世界最大的沙漠-撒哈拉沙漠

世界最大的沙漠-撒哈拉沙漠 利比亚西南部撒哈拉沙漠中的移动沙丘 撒哈拉沙漠约形成于二百五十万年前，乃世界第二大荒漠，仅次于南极洲，是世界最大的沙 质荒漠。它位于非洲北部，气候条件非常恶劣，是地球上最不适合生物生存的地方之一。其 总面积约容得下整个美国本土。“撒哈拉”是阿拉伯语的音译，源自当地游牧民族图阿雷格人 的语言，原意即为“沙漠”。 目录 简介 自然特征 地形 水系 土壤 气候 植物 动物 形成原因 历史发展 史前时期 水牛时期 黄牛时期 马时期 地貌类型 组成部分 环境气候 居民 经济 研究和探索 撒哈拉沙漠岩画 穿越撒哈拉沙漠 数千年前陨石坑 展开 简介 自然特征 地形 水系 土壤 气候 植物 动物 形成原因 历史发展 史前时期 水牛时期 黄牛时期 马时期 地貌类型 组成部分 环境气候 居民 经济 研究和探索 撒哈拉沙漠岩画 穿越撒哈拉沙漠 数千年前陨石坑 撒哈拉沙漠(英文名为:Sahara Desert) 世界上阳光最多的地方，也是世界上最大和自然条件最为严酷的沙漠。 撒哈拉沙漠是世界最大的沙漠，几乎占满非洲北部全部，占全洲总面积的四分之一。东西约长4,800公里(3000里)，南北在1300 至1900公里(800至1200里)之间，总面积约9065000平方公里。撒哈拉沙漠西濒大西洋，北临阿特拉斯山脉和地中海，东为红海，南为萨赫勒一个半沙漠乾草原的过渡区。 撒哈拉沙漠是世界上除南极洲之外最大的荒漠，位于非洲北部，气候条件极其恶劣，是地球上最不适合生物生长的地方之一。阿拉伯语撒哈拉意即“大荒漠”。位于阿特拉斯山脉和地中海以南(约北纬35?线),约北纬14?线(250毫米等雨量线)以北,西起大西洋海岸,东到红海之滨。横贯非洲大陆北部,东西长达5600公里,南北宽约1600公里,总面积约9,065,000平方公里，约占非洲总面积32%。可以将整个美国本土装进去，“撒哈拉”这个名称来源于阿拉伯语???????，是从 撒哈拉沙漠建造世界最大太阳能电厂 当地游牧民族图阿雷格人的语言引入的，在其语言中就是“沙漠”的意思。这块沙漠大约形成于二百五十万年以前。 撒哈拉沙漠西从大西洋沿岸开始，北部以阿特拉斯山脉和地中海为界，东部直抵红海，南部到达苏丹和尼日尔河河谷。撒哈拉沙漠分为几部分:西撒哈拉;中部高原山地(包括位于阿尔及利亚的阿哈加尔高原，位于尼日尔的艾尔高原和位于乍得的提贝斯提高原;东部是最为荒凉的区域，为特内雷沙漠和利比亚沙漠。撒哈拉沙漠的最高点为位于提贝斯提高原中的库西山，海拔为3415米。 撒哈拉沙漠将非洲大陆分割成两部分，北非和南部黑非洲，这两部分的气候和文化截 然不同，撒哈拉沙漠南部边界是半干旱的热带稀树草原，阿拉伯语称为“萨赫勒”，再往南就是雨水充沛，植物繁茂的南部非洲，阿拉伯语称为“苏丹”，意思是黑非洲。 编辑本段自然特征 地形 撒哈拉沙漠主要的地形特色包括:浅而季节性泛滥的盆地和大绿洲洼地，高地多石，山脉陡峭，以及遍布沙滩、沙丘和沙海。沙漠中最高点为3,415公尺(11,204呎)的库西(Koussi)山顶，位于查德境内的提贝斯提山脉;最低点为海平面下133公尺(436呎)，在埃及的盖塔拉洼地(Qattara Depression)。 撒哈拉沙漠中埃及的杰迪代附近的流沙 撒哈拉沙漠约在500万年之前就以气候型沙漠形式出现，即在上新世早期(530万,340万年前)。自从那时起，它就一直经历着干、湿情况的变动。 水系 有几条河源自撒哈拉沙漠外，为沙漠内提供了地面水和地下水，并吸收其水系网放出来 的水。尼罗河的主要支流在撒哈拉沙漠汇集，河流沿著沙漠东边缘向北流入地中海;有几条河流入撒哈拉沙漠南面的乍得湖，还有相当数量的水继续流往东北方向重新灌满该地区的蓄水层;尼日河水在几内亚的富塔贾隆地区上涨，流经撒哈拉沙漠西南部然后向南流入海。从阿特拉斯山脉和利比亚、突尼斯、阿尔及利亚以及摩洛哥的沿海高地流入的溪流和干河床(季节性溪流)提供了额外的水量。尤其引人注目的是与提贝提斯山脉相关的干河床、湖泊、池塘组成的综合网络，以及塔西利-恩-阿耶(Tassili-n-Ajjer)和阿哈加尔山脉的类似网络，如塔曼拉基特(Tamanrasset)河。撒哈拉沙漠的沙丘储有相当数量的雨水，沙漠中的各处陡崖有渗水和泉水出现。 土壤 撒哈拉沙漠的土壤有机物含量低，且常常无生物活动，尽管在某些地区有固氮菌。洼地的土壤常含盐。沙漠边缘上的土壤则含有较集中的有机物质。 气候 撒哈拉沙漠气候由信风带的南北转换所控制，常出现许多极端。它有世界上最高的蒸发率，并且有一连好几年没降雨的最大面积纪录。气温在海拔高的地方可达到霜冻和冰冻地步，而在海拔低处可有世界上最热的天气。 撒哈拉沙漠由两种气候情势所主宰:北部是干旱副热带气候，南部是干旱热 撒哈拉大沙漠 带气候。干旱副热带气候的特征是每年和每日的气温变化幅度大，冷至凉爽的冬季和炎热的夏季至最高的降水量。年平均日气温的年幅度约20?(68?)。平均冬季气温为13?(55?)。夏季极热。利比亚的阿济济耶(Al-Aziziyah)最高气温曾达到创纪录的58?(136?)。年降水量为76公釐(3吋)，虽然降雨变化极大，多数降水发生在12,3月期间。另一降水高潮是8月，以雷暴形式为其特征。这种暴雨可导致巨大的暴洪冲入无降雨现象的区域。干旱热带气候的特征是随太阳的位置有一个很强的年气温周期;温和干旱的冬季和炎热干旱的季节之后有个反覆多变夏雨。撒哈拉沙漠干旱热带区域年平均日温差为17.5?(31.5?)。最冷月份平均温度与北部副热带地区基本相同，有的时候日温差特别大，在北非的黎波里以南的一个气象测站，于1978年12月25日曾有白天最热达37.2?，而晚上降至最低温-0.6?的，日温差达37.8?，真是可用「朝穿皮袄午穿纱」来形容，正可谓白天烈焰，晚上冰寒刺骨(虽然-0.6?并不冷，但是温差达到了37.8?，从酷热到酷冷之间的瞬间转换，其冷便可想而知)，至春末夏初很热，50?(122?)的高温并不稀罕。虽然干旱热带山丘的降水量全年都很小，低地的夏季一次雨量可达最高。在北部，这类降雨多数都是以雷暴方式发生。年降水量平均约125公釐(5吋)，中部山丘有时降雪。沙漠西边缘的冷加那利洋流降低了气温，从而减少了对流雨，但湿度加大还时而出现雾。撒哈拉沙漠南部的冬季是吹哈麦丹风期，这是带沙和其他小尘粒的干燥东北风。 植物 撒哈拉沙漠植被整体来说是稀少的，高地、绿洲洼地和干河床四周散布有成片的青草、灌木和树。在含盐洼地发现有盐土植物(耐盐植物)。在缺水的平原和撒哈拉沙漠的高原有某些耐热耐旱的青草、草本植物、小灌木和树。 撒哈拉沙漠植物(31张) 撒哈拉沙漠高地残遗木本植物中重要的有油橄榄、柏和玛树。高地和沙漠的其他地方还发现的木本植物有金合欢属和蒿属(Artemisia)植物、埃及姜果棕、夹竹桃、海枣和百里香。西海岸地带有盐土植物诸如柽柳(Tamarix senegalensis)。草类在撒哈拉沙漠则广泛分布，包括下列品种:三芒草属(Aristida)、画眉草属(Eragrostis)和稷属(Panicum)。大西洋沿岸则有马伴草(Aeluropus littoralis)和其他盐生草。各种短生植物组合构成重要的季节性草场，称作短生植被区。 动物 撒哈拉沙漠北部的残遗热带动物群有热带鮎和丽鱼类，均发现于阿尔及利亚的比斯克拉(Biskra)和撒哈拉沙漠中的孤立绿洲;眼镜蛇和小鳄鱼可能仍生存在遥远的提贝斯提山脉的河流盆地中。 撒哈拉沙漠西部萨乌拉河上的凯尔札兹绿洲 撒哈拉沙漠的哺乳动物种类有沙鼠、跳鼠、开普野兔和荒漠刺猬;柏柏里绵羊和镰刀形角大羚羊、多加斯羚羊、达马鹿和努比亚野驴;安努比斯狒狒、斑鬣狗、一般的胡狼和沙狐;利比亚白颈鼬和细长的獴。撒哈拉沙漠鸟类超过300种，包括不迁徙鸟和候鸟。沿海地带和内地水道吸引了许多种类的水禽和滨鸟。内地的鸟类有鸵鸟、各种攫禽、鹭鹰、珠鸡和努比亚鸨、沙漠雕鴞、仓鴞、沙云雀和灰岩燕以及棕色颈和扇尾的渡鸦。 蛙、蟾蜍和鳄生活在撒哈拉沙漠的湖池中。蜥蜴、避役、石龙子类动物以及眼镜蛇出没在岩石和沙坑之中。撒哈拉沙漠的湖、池中有藻类、咸水虾和其他甲壳动物。生活在沙漠中的蜗牛是鸟类和动物的重要食物来源。沙漠蜗牛通过夏眠之后存活下来，在由降雨唤醒它们之前它们会几年保持不活动。 编辑本段形成原因 (1)北非位于北回归线两侧，常年受副热带高气压带控制，盛行干热的下沉气流，且非洲大陆南窄北宽，受副热带高压带控制的范围大，干热面积广。 (2)北非与亚洲大陆紧邻，东北信风从东部陆地吹来，不易形成降水，使北非更加干燥。 (3)北非海岸线平直，东侧有埃塞俄比亚高原，对湿润气流起阻挡作用，使广大内陆地区受不到海洋的影响。 (4)北非西岸有加那利寒流经过，对西部沿海地区起到降温减湿作用，使沙漠逼近西海岸。 (5)北非地形单一，地势平坦，起伏不大，气候单一，形成大面积的沙漠地区。 编辑本段历史发展 依据撒哈拉沙漠里的岩画内容，可划分它们为几个时期: 史前时期 史前时期在更新世的前后。撒哈拉当时并未很干燥，而是广阔的河流冲积平原。这阶段没有发现人类活动迹象，因此取名史前，北非当时有岩画图像。 水牛时期 水牛时期约从3万5千年前至公元前8000年左右。其岩画主要在阿尔及利亚东南部、乍得和利比亚。它们约画于公元前10000年至公元前8000年之间，使用目前已在当地绝迹的动物奶汁混合颜料画在岩石上。这些动物包括水牛、象、河马和犀牛。画中人物经常戴著圆型盔帽，使用棍棒、斧头、弓箭，并投掷棍棒击打猎物，但未见标枪。 黄牛时期 黄牛时期约从公元前7500年至公元前4000年左右。当地居民开始从事游牧生活，放牧牛、羊。曾经发现陶器和新石器时代经过打磨加工的石斧、石磨和箭头，及一些打猎用的弓箭。放牧的动物是从亚洲引进。后期并发现一些能聚集较多人和牲畜的村落遗迹。 马时期 马时期约从公元前3000年到公元前700年左右。这时期有迹象已引进了马、骆驼和奶牛，并从事大规模农业。从腓尼基人学会使用和锻造铁器，可能在公元前1220年前后。腓尼基人其时在当地建立了横跨整个撒哈拉到埃及的大帝国联盟。 从公元前2500年开始，撒哈拉已经变成和目前状态一样的大沙漠，成为当时人类无法逾越的障碍，仅仅在绿洲有一些居民，商业往来很少能穿越沙漠。只有尼罗河谷是一个例外，由于有充分的水源，这里成为植物生长繁茂的区域，也成为人类文明的发源地之一。但是尼罗河有几个无法通航的大瀑布，也为商业贸易造成很大的障碍。不过埃及还是能够通过这里将铁器技术，也许还有帝王的观念传播到南方的努比亚以及更靠南的地方。 到了公元前500年时，古希腊和腓尼基人开始对这一地区产生影响，希腊商人顺着沙漠东部的边缘地带开发商机，在红海沿岸建立了许多商业殖民地。迦太基则沿着大西洋沿岸在沙漠西部开发，但是由于大西洋风波险恶，也没有充分的市场，所以他们的探索从没有超过现在摩洛哥所在的范围。中央集权的国家只分布在沙漠的北部和东部边缘，他们的权力达不到沙漠腹地，所以这些生活在沙漠边缘的人经常受到在沙漠中游牧的柏柏尔人的袭击。 撒哈拉沙漠历史上最大的变化来源于入侵的阿拉伯人带来的骆驼，它们使贸易往来可以穿越沙漠，北方地中海沿岸的酋长们将马匹和工艺品运到南方，南方的萨赫尔王国由于出口黄金和盐而变得富裕强大。沙漠中的绿洲成为商业中心，逐渐被北方的酋长们控制起来了。 这种状态持续了几个世纪，直到欧洲人发明了大帆船，首先是葡萄牙人绕过撒哈拉去掠取几内亚的资源，然后其他欧洲国家也紧跟其后，撒哈拉很快就失去商业价值。 虽然殖民者们忽视了撒哈拉沙漠的价值，但现代却发现很多有价值的矿藏，包括阿尔及利亚和利比亚的油气资源，摩洛哥和西撒哈拉的磷矿。 从50万年前开始，就有人类在撒哈拉沙漠边缘生活。在上一个冰河时期，撒哈拉还不是一个沙漠，气候类似于现在的东非，在沙漠地带发现了大约有3万幅古代的岩画，其中有一半左右在阿尔及利亚南部的恩阿杰尔高原，描绘的都是河流中的动物，如鳄鱼等。同时也发现过恐龙的化石。但现在的撒哈拉自从公元前3000年起，除了尼罗河谷和分散在沙漠中的绿洲附近，已经几乎没有大面积的植被存在了。 现在还有大约250万人生活在撒哈拉范围内，主要分布在毛里塔尼亚、摩洛哥和阿尔及利亚，有属于阿拉伯语系的柏柏尔人，图阿雷格人，撒哈威人和摩尔人;以及一些黑人种族，如图布人，努比亚人，萨哈威人和卡努里人。在撒哈拉范围内最大的城市是毛里塔尼亚的首都努瓦克肖特，此外比较重要的还有阿尔及利亚的塔曼腊塞特，马里的廷巴克图，尼日尔的 阿加德兹，利比亚的加特和乍得的法雅。 编辑本段地貌类型 撒哈拉沙漠(19张) 撒哈拉沙漠干旱地貌类型多种多样。由石漠(岩漠)、砾漠和沙漠组成。石漠多分布在撒哈拉中部和东部地势较高的地区,尼罗河以东的努比亚沙漠主要也是石漠。砾漠多见于石漠与沙漠之间,主要分布在利比亚沙漠的石质地区、阿特拉斯山、库西山等山前冲积扇地带。沙漠的面积最为广阔,除少数较高的山地、高原外,到处都有大面积分布。 编辑本段组成部分 著名的有利比亚沙漠、赖卜亚奈沙漠、奥巴里沙漠、阿尔及利亚的东部大沙漠和西部大沙漠、舍什沙漠、朱夫沙漠、阿瓦纳沙漠、比尔马沙漠等。面积较大的称为“沙海”,沙海由复杂而有规则的大小沙丘排列而成,形态复杂多样,有高大的固定沙丘,有较低的流动沙丘,还有大面积的固定、半固定沙丘。固定沙丘主要分布在偏南靠近草原地带和大西洋沿岸地带。从利比亚往西直到阿尔及利亚的西部是流沙区。流动沙丘顺风向不断移动。在撒哈拉沙漠曾观测到流动沙丘一年移动9米的记录。 编辑本段环境气候 撒哈拉地区地广人稀,平均每平方公里不足1人。