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1985, and he is a past president of the North Carolina Chapter of the Society for Neuroscience. He has lectured widely throughout the United States, Western Europe, and the Far East, giving lectures at universities and in- stitutes in Helsinki, Kyoto, Tokyo, Peking, Canton, Hong Kong, Shanghai, Leningrad, Zurich, Milan, l isa, Frank- furt, G6ttingen, and London. Diamond was a United States Public Health Service Special Fellow at Oxford, the recipient of an Alfred P. Sloan Grant, and is a member of the Society of Experi- mental Psychology and the National Academy of Sciences. He was the American Museum of Natural History James Arthur Lecturer in 1980 and the Ralph Gerard Lecturer in Neurosciences at the University of California in Irvine in 1984. He was a special guest of the Soviet Union's Academy of Sciences Sechenov Institute in 1980 and the Peoples Republic of China in 1982. In 1971 he was awarded the James B. Duke Chair at Duke University. At the present time, his title is James B. Duke Professor of Psychology and Professor of Neurobiology. Diamond believes in the significance of the inter- national community in neurobiology. He has received grants for the purpose of collaboration with laboratories in England and Italy, and neurobiologists from Japan, London, Birmingham, Parma, Pisa, and Rome have worked in his Duke University laboratories. Selected Bibliography Carey, R. G., Fitzpatrick, D., & Diamond, I. T. (1979). Layer I of striate cortex of Tupaia glis and Galago senegalensis: Projections from thal- amus and claustrum revealed by retrograde transport of horseradish peroxidase. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 186, 393-438. C~zrande, V. A., & Diamond, I. T. (1974). Ablation study of the superior colliculus in the tree shrew (Tupaia glis). Journal of Comparative Neurology, 156, 207-238. Conley, M., Fitzpatrick, D., & Diamond, I. 1". 0984). The laminar or- ganization of the lateral geniculate body and the striate cortex in the tree shrew (Tupaia glis). Journal of Neuroscience, 4, 171-197. Conley, M., Penny, G. R., & Diamond, I. T. (1987). Terminations of individual optic tract fibers in the lateral geniculate nuclei of Galago crassicaudatus and Tupaia belangeri. Journal of Comparative Neu- rology, 256, 71-87. Diamond, 1. T. (1973). The evolution of the tectai-puivinar system in mammals: Structure and behavioral studies of the visual system. Symposium of the Zoological Society of London, 33, 205-233. Diamond, I. T. (1979), The subdivisions of neocortex: A proposal to revise the traditional view of sensory motor, and association areas. In J. M, Spragne & A. N. Epstein (Eds.), Progress in psychobiology and physiologicalpsychology (Vol. 8, pp. 1-43). New York: Academic Press. Diamond, I. T. (1982). The functional significance of architectonic sub- divisions of the cortex: Lashley's criticism of the traditional view. In J. Orbach (Ed.), Neuropsychology after Lashley (pp. 101-135). New York: Plenum Press. Diamond, I. T. 0985). A history of the study of the cortex: Changes in the concept of the sensory pathway. In G. A. Kimble & K. Sehlesinger (Eds.), Topics in the history of psychology (pp. 305-387). Hillsdale, N J: Edbaum. Diamond, I. 1"., Conley, M., Itoh, K., & Fitzpatrick, D. (1985). Laminar organization of geniculo-corticai projections in Galago senegalensis and Aotus trivirgatus. Journal of Comparative Neurology,, 242, 584- 610. Diamond, I. T., & Hail, W. C. (1969). Evolution of neocortex. Science, 164, 251-262. Diamond, I. T., Jones, E. G., & Powell, T. E S. (1968). The association connections of the auditory cortex of the cat. Brain Research, 11, 560-579. Diamond, I. T., & Neff, W. D. (1957). Ablation of temporal cortex and discrimination of auditory patterns. Journal of Neurophysiology, 20, 300-315. Diamond, I. T., Snyder, M., Killackey, H., Jane, J., & Hail, W. C. (I 970). Thalamo-corticai projections in the tree shrew (Tupaia glis). Journal of Comparative Neurology, 139, 273-306. Diamond, I. T., & Utley, J. D. (1963). Thaiamic retrograde degeneration study of sensory cortex in opossum. Journal of Comparative Neurolog2z, 120, 129-160. Fitzpatrick, D., Conley, M., Luppino, G., Matelli, M., & Diamond, I. 3-. (1988). Cholinergic projections from the midbrain reticular for- marion and the parabigeminal nucleus to the lateral 8enicolate nucleus in the tree shrew. