偿一定数额以上的损失。共同保险条款则规定在事故发生后，投保人自己必须承担损失的一个百分比[33]。免赔额和共同保险条款是对保险赔偿金额的一种限制，其意义在于减少小额损失之补偿，因为小额损失的理赔费用甚至可能超过实际补偿金额，故免赔额和共同保险条款的引入可以有效降低赔付率和理赔费用，进而降低保险费率，所以无论是对保险人和被保险人都具有积极意义。但在强制保险，对人身损害设定免赔额或共同保险条款并不适宜。第一，根据强制保险着重维护受害人基本权益的特征，对人身损害设定免赔额或共同保险条款违背以人为本的理念。第二，由于人身损害并非如财产损害那样容易确定，故对人身损害设定免赔额可能诱发道德风险。为了能够请求赔偿，受害人可能夸大人身伤害程度，而医生和律师也会鼓励受害人增加医疗服务而使损失达到门槛标准[34]。但对财产损失设定免赔额或共同保险条款不仅可以减少赔付和降低保费，而且在若干情形可以通过调节免赔额幅度或共同保险比例起到控制违章，减少事故的防灾功能。例如，对违反车辆装载规定的被保险机动车可以设定较高的免赔额或共同保险比例，有利于配合公安部门通过经济杠杆来控制营运车辆特别是营运货车的超载问题。再如，对同一保险年度内多次发生交通事故的被保险人设定较高的免赔额和共同保险比例，以敦促其谨慎驾驶。 8. 拓展救助基金来源，明确救助基金管理机构 Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 在实行强制保险的国家或地区，均同时设立了救助基金作为强制保险的补充机制，如日本的“政府机动车损害赔偿保障事业”、美国纽约州的“机动车辆事故补偿公司”、德国的“汽车交通事故损害赔偿基金”等。根据《道路交通安全法》的相关规定，《强制保险条例》需要对基金的管理机构、来源、征收办法、赔偿项目和标准等问题作出原则性规定。鉴于我国严峻的道路交通安全状况和强制保险的公益性质，笔者认为不宜从强制保险保费收入中提取较高比例，而应广开救助基金来源渠道。从发达国家或地区的经验看，除从保费收入、罚款收入和年检费税收入提取外，还有下列途径可供考虑:(1)救助基金垫付抢救费用或丧葬费之后向责任人代位追偿所得;(2)受害人死亡，且无人继承的强制保险赔款;(3)救助基金所生孳息;(4)社会捐赠;(5)从燃油税中提取的金额等。其中最值得采纳的就是从燃油税中提取，该来源较为可靠且收取便利，同时缴纳燃油税较多的机动车必然在道路上行驶的时间更长，发生交通事故的概率也更高，要求其承担更多的基金份额是合情合理的。从燃油税中提取还可能使驾驶量比较大的投保人因为增加成本而减少驾驶。这就会降低和驾驶量相关的交通事故。事实上，新西兰的无过失保障机制(注:新西兰于1972年采用的完全性无过失机制的适用范围超越了交通事故。它适用于所有因意外事故造成的人身伤亡事故。)就是多征收了2%的汽油税[35]。我国目前正在进行税费改革，酝酿实施燃油税，故可考虑将其列为基金的主要来源之一。关于救助基金的管理，其他国家或地区基本上是由官方机构负责，如德国由联邦法务部长为主管监督长官，由救助基Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 金内设的董事会和行政委员会负责管理;日本由交通部作为政府代表管理保障事业;韩国由建设交通部管理;加拿大安大略省最初由司法部管理，后先后转由运输部、消费者和商业关系及金融协会管理，现由安大略金融服务委员会管理;我国台湾省由财政部或其指定机构管理;美国纽约州则专门成立了“机动车辆事故补偿公司”( Motor Vehicle Accident Indemnification Corporation， 缩写MVAIC) 负责救助基金管理，该公司经法律授权而具有一定的事故仲裁职能，属于半官方主体。可见，救助基金管理机构应当具有官方或半官方身份，其对救助基金的管理应主要出于社会公益而不是获取利润，因此以盈利为第一目标的保险公司无疑是不适合的，笔者认为我国应由财政部主导，会同交通部和公安部共同履行救助基金的管理职责较为适宜。 注释: [1]Robert H. Joost， Automobile Insurance and No-Fault Law， 2[nd] ed. 2002. 7. [2] [28] [29] [30]袁宗蔚. 保险学—危险与保险[M]. 北京:首都经济贸易大学出版社，2000. 579，262，582，583. [3] [14]公安部. 关于2004年全国道路交通事故情况的通报[R]. 2005-01-14. Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit [4]周延礼. 机动车辆保险理论与实务[M]. 北京:中国金融出版 社，2001. 354. [5] [32]Greene， M. R. ， Risk and Management， 4[th] ed. 1977. 350， 338-339. [6]马克思恩格斯全集(第一卷)[M]. 北京:人民出版社，1956. 82. [7] [19] [31]Don Dewees， et al. ， Exploring the Domain of Accident Law: Taking the Facts Seriously. New York: Oxford University Press， 1996. 6， 7， 6. [8]Donald Harris， Compensation and Support for Illness and Injury. Oxford: Clarendon， 1984. 57. [9]U. S. Department of Transportation， Compensating Auto Accident Victims: A Follow-up Report on No-Fault Auto Insurance Experience. Washington， D. C. : Office of the Secretary of Transportation， 1985. 79. [10]Robert Bombaugh， The Department of Transportation Auto Insurance Study and Auto Accident Compensation Reform. Columbia Law Review 207-216， 1971. Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 [11]Fifteenth Statewide Grand Jury Report， Report on Insurance Fraud Related to Personal Injury Protection. Aug， 2000. [12] [13] [18]李玉泉. 保险法[M]. 北京:法律出版社，2003. 51，55，8. [15]Guido Calabresi， The Costs of Accidents: A Legal and Economic Analysis. New. Haven: Yale University Press， 1970. [16]M. White， An Empirical Test of the Comparative and Contributory Negligence Rules in Accident Law. 20 Rand Journal of Economics 308， 1989. [17]中国人民保险公司财产险部. 日本汽车保险[M]. 北京:华 文出版社，1993. 