以阿拉伯人为主,其次是柏柏尔人等。居民和农业生产主要分布在尼罗河谷地和绿洲,部分以游牧为主。20世纪50年代以来,沙漠中陆续发现丰富的石油、天然气、铀、铁、锰、磷酸盐等矿。随着矿产资源的大规模开采,改变了该地区一些国家的经济面貌,如利比亚、阿尔及利亚已成为世界主要石油生产国,尼日尔成为著名产油国。沙漠中也出现了公路网、航空线和新的居民点。 撒哈拉沙漠气候炎热干燥。然而,令人迷惑不懈的是:在这极端干旱缺水、土地龟裂、植物稀少的矿地,竟然曾经有过繁荣昌盛的远古文明。沙漠上许多绮丽多姿的大型壁画,就是这远古文明的结晶。 编辑本段居民 虽然撒哈拉沙漠(不包括尼罗河谷)大如美国，但是它的居民估计只有250万，每平方公里还不到0.4人。偌大的面积空无一人，但是只要瘦瘠的植被能供养牲畜，或有可靠的水源，散落的人群便会在这世界上最艰困的环境中和岌岌可危的生态环境下生存下去。 考古学上，已陆陆续续有形形色色的人在撒哈拉沙漠定居，动植物的培育驯养导致职业的专门化。对外贸易也发展了，模里西斯的铜在西元前2000年就找到其出路进入地中海的青铜器时代文明。 游牧民的大迁徙方便了他们卷入全撒哈拉沙漠的贸易。撒哈拉沙漠中的绿洲居民易遭桑哈亚人(柏柏尔族)和其他骑骆驼游牧民的袭击，他们之中有许多人是为了逃避北非古罗马末期的混乱和战祸而进入沙漠。许多馀下的绿洲居民，其中有哈拉廷人(Haratin)，被游牧民所征服。7,11世纪期间伊斯兰教扩张至北非激起了更多的柏柏尔人和极欲保持传统信仰的阿拉伯群体迁入撒哈拉沙漠。伊斯兰教最终透过贸易路线扩张，成为沙漠中主要的社会势力。 尽管有相当大的文化差异，人们还是倾向将撒哈拉沙漠的人归类为牧人、定居的农夫或 专业人员(诸如铁匠、牧工和耕作者)。图阿雷格人(他们自称为塔马什克〔Kel Tamasheq〕人)以好战和狂热的独立性闻名。他们虽然是伊斯兰教徒，但保留女族长的组织，且图阿雷格妇女享有不同寻常的自由。西面的摩尔人集团原先拥有强有力的部落联盟。提贝斯提及其南部边境的特达人(Teda)主要是骆驼牧人，以独立性和吃苦耐劳而著称。 在沙漠范围之内，固定职业限制在绿洲中，这里的灌溉情况允许有限地种植海枣、石榴及其他果树;谷物诸如黍类、大麦、小麦、蔬菜;及诸如散沫花这种特殊作物。水源严重限制了绿洲的拓展，在有些地方，水的过量使用已使水位严重下降，茅利塔尼亚的阿德拉尔(Adrar)区绿洲的情况即是如此。严重的蒸发而造成土壤的盐化和被侵蚀沙所埋是又一种危害;后者如阿尔及利亚苏夫(Souf)绿洲情况，需不断用人工清除。 编辑本段经济 (1)资源。在殖民统治撒哈拉沙漠期间，殖民当局对这块看似没有希望的地区的经济发展毫无兴趣。但第二次世界大战之后，尤其在发现了石油之后，此地引起了国际的兴趣和投资。 金属矿物在经济上相当重要。阿尔及利亚拥有几个很大的铁矿，茅利塔尼亚西部的伊吉尔山(Mount Ijill)的储存量也相当可观;埃及、突尼斯、摩洛哥、西撒哈拉沙漠和尼日的存储量略逊。毛里塔尼亚西南部阿克茹特(Akjoujt)附近埋有相当数量的铜矿石，阿尔及利亚贝沙尔(Bechar)南面有大量的锰矿。铀则广泛分布在撒哈拉沙漠，尤其尼日的极为重要。摩洛哥和西撒哈拉沙漠有极丰富的磷酸盐。 燃料资源包括煤、石油和天然气。煤的来源有摩洛哥的无烟煤层和靠近贝沙尔的烟煤田。第二次世界大战后，随著在阿尔及利亚的因萨拉赫(I-n-Salah)发现石油，在埃及的沙漠西部、利比亚的东北部、阿尔及利亚的东北部都发现丰富的储藏量。突尼西亚和摩洛哥的储藏量则少些，查德和尼日的储量也不多。在撒哈拉也发现了油页岩。阿尔及利亚的大天然气田已开采，埃及、利比亚和突尼西亚也有小一些的天然气田。 但是沙漠的经济发展极为困难，对传统的撒哈拉沙漠几乎未有所改变。 沙漠人民从采矿中几乎一无所得，也许还适得其反。游牧生活的衰落始于安抚政策，随著经济状况的改变和正式的定居政策的实行(因为游牧生活管理起来不便)，更加快这种衰落。普遍的环境情况不佳进一步鼓励游牧民流入绿洲和城镇，从而产生过分拥挤和贫穷。油田里的高工资吸引著劳工，但传统的生活受到破坏，何况工作机会不多且又并非永久性。沙漠传统产品(诸如兽皮和羊毛，过剩的水果、盐)中只有海枣，尤其是北部绿洲的海枣，在商业上尚能维持其重要地位。盐虽然仍在提炼并送往南面苏丹西部区域，现在却要与廉价的进口盐竞争。1950年以来，旅游业有相当的发展，但是由于交通和提供膳宿的困难也只能限制在撒哈拉沙漠的边缘地带。 (2)交通运输。撒哈拉沙漠，传统上都是通过骆驼队，缓慢、艰苦，也很危险。需冒迷路、过热、窒息人的沙暴以及饿死、渴死等危险，再加上还可能遭到打劫。尽管有这麼多危险、困难，沿著连接绿洲的商队路线的泛撒哈拉沙漠贸易从很早时候起就一直延续了下来。主要的路线大多在提贝斯提山脉的西面，其中最东面的从查德河向北至比尔马(Bilma,今尼日境内)，通过费赞(Fezzan)区至的黎波里(Tripoli)，是多少世纪来一直在使用的路线。提贝提斯山脉东面几乎没有绿洲，但是尼罗河西面的“四十〔天〕路”(darb al-arbain)原先是运奴隶的路线。黄金、象牙、奴隶和盐是早期贸易的主要项目，但是今日，骆驼商队多半都已停业，只有从伊吉尔、比尔马和马利的陶代尼(Taoudenni)来的残留的盐生意仍使用骆驼队。但是主要的路线仍在使用，只是改由特别装备的机动车行驶，并且常常有护卫队护送。年复一年，现代的公路沿著沙漠中的古代贸易路线进一步延伸。法国首先创办了泛撒哈拉沙漠公共汽车服务，至今仍在运行。主路线外有一个认可的卡车网可行驶汽车，当然必须小心翼翼地驾驶;但是在这开阔的沙漠里四轮驱动是真正必需的，至少要有两辆车子、足够的零件和大量的发 生意外事故时的供应品，燃料、食物和水——尤其在夏季，所有的特别规定对所有旅游者都适用。在大的地区，地图是不够的，导航才是必需的。 许多跨越撒哈拉沙漠的国际航空公司的定期航班辅助了地面旅游的不足，当地的航空公司联结各主要居住中心。铁路自从在阿巴德莱(Abadla,阿尔及利亚的贝沙尔附近)“泛撒哈拉沙漠”被弃而不用之后，很少有发展，只建了一条线来运输毛利塔尼亚的矿物。 编辑本段研究和探索 古代描绘撒哈拉沙漠的记录与今日所见雷同——一个广阔无垠的可怕障碍物。埃及人只控制他们邻近的绿洲，有时也控制南面的土地;迦太基人显然延续了早在青铜时代就建立起来的与内地的商业关系。罗马人对撒哈拉沙漠感兴趣在西元前19年至西元86年的探险文献中已有记载。地理勘探在中世纪一直持续进行。 中世纪的旅游者怀著宗教和商业动机对进一步了解撒哈拉沙漠及其人民作出贡献。 撒哈拉沙漠发现远古部落罕见墓葬群 接下来的欧洲人对撒哈拉沙漠的认真探索始于19世纪，很多是始于偶然对非洲内地的主要水道发生兴趣。为了试图决定尼日河的走向，英国探险家里奇(Joseph Ritchie)和里昂(George Francis Lyon)于1819年来到费赞区，1822年英国探险家德纳姆(Dixon Denham)、克拉珀顿(Hugh Clapperton)和奥德莱(Walter Oudney)接连越过这个沙漠从而发现了查德湖。苏格兰探险家莱恩(Alexander Gordon Laing)穿过撒哈拉沙漠，于1826年抵达传说中的城市廷巴克图，但是在他回来之前却在那里被人杀害了。法国探险家卡耶(Rene Caillie)乔装成一个阿拉伯人，于1828年从南部越过撒哈拉沙漠到北部访问了廷巴克图后生还。其他著名的探险由下列各人完成:德国地理学家巴尔特(Heinrich Barth,1849,1855)，法国探险家杜韦里埃(Henri Duveyrier,1859,1862)和德国探险家纳赫蒂加尔(Gustav Nachtigal,1869,1875)以及罗尔夫斯(Gerhard Rohlfs,1862,1878)。 自从欧洲各殖民国家军事占领撒哈拉沙漠之后，进行了更详尽的探险，至19世纪末，已经掌握了沙漠的主要特点。虽然20世纪政治、商业和科学等活动极大地增加了对撒哈拉沙漠的认识，但是无垠的地带仍很遥远，知之甚少，难以抵达。 编辑本段撒哈拉沙漠岩画 撒哈拉沙漠岩画(17张) 岩画的发现 1850年,德国探险家巴尔斯来到撒哈拉沙漠进行考察,无意中发现岩壁上刻有鸵鸟、水牛及各式各样的人物像。1933年,法国骑兵队来到撒哈拉沙漠,偶然在沙漠中部塔西利台、恩阿哲尔高原上发现了长达数公里的壁画群,全绘在受水侵蚀而形成的岩阴上,五颜六色,色彩雅致、调和,刻画出了远古人们生活的情景。 壁画群中动物形象颇多,千姿百态,各具特色。动物受惊后四蹄腾空、势若飞行、到处狂奔的紧张场面,形象栩栩如生,创作技艺非常卓越,可以与同时代的任何国家杰出的壁画艺术作品相媲美。从这些动物图像可以相当可靠地推想出古代撒哈拉地区的自然面貌。如一些壁画上有有划着独木舟捕猎河马,这说明撒哈拉曾有过水流不绝的江河。 人们不仅对这些壁画的绘制年代难以稽考,而且对壁画中那些奇怪形状的形象也茫然无知,成为人类文明史上的一个谜。 岩画的几个阶段 根据在撒哈拉沙漠发现的岩画，可以将这些不同的岩画分为几个阶段: 1.水牛时期，大约从3万5千年以前至公元前8000年左右，这时期的岩画大约产生于公元前10000年至公元前8000年时期，是用一些目前已经在当地绝迹的动物奶汁混合颜料画在岩石上的，这些动物包括有水牛、象、河马和犀牛，画中的人物使用棍棒、斧头、弓箭和用棍棒甩出去击打猎物，但没有见到标枪，他们经常戴有圆形的盔帽。这些岩画主要分布在阿尔及利亚的东南部，以及乍得和利比亚境内。 2.黄牛时期，大约从公元前7500年至公元前4000年左右。这一时期当地居民开始从事游牧生活，放牧牛羊，曾经发现有陶器和新石器时代经过打磨加工的石斧、石磨和箭头，也有一些打猎用的弓箭。放牧的动物是从亚洲引进的。后期也发现一些可以聚集较多的人和牲畜的村落遗迹。 3.马时期，大约为公元前3000年到公元前700年左右。这一时期已经有迹象表明当地引进了马、骆驼和奶牛，并从事大规模的农业。可能在公元前1220年前后从腓尼基人那里学会了使用和锻造铁器。当地建立了横跨整个撒哈拉直到埃及的大帝国联盟。 编辑本段穿越撒哈拉沙漠 长久以来，撒哈拉沙漠犹如天险阻碍着旅行者的深入探险。时至今日，几条穿越大漠的路线相继开通，使冒险家们的梦想成真。沙漠中的旅行是对人的体力与智力的挑战，但却奇异而刺激:游走漫漫大漠，远离城市的喧嚣。是世界10大奇异之旅之一。 撒哈拉沙漠动物(20张) 起点始于突尼斯或摩洛哥。在深入大漠之前，可先游览古老的城市，随后乘坐专门的车辆，融入旅行队，浩浩荡荡地启程。穿越起伏的沙丘，走访原始的非洲部落，在绿洲集市上寻宝。行程日期可作调整，但基本在三周以上，有的可延续两个月。花费:2500至4000美元。 中国人首次参加穿越撒哈拉沙漠行动 中英撒哈拉沙漠环境科学考察队于2001年10月14日从中国新疆自治区乌鲁木齐市出发，考察队中有一名中方成员，这是中国人首次参加穿越撒哈拉沙漠行动。 这次探险性的科学考察是为了纪念第一个穿越撒哈拉沙漠的英国探险家汉斯?威斯切穿越该沙漠一百年，同时要唤起全球对世界珍稀动物野双峰驼的关注。 考察队由中方一人、英方两人及美国地理杂志社五人组成。成员包括英国野骆驼保护基金会创始人简?海尔博士，中国生态学会理事、新疆环境保护科学研究所研究员袁国映代表中方参加这次考察。 考察队于十月下旬从中非尼日利亚大西洋海滨向北穿越二千四百公里的撒哈拉沙漠，沿古驼道到北非利比亚的黎波里地中海边，全程三千公里，计划用三个月时间完成。考察队还将把撒哈拉沙漠与世界第二大流动性沙漠——塔克拉玛干沙漠进行对比，研究两者的沙漠类型、特点、动植物种类及分布区别等。 编辑本段数千年前陨石坑 研究人员在使用谷歌地图时，无意间在埃及撒哈拉沙漠发现了一个迄今保存最完好的陨石坑，虽历经数千年，撞击的痕迹仍清晰可见。 据美国《国家地理杂志》网站报道，今年2月，一个由埃及和意大利的专家组成的研究小组在使用谷歌地球时意 沙哈拉沙漠千年陨石撞痕图 外发现了位于撒哈拉沙漠偏远地区的巨大陨石坑。近日，研究小组抵达陨石坑现场。经测量，陨石坑的最宽处达45米，最深处距离地面16米。基于以上数据，研究人员估测，撞击地球的流星重约5000至10000公斤，直径仅有1.3米，但坠落速度超过每秒3.5公里。 最令研究人员惊讶的是，陨石坑还保留着原始的面貌。一般来说，陨石坑在大自然的“破坏”下都会逐渐受到侵蚀或直接被掩埋，但是该陨石坑撞击的痕迹仍清晰可见。这一不寻常的现象常见于大气稀薄的其他星体，比如月球，而非人类居住的地球。 研究人员估计，这个陨石坑形成于数千年前，可能是迄今保存最完好的陨石坑之一。 