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 272, 43-67. Fitzpatrick, D., & Diamond, 1. T. (1979). The laminar organization of the lateral geniculate body in Galago senegalensis: A pair of layers identified by acetylcholinesterase activity. Brain Research, 170, 538- 542. Hall, W. C., & Diamond, I. T. (1968). Organization and function of the visual cortex in hedgehog: I. Cortical cytoarchitecture and thalamic retrograde degeneration. Brain, Behavior, and Evolution, 1, 181-214. Harting, J. K., Hall, W. C., Diamond, I. T., & Martin, G. F. (1973). Anterograde degeneration study of the superior colliculus in Tupaia glis: Evidence for a subdivision between superficial and deep layers. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 148, 361-386. Masterton, R. B., & Diamond, I. T. (1964). Effects of auditory cortex ablation on discrimination of smail binaural time differences. Journal of Neurophysiology, 27, 15-36. Winer, J. A., Diamond, I. T., & Raczkowski, D. (1977). Subdivisions of the auditory cortex ofthe cat: The retrograde transport ofhorseradish oeroxidase to the medical geniculate body and posterior thaiamic nuclei. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 176, 387-418. II I Frederic M. Lord Citation "For his creative and penetrating contributions to the theory and practice of psychological measurement. The magisterial excellence of Statistical Theories o f Mental Test Scores, written with Novick, brought psychometric theory to maturity and became the foundation for further major contributions by others. He brought clarity to the analysis of measurement errors and test equivalence. In refining item response theory, he established the base for a new psychometrics, one that facilitates equating of tests, calibration of items, and evaluation of possible item bias. His findings have improved the flexibility and information yield of measurements, particularly through computer- ized adaptive testing." Biography Over the past four and one-half decades, Frederic M. Lord's contributions to test theory have been marked by a thematic continuity that has progressively moved the field from a preoccupation with estimating the properties of true scores to the fundamental measurement of latent traits or human abilities. He was born on November 12, 1912, in Hanover, New Hampshire, where his father taught anatomy at the Dartmouth Medical School. Lord's undergraduate degree in sociology was conferred by Dartmouth College in 1936. He enrolled in graduate school in 1938 and was awarded a master's degree in educational psychology by the University of Minnesota in 1943. From 1941 to 1944, he worked under Marion April 1989 • American Psychologist 619 Frederic M. Lord Richardson in the U.S. Civil Service Commission pri- marily with responsibilities for test item development. In 1944 he joined the staff of the Graduate Record Office of the Carnegie Foundation, serving as Assistant Director from 1946 to 1949. Lord joined the staff of the newly formed Educational Testing Service (ETS) in March of 1949 as Head of Statistical Analysis and, eight months later, became a member of the research staff at ETS. He earned the doctorate in psychology from Princeton Uni- versity in 195 I. Lord's long list of publications begins with an article published in 1944 that reported the effects of varying the number of alternatives on the reliability of a multiple- choice item, one presenting a nomograph to aid in cal- culating correlations, and one reporting the results of a test administered in Latin America. During his career, Lord has published more than 100 papers and chapters on a variety of topics allied to psychometrics. He has served on the editorial council of Psychometrika since 1953 and was chair of the council for eight years. Since 1956 he has been a member of the Board of Cooperating Editors for Educational and Psychological Measurement. Lord was elected president of the Psychometric Society in 1958-1959 and president of Division 5 of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1975-1976. He is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Divisions 5 and 13 of APA, the American Statistical Association, and the Institute of Mathematical Statistics. Lord's thesis, A Theory of Test Scores, evolved from work begun in 1941. The dissertation was published as a Psychometric Monograph in 1952, and it was this line of development that led to publication of the landmark text Statistical Theories of Mental Test Scores in 1968, written in collaboration with Melvin R. Novick. This book not only definitively codifies classical true score theory, but