44. [20]George Priest， The Current Insurance Crisis and Modern Tort Law， 96 The Yale Law Journal， 1521， 1546-1548. 1987. [21]Jeffrey O, Connell et al. ， The Effect of Allowing Motorists to Opt Out of Tort Law in the United States， 39 Les Cahiers De Droit， 600， 603. 1998. Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit [22]公安部. 1998年道路交通事故情况综述[J]. 道路交通管 理，1999，(3):3—7. [23]Stephen Sugarman， Quebec, s Comprehensive Auto No-Fault Scheme and the Failure of Any of the United States to Follow， 39 Les Cahiers De Droit， 303， 327. 1998. [24]David Cummins et al. ， The Incentive Effects of No-Fault Automobile Insurance， Journal of Law and Economics， 427. 2001. [25]Marcel Boyer and Georges Dionne， Description and Analysis of the Quebec Automobile Insurance Plan， 13 Canadian Public Policy， 181. 1987. [26]Leslie Norman， Road Traffic Accidents: Epidemiology， Control and Prevention. Geneva: World Health Organization， Public Health Papers， No. 12， 1962. [27]Christopher Bruce， The Deterrent Effects of Automobile Insurance and Tort Law: A Survey of the Empirical Literature， Law and Policy， 67， 70-72. 1984. [33]Mark Pauly， The Economics of Moral Hazard: Comment， 58 American Economic Review， 531， 535. 1968. Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 [34]Gary Schwartz， Auto No-Fault and First Party Insurance: Advantages and Problems， 73 Southern California Law Review， 611， 633-635. 2000. [35]James Henderson， Jr. et al. ， The Tort Process. New York: Aspen Law & Business， 1999. 748. 出处:现代法学200504 Chapter I General provisions article I obligation to clear credit pre-loan investigation requirements, improve the quality of pre-loan investigation, prevent credit risks, according to the CBRC commercial bank credit due diligence guidelines, commercial bank credit small business due diligence guidelines (trial) and other regulatory requirements and the actual situation of the Bank, these measures are formulated. Second person mentioned in these measures refers to in accordance with the rules of credit investigations, surveys and analysis of the credit business people. Article credit mentioned in these measures refers to table provided to customers both inside and outside of the Bank's credit business, including foreign currency loans, trade finance, bank acceptances, commercial bill discounting, guarantees, factoring, credit, loan commitment, guarantee and other credit operations, excluding client credit business. Prior to the chengdai investigation into the fourth article this refers to credit before the review, investigators by obtaining, verification, analysis and security aspects of the situation, evaluation and reveals the possible credit risks and to propose preventive measures. Article fifth due diligence in these measures refers to the person in the pre-loan investigation procedures fulfilling the most basic due diligence requirements. Article sixth of themselves, pre-loan investigators relatives or other interested person to apply for the credit business, one should apply for the withdrawal. Chapter II due diligence due diligence work is the basic requirement of the seventh article: follow the principles of true, complete, valid, and diligence due diligence in carrying out investigation duties. Investigators should be based on the characteristics of different varieties of credit business, credit