词条图册更多图册 撒哈拉沙漠植物(31张) 撒哈拉沙漠(19张) 撒哈拉沙漠岩画(17张) 撒哈拉沙漠动物(20张) (英文版 ) Two regulations promulgated for implementation is in the party in power for a long time and the rule of law conditions, the implementation of comprehensive strictly strategic plan, implementation in accordance with the rules and discipline to manage the party, strengthen inner-party supervision of major initiatives. The two regulations supporting each other, the < code > adhere to a positive advocate, focusing on morality is of Party members and Party leading cadres can see, enough to get a high standard; < rule > around the party discipline, disciplinary ruler requirements, listed as "negative list, focusing on vertical gauge, draw the party organizations and Party members do not touch the" bottom line ". Here, the main from four square face two party rules of interpretation: the first part introduces two party Revised regulations the necessity and the revision process; the second part is the interpretation of the two fundamental principles of the revision of laws and regulations in the party; the third part introduces two party regulations modified the main changes and needs to grasp several key problems; the fourth part on how to grasp the implementation of the two regulations of the party. < code > and < Regulations > revised the necessity and revised history of the CPC Central Committee the amendment to the Chinese Communist Party members and leading cadres honest politics several guidelines > and < Chinese Communist Party discipline and Punishment Regulations > column 1 by 2015 to strengthen party laws and regulations focus. Two party regulations revision work lasted a Years, pooling the wisdom of the whole party, ideological consensus, draw historical experience, respect for the wisdom of our predecessors, which reflects the unity of inheritance and innovation; follow the correct direction, grasp the limited goals, adhere to the party's leadership, to solve the masses of the people reflect a focus on the problem. The new revision of the < code > and < rule >, reflects the party's 18 and the eighth session of the third, the spirit of the fourth plenary session, reflecting the experience of studying and implementing the General Secretary Xi Jinping series of important speech, reflects the party's eighteen years comprehensive strictly practice. (a) revised two regulations of the party need of < the ICAC guidelines > in < in 1997 Leaders as members of the Communist Party of China clean politics certain criteria (Trial) > based on revised, the promulgation and implementation of January 2010, to strengthen the construction of the contingent of leading cadres play an important role. But with the party to manage the party strictly administering the deepening, has not been able to fully meet the actual needs. Content is too complicated, "eight prohibition, 52 are not allowed to" hard to remember, and also difficult to put into practice; the second is concisely positive advocated by the lack of prohibited provisions excessive, no autonomy requirements; the third is banned terms and discipline law, both with the party discipline, disciplinary regulations repeat and Criminal law and other laws and regulations repeat; the fourth is to "clean" the theme is not prominent, not for the existing problems, and is narrow, only needle of county-level leading cadres above. < rule > is in 1997 < Chinese Communist Party disciplinary cases (Trial) > based on revision, in December 2003 the promulgation and implementation, to strengthen the construction of the party play very important role. Along with the development of the situation, which many provisions have been unable to fully meet the comprehensive strictly administering the practice needs. One is Ji law, more than half of the provisions and criminal law and other countries laws and regulations Repetition; two is the political discipline regulations is not prominent, not specific, for violation of the party constitution, damage the authority of Party Constitution of misconduct lack necessary and serious responsibility to pursue; third is the main discipline for the leading cadres, does not cover all Party members. Based on the above situation, need to < the criterion of a clean and honest administration > and < rule > the two is likely to be more relevant regulations first amendment. By revising, really put the authority of Party discipline, the seriousness in the party tree and call up the majority of Party members and cadres of the party constitution of party compasses party consciousness. (II) two party regulations revision process the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China attaches great importance to two regulations revision . Xi Jinping, general books recorded in the Fifth Plenary Session of the eighth session of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, on the revised regulations < > made clear instructions. According to the central deployment, the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection from 2014 under six months begin study two regulations revision. The Standing Committee of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection 4 review revised. Comrade Wang Qishan 14 times held a special meeting to study two regulations revision, amendment clarifies the direction, major issues of principle, path and target, respectively held a forum will listen to part of the province (area) secretary of the Party committee, Secretary of the Discipline Inspection Commission, part of the central ministries and state organs Department The first party committee is mainly responsible for people, views of experts and scholars and grassroots party organizations and Party members. Approved by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, on 7 September 2015, the general office of the Central Committee of the Party issued a notice to solicit the provinces (autonomous regions, municipalities) Party, the central ministries and commissions, state ministries and