it also provides the mathematical foundations for a variety of new approaches to mental testing, including general- izability theory and item response theory (IRT). In 1980, his work on IRT having expanded and deepened, Lord published the influential volume, Applications of Item Response Theory to Practical Testing Problems, which provides both an integrative distillation of theory and an innovative guide to practice. By pioneering the rigorous application of mathematical statistics to test theory, he cut through much of the confusion and imprecision that had plagued the field from its inception. By reconcep- tualizing the problems of test theory in terms of latent trait measurement, Lord provided not only a consistent framework for understanding test properties but also an explanatory system that had enormous predictive power. In addition to providing a powerful theoretical in- tegration of the psychological measurement field, Lord's IRT has considerable practical application. When the IRT model is appropriate to the data, not only are item pa- rameters (such as difficulty level and discriminating power) invariant across respondent samples, but estimates of respondents' skill levels are invariant across subsets of items. This means that each individual's attribute level may be estimated from any subset of calibrated items and that items may be added or deleted from the test at any time without affecting comparability of results. Hence, comparable ability or attribute estimates can be obtained for individuals who take completely different tests, a fea- ture that is of paramount importance as the theoretical underpinning of computerized adaptive testing. Other features of IRT are that test equating becomes a simple matter of test linking, test updating can be done on respondent samples of differing ability levels, and standard errors can be determined easily at different points along the measurement scale (as opposed to esti- mating a conglomerate standard error for the score dis- tribution as a whole, as in classical test theory). Moreover, because attribute levels for each individual are directly estimated in IRT, the problem of potential item bias is handled in a straightforward mannerwnamely, by checking that individuals with identical skill levels have the same probability of getting an item correct, regardless of their ethnic or demographic group membership. Another important application stemming from Lord's theoretical work is the use of matrix sampling (i.e., administering different samples ofitems to different sam- ples of people) in test norming, in program evaluation, and in appraisals of system functioning such as an ap- praisal of the National Assessment of Educational Pro- gress. Matrix sampling is an important innovation be- 620 April 1989 • American Psychologist cause it not only reduces the testing burden on any in- dividual, but it also greatly expands the scope of the test domain that can be effectively covered. Among the mile- stones in Lord's persistent march toward integrative the- ory are an impressive number of classical contributions that make their own singular mark. These include, among those already mentioned and many others, the statistical treatment of nominal "football" numbers, the confron- tation of paradoxes in statistical inference, the illumi- nation of speed factors in tests and academic grades, the measurement of growth, and the development of flexilevel tailored testing. Lord retired from ETS as Distinguished Research Scientist and Chair of the Psychometrics Research Group in 1985. In contemporary psychometrics it is popular to make a distinction between classical test theory and modern test theory. In making this distinction, an entire scholarly field pays tribute to the work of Frederic M. Lord. Selected Bibliography Lord, E L. (1952). A theory of test scores. Psychometric Monograph No. 7. Lord, E L. (1953). On the statistical treatment of football numbers. American Psychologist, 8, 750-751. Lord, E L. (1955). Some persl~.'ctives on "The attenuation paradox in test theory." Psychological Bulletin, 5Z 505-510. Lord, E L. (1965). A strong true-score theory, with applications. Psy- chometrika, 30, 239-270. Lord, E L. (1967). Further problems in the measurement of growth. In D. N. Jackson & S. Messiek (Eds`), Problems in human assessment (pp. 258-266). New York: McGraw Hill. (Originally published 1958 in Educational and Psychological Measurement) Lord, E L. (1967). A paradox in the interpretation of group comparisons. Psychological Bulletin, 68, 304-305. Lord, E L. (1969). Statistical adjustments when comparing preexisting groups. Ps~hological Bulletin, 72, 336-337. Lord, E L. (1974). The relative efficiency of two tests as a function of ability level. Psychometrika, 39, 351-358. Lord, E L. (1977). Practical applications of item characteristic curve theory. Journal of Educational Measurement, 14, 117-138. Lord, E L, (1980). Applications of item response theory to practical testing problems. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Lord, E L. (1982), Item response theory and equating--A technical summary. In P. W. Holland & D. B. Rubin (Eds`), Test equating (pp. 141-148). New York: Academic Press. Lord, E L. (1983). Estimating the imputed social cost of errors of mea- surement. Psychometrika, 50, 57-68. Lord, E L. (1986). Psychological testing theory. In S. Kotz & N. L. Johnson (Eds.), Encyclopedia of statistical sciences. New York: Wiley. Lord, E L., & Noviek, M. R. (1974). Statistical theories of mental test scores. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Eleanor E. Maccoby Citation "For her wide-ranging and authoritative contributions to developmental and social psychology. Her substantive discoveries on the socialization of young children have been paralleled by equally important contributions to the methodology of interviewing and the measurement of critical dimensions of social behavior in both infants and preschool children. Her incisive reviews of research and theory in the fields of attachment, dependency and gender differences have broadly influenced the style and direction of subsequent research in these fields." Biography Eleanor Emmons Maccoby was borrt in 1917, the second in a family of four daughters. In high, school, Eleanor attempted to replicate some of J. B. Rhine's results on extrasensory perception (ESp)--unsuccessfully, as it turned out. Her first contact with psychology as a formal discipline occurred at Reed College, where she spent her first two college years. Psychology courses there were taught by William Griflith, who had been a student of Edwin Guthrie's and preached the then-new doctrine of positivistic behaviorism. Eleanor became a convert and spent her last two college years at the University of Wash- ington, studying with Guthrie and assimilating his S-R contiguity theory of learning. In her senior year, 1938-1939, she married Nathan Maccoby (known as Mac), who was a psychology graduate student in Seattle. In 1940, they moved to Washington, DC, to take federal jobs, and after a brief period of other work, Eleanor joined the staff of the Division of Program Surveys, Department of Agriculture. That organization, headed by Rensis Likert, conducted field studies of the impact of various wartime programs on the public. Likert had brought together a group of energetic young psy- chologists, a number of whom became leaders in the post- war field of social psychology. Several of these people had Lewinian or Gestalt perspectives, and Eleanor became aware of a broader range of psychological thought than she had encountered up to that time. The idea of applying psychological concepts and methods to policy-relevant issues took root and had a lasting impact on her subse- quent career. At the war's end, Likert moved his organization to the University of Michigan, where he established the In- stitute for Social Research. Both of the Maccobys wanted to finish their graduate work, and when they were invited to join the move to Ann Arbor, they took advantage of the opportunity to work with the Likert organization while doing their graduate studies. In her academic work, Eleanor returned to her old love, learning theory, studying with Don Marquis and Ed Walker, although she also studied social psychology with Katz and Newcomb and later collaborated with Newcomb on editing the third edition of Readings in Social Psychology. Nathan completed his PhD work first, and in 1949 he was offered a tempting professorship at Boston Uni- versity, They moved to Boston, and Eleanor looked for a setting in which she could do her dissertation experiment, a conditioning study exploring some of Skinner's hy- potheses on partial reinforcement. Skinner offered space in his laboratory at Harvard, and she completed her ex- perimental work there. Meanwhile, she was recruited by Jerome Bruner (whom she had met in the Division of Program Surveys) to teach in the Department of Social * Relations. April 1989 • American Psychologist 621