commissions of the Party (party), the General Political Department of the military, every 3 people organization of Party of two regulations revision opinion. Central Commission for Discipline Inspection of extensive solicitation of opinions, careful study, attracting, formed a revised sent reviewers. In October 8 and October 12, Central Committee Political Bureau Standing Committee and the Political Bureau of the Central Committee After consideration of the two regulations revised draft. On October 18, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China formally issued two regulations. Can say, two laws amendment concentrated the wisdom of the whole party, embodies the party. Second, < code > and < Regulations > revision of the basic principles of two party regulations revision work and implement the party's eighteen, ten eight plenary, the spirit of the Fourth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee and General Secretary Xi Jinping important instructions on the revised < low political criterion > and < Regulations >, highlighting the ruling party characteristics, serious discipline, the discipline quite in front of the law, based on the current, a long-term, advance as a whole, with Bu Xiuding independent < rule > and < rule >. Main principle is: first, adhere to the party constitution to follow. The constitution about discipline and self-discipline required specific, awaken the party constitution of party compasses party consciousness, maintaining the authority of the constitution. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out that "no rules, no side round. Party constitution is the fundamental law, the party must follow the general rules. In early 2015 held the eighth session of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection Fifth Plenary Session of the 16th Central Committee, Xi Jinping again pointed out that constitution is the party must follow the general rules, but also the general rules." the revision of the < code > and < rule > is Method in adhere to the regulations established for the purpose of combining rule of virtue is to adhere to the party constitution as a fundamental to follow, the constitution authority set up, wake up the party constitution and party rules the sense of discipline, the party constitution about discipline and self-discipline specific requirements. 4 second is to adhere to in accordance with the regulations governing the party and the party. The Party of rule of virtue "de", mainly refers to the party's ideals and beliefs, excellent traditional style. The revised the < code > closely linked to the "self-discipline", insisting on the positive initiative, for all members, highlight the "vital few", emphasized self-discipline, focusing on the morality, and the majority of Party members and the ideological and moral standards. The revised < > Ji method separately, Ji, Ji Yan to Method, as a "negative list", emphasizing the heteronomy, focusing on vertical gauge. Is this one high and one low, a positive reaction, the strict party discipline and practice results transformation for the integration of the whole party to observe moral and discipline requirements, for the majority of Party members and cadres provides benchmarking and ruler. Third, insist on to. In view of the problems existing in the party at the present stage, the main problems of Party members and cadres in the aspect of self-discipline and abide by the discipline to make clearly defined, especially the party's eighteen years strict political discipline and political rules, organization and discipline and to implement the central eight provisions of the spirit against the four winds and other requirements into Disciplinary provisions. Not one pace reachs the designated position, focusing on in line with reality, pragmatic and effective. After the revision of major changes, major changes in the < code > and < rule > modified and needs to grasp several key problems (a) < code > < code > adhere to according to regulations governing the party and party with morals in combination, for at the present stage, the leadership of the party members and cadres and Party members in existing main problems of self-discipline, put forward principles, requirements and specifications, showing Communists noble moral pursuit, reflected at all times and in all over the world ethics from high from low 5 common requirements. One is closely linked to the "self-discipline", removal and no direct relation to the provisions of . the second is adhere to a positive advocate, "eight prohibition" 52 are not allowed to "about the content of the" negative list moved into synchronization amendment < cases >. Three is for all the party members, will apply object from the leadership of the party members and cadres to expand to all Party members, fully embodies the comprehensive strictly required. The fourth is prominent key minority, seize the leadership of the party members and cadres is the key, and put forward higher requirements than the ordinary Party members. Five is to simplify, and strive to achieve concise, easy to understand, easy to remember. The revised < code > is the ruling Party since the first insists on a positive advocate forAll Party members and the self-discipline norms, moral declaration issued to all members of the party and the National People's solemn commitment. > < criterion of a clean and honest administration consists of 4 parts, 18, more than 3600 words. After the revision of the < code >, a total of eight, 281 words, including lead, specification and Party member cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms, etc. Part 3 members low-cost clean and self-discipline, the main contents can be summarized as "four must" "eight code". Lead part, reiterated on ideal and faith, fundamental purpose, the fine traditions and work style, noble sentiments, such as "four must" the principle of requirements, strong tone of self-discipline, The higher request for 6 and supervised tenet, the foothold in permanent Bao the party's advanced nature and purity, to reflect the revised standards requirements. Members of self-discipline norms around the party members how to correctly treat and deal with the "public and private", "cheap and rot" thrifty and extravagance "bitter music", put forward the "four norms". Party leader cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms for the leadership of the party members and cadres of the "vital few", around the "clean politics", from civil servant of the color, the exercise of power, moral integrity, a good family tradition and other aspects of the leadership of the party members and cadres of the "four norms" < > < norm norm. "The Party member's self-discipline norms" and "party members and leading cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms," a total of eight, collectively referred to as the "eight". "Four must" and "eight" of the content from the party constitution and Party's several generation of leaders, especially Xi Jinping, general secretary of the important discussion, refer to the "three discipline and eight points for attention" statements, and reference some embody the Chinese nation excellent traditional culture essence of epigrams. (2) the revised regulations, the main changes in the revised Regulations > to fully adapt to the strictly requirements, reflects the according to the regulations governing the law of recognition of deepening, the realization of the discipline construction and Jin Ju. < rule > is party a ruler, members of the basic line and follow. And the majority of Party members and cadres of Party organizations at all levels should adhere to the bottom line of thinking, fear discipline, hold the bottom line, as a preventive measure, to keep the party's advanced nature and purity. 1, respect for the constitution, refinement and discipline. Revised < rule > from comprehensive comb physical constitution began, the party constitution and other regulations of the Party of Party organizations and Party discipline requirements refinement, clearly defined in violation of the party constitution will be in accordance with regulations to give the corresponding disciplinary action. The original 10 categories of misconduct, integration specification for political discipline, discipline, honesty and discipline masses Ji Law and discipline and discipline and other six categories, the content of < rule > real return to Party discipline, for the majority of Party members and listed a "negative list. 7 2, highlighting the political discipline and political rules. > < Regulations according to the stage of the discipline of outstanding performance, emphasizing political discipline and political rules, organization and discipline, in opposition to the party's leadership and the party's basic theory, basic line, basic program and basic experience, the basic requirement of behavior made prescribed punishment, increase the cliques, against the organization such as violation of the provisions, to ensure that the central government decrees and the Party of centralized and unified. 3, adhere to strict discipline in the law and discipline In front, Ji separated. Revised < Regulations > adhere to the problem oriented, do Ji separated. Any national law existing content, will not repeat the provisions, the total removal of 79 and criminal law, repeat the content of the public security management punishment law, and other laws and regulations. In the general reiterated that party organizations and Party members must conscientiously accept the party's discipline, die van comply with national laws and regulations; at the same time, to investigate violations of Party members and even criminal behavior of Party discipline and responsibility, > < Regulations distinguish five different conditions, with special provisions were made provisions, so as to realize the connection of Party discipline and state law. 4, reflect Wind building and anti-corruption struggle of the latest achievements. < rule > the party's eighteen years implement the spirit of the central provisions of the eight, against the requirements of the "four winds" and transformation for disciplinary provisions, reflecting the style construction is always on the road, not a gust of wind. In the fight against corruption out of new problems, increase the trading rights, the use of authority relatives profit and other disciplinary terms. Prominent discipline of the masses, the new against the interests of the masses and ignore the demands of the masses and other disciplinary terms and make provisions of the disposition and the destruction of the party's close ties with the masses. Discipline to protect the party's purpose. 8 of these regulations, a total of three series, Chapter 15, 178, more than 24000 words, after the revision of the regulations a total of 3 series, Chapter 11, 133, 17000 words, divided into "general" and "special provisions" and "Supplementary Provisions" Part 3. Among them, add, delete, modify the provisions of the proportion of up to nearly 90%. 1, the general general is divided into five chapters. The first chapter to the regulations of the guiding ideology, principles and scope of application of the provisions, highlight the strengthening of the party constitution consciousness, maintenance the authority of Party Constitution, increase the party organizations and Party members must abide by the party constitution, Yan Centralized centralized, would examine at all levels of the amended provisions implementing and maintaining Party discipline, and consciously accept the party discipline, exemplary compliance with national laws and regulations. The second chapter of discipline concept, disciplinary action types and effects of the regulations, will be a serious warning from the original a year for a year and a half; increase the Party Congress representative, by leaving the party above (including leave probation) punishment, the party organization should be terminated its representative qualification provisions. The third chapter of the disciplinary rules of use prescribed in the discipline rectifying process, non convergence, not close hand classified as severely or heavier punishment. "Discipline straighten "At least eighteen years of five years, these five years is to pay close attention to the provisions of the central eight implementation and anti -" four winds ". The fourth chapter on suspicion of illegal party disciplinary distinguish five different conditions, with special provisions were made provisions, to achieve effective convergence of Party and country 9 method. < rule > the provisions of Article 27, Party organizations in the disciplinary review found that party members have committed embezzlement, bribery, dereliction of duty dereliction of duty and other criminal law act is suspected of committing a crime shall give cancel party posts, probation or expelled from the party. The second is < Regulations > Article 28 the provisions of Party organizations in the disciplinary review But found that party members are stipulated in the criminal law, although not involved in a crime shall be investigated for Party discipline and responsibility should be depending on the specific circumstances shall be given a warning until expelled punishment. This situation and a difference is that the former regulation behavior has been suspected of a crime, the feeling is quite strict, and the latter for the behavior not involving crime, only the objective performance of the provisions of the criminal code of behavior, but the plot is a crime to slightly. < Regulations > the 29 provisions, Party organizations in the discipline review found that party members and other illegal behavior, affect the party's image, the damage to the party, the state and the people's interests, we should depend on the situation Seriousness given disciplinary action. The loss of Party members, seriously damaging the party's image of behavior, should be given expelled from the party. At this article is party member is in violation of the criminal law outside the other illegal acts, such as violates the public security administration punishment law, customs law, financial laws and regulations behavior. The fourth is < cases > Article 32 stipulates, minor party members and the circumstances of the crime, the people's Procuratorate shall make a decision not to initiate a prosecution, or the people's court shall make a conviction and exempted from criminal punishment shall be given within the party is removed from his post, probation or expelled from the party. Party members and crime, sheets were fined in accordance with For acts; the principal Ordinance amended the provisions of the preceding paragraph. This is the new content, in order to achieve Ji method effective convergence. Five is < > the thirty third article 10 of the provisions, the Party member due to an intentional crime is sentenced to criminal law (including probation) sheets or additional deprivation of political rights; due to negligence crime and was sentenced to three years or more (excluding three years) a penalty, shall give expelled punishment. Due to negligence crime is convicted and sentenced to three years (including three years) in prison or be sentenced to public surveillance, detention, shall in general be expelled from the party. For the individual may not be expelled from the party, should control Approval. This is followed and retained the original > < Regulations the provisions of punishment party authorization rules and report to a level party organizations. For is "party members with criminal acts, and by the criminal punishment, generally should be expelled from the party". The fifth chapter of probationary Party member of the discipline and discipline after missing members of the treatment and punishment decisions, such as the implementation of the provisions, clear the related party discipline and punishment decision made after, for duties, wages and other relevant alteration formalities for the longest time. 2, sub sub section will the original regulations of 10 categories of acts of violation of discipline integration revised into 6 categories, respectively, in violation of the punishments for acts of political discipline "in violation of discipline behavior of punishment" in violation of integrity of disciplinary action points "of violation punishments for acts of mass discipline" "the violation of work discipline, punishment" in violation of discipline of life behavior punishment "6 chapters. 3, annex" Supplementary Provisions "clear authority making supplementary provisions of, cases of interpretative organ, as well as regulations implementation time and retroactivity etc.. 11 (3) learning understanding > < regulations needs to grasp several key problems The first problem -- about the violation of political discipline behavior > < new ordinance chapter 6 the political discipline column for the six disciplines, that is the main opposition to Party leadership and the opposition of the basic theory, basic line, basic program and basic experience, basic requirements of misconduct made provisions of the disposition, especially the eighteen since the CPC Central Committee put forward the Yan Mingzheng treatment of discipline and political rules requirements and practical achievements transformation for Discipline article, increase the false debate central policies, cliques, against the organization review, make no discipline of the principle of harmony terms. These are the party's eighteen years in comprehensive strictly Process combined with the practice of rich content. (1) false debate the central policies and undermine the Party of centralized and unified the problem is made in accordance with the provisions of the party constitution. Constitution in general programme requirements adhere to democratic centralism is one of the requirements of the construction of the party must adhere to the four cardinal. Application of this principle is not only the party the basic organization principle and is also the mass line in party life, it requires that we must fully develop inner-party democracy, respect for the dominant position of Party members, safeguarding the Party member democratic rights, give full play to the enthusiasm and creativity of the party organizations at all levels and Party members, at the same time, also must implement the right concentration, ensure the party's mission < the chaos in unity and concerted action to ensure that the party's decision to get quickly and effectively implementing. The Party Central Committee formulated the major principles and policies, through different channels and ways, fully listen to the party organizations and Party members of the opinions and suggestions, but 12 is some people face to face not to say back blather "" will not say, after the meeting said, "" Taiwan does not say, and nonsense ", in fact, not only disrupt the people thought, some causing serious consequences, the damage to the Party of the centralized and unified, hinder the central policy implementation, but also a serious violation of the democratic system of principles. There is no doubt that shall, in accordance with the Regulations > 4 Specified in Article 6 to give the appropriate punishment. For did not cause serious consequences, to give criticism and education or the corresponding tissue processing. (2) about the destruction of the party's unity < New Regulations > the forty eighth to fifty second article, to damage Party's unity unified and violation of political discipline, punishment situation made explicit provisions. Article 52 of the new "in the party get round group, gangs seek private gain, cliques, cultivate private forces or through the exchange of interests, for their own to create momentum and other activities to gain political capital, given a serious warning or withdraw from their party posts disposition; if the circumstances are serious, to give Leave a party to observation or expelled from the party. (3) on against the organization review of the provisions of the constitution, party loyalty honesty is party members must comply with the obligations. Members must obey the organization decision, shall not violate the organization decided encounters by asking questions to find organization, rely on the organization, shall not deceive the organization, against the organization. For example, after the investigation does not take the initiative to explain the situation, but to engage in offensive and defensive alliance, hiding the stolen money is against survey organization, is a violation of the behavior of political discipline. Article 24 of the original > < Regulations, although the provisions of the interference, hinder group review the behavior of the fabric can be severely or 13 Aggravated punishment, but did not put this kind of behavior alone as a discipline for qualitative amount of discipline. > < new regulations increase the Article 57, "anti organization review, one of the following acts, given a warning or serious warning; if the circumstances are relatively serious, giving removed from or placed on probation within the party post; if the circumstances are serious, give expelled from the party: (a) on supply or forged, destroyed, transfer, conceal evidence; (II) to prevent others expose, providing evidence Material; (III) harboring co personnel; (4) to the organization to provide false information, to hide the fact; (5) the him against the acts of the organization review. "< rule > add this clause to the Constitution requires more specific, the previous no punishment in accordance with the definite list and put forward clear punishment in accordance with. (4) about organizing or participating in superstitious activities as < Regulations > about engage in activities of feudal superstition obstruction of social management order" violations of Article 164 the provisions, but according to the original < rule > only in disrupting production, work, social life order The case to be disciplinary treatment, in other words, alone make the feudal superstition, organize or participate in the activities of feudal superstition of, does not constitute a violation. Which is not consistent with the requirements of our party's political party. > < new regulations in this change is, superstitious activities on the political discipline, increase the Article 58, is the organization of Party members, in superstitious activities included in violation of the negative list of political discipline deserves punishment, which and Party members should adhere to the correct political principle, political standpoint and viewpoint is consistent. 14 the second question about organization and discipline violation behavior of democratic centralism is our The party's fundamental organizational system. < New Regulations > Chapter 7 "in violation of the behavior of organizational discipline punishment" mainly for violation of democratic centralism, contrary to the "four obey the discipline behavior for source classification rules. Increased not in accordance with the relevant provisions or requirements to the organization for instructions to report on major issues; do not report truthfully report about personal matters; falsify personal archives; hide before joining the party serious mistakes; leading cadres in violation of the relevant provisions of the organization, will participate in the spontaneous formation of the old Xiang, Alumni Association, comrades in arms; to obtain illegal country residence abroad or foreign nationality, illegal for private frontier Documents such as discipline terms. (1) on the report truthfully report personal matters in 2010 the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China office, office of the State Council introduced < provisions on issues related to the leading cadres to report personal >, is clear about the request, deputy division level and above leading cadres should truthfully report changes in my marriage and spouse, children, moved to the country (territory), practitioners, income, real estate, investment and other matters, for failing to report, do not report, concealed and unreported, according to the seriousness of the case, giving criticism and education, and to make a correction within a time limit, shall be ordered to make a check, the commandment Jiemian conversation, informed criticism or jobs, free Post processing, constitute violations, in accordance with the relevant provisions shall be given a disciplinary sanction. But since the original < Regulations > and there is no corresponding specific terms, the violation of the regulations, do not report, as a false report about personal matters, there is no corresponding disciplinary action terms, in practice it is difficult to operate. In this regard, in order to solve is not reported, as a false report about personal matters 15 asked censure, the new < Regulations > add the Article 67 of violation of personal matters related to reporting requirements, report truthfully report the clear punishment basis, making this kind of violation behavior is no longer free drilling for Exhibition on matters of personal checks to verify and supervision of cadres, discipline review provides a powerful discipline guarantee. (2) about the illegal organization, to fellow, alumni, friends of the war will < regulations stipulated in Article 68 of >, leading cadres of the party in violation of relevant provisions of the organization, will participate in the spontaneous formation of fellow, Alumni Association, comrade in arms to give the punishment according to the seriousness of the case. Here special needs note is three points: this provision for only the leading cadres ", reflecting the high requirements of leading cadres; second violation in 2002, the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, the central Organization Department and the The relevant provisions of the General Political Department jointly issued the < off in leading cadres not to participate in the initiative to set up "the villagers would be" alumni "" comrades in arms organization notice >. That is to say, to the spontaneous formation of fellow, Alumni Association, comrades in arms will constitute the premise of discipline is a violation of the provisions of this. The notification specified, leading cadres are not allowed to participate in the spontaneous incorporation of fellow, alumni, between comrades association would like the organization and shall not bear the sorority Human and the organizer shall not hold the corresponding position in the sorority; shall not borrow machine woven "network" and engage in kiss sparsely, round and round the gangs, but not "align" "Jieyi Gold Orchid" behavior. The third is to emphasize here that shall be organized to participate in the initiative to set up the villager, Alumni Association, comrades in arms. The so-called 16 spontaneous was established mainly means without registration. Therefore, Party members include leading cadres in the normal range of fellow, alumni, comrades in the party is not a violation of the rules of Party discipline. The three problem about integrity violations discipline Lian Jie discipline has been eighteen years clean government and anti The focus of the work of corruption. This Ordinance to amend, honesty and discipline this biggest adjustment, the new content, most of which prescribed by the original < criterion of a clean and honest administration > 8 ban and 52 are not allowed into the basic this part. (1) the central eight provisions of the spirit and requirements into < New > in the regulations of the party's eighteen years, central resolutely implement the provisions of the eight and pay close attention to the node and intensive briefing, on public funds, private bus, public funds tourism, gifts of public funds, the big parade and lavish weddings and festive, illegal payment allowances and subsidies, illegal construction of buildings such as the original masses reflects the relatively strong, "four winds" problem of the Resolute rectification. But original < Regulations > to eat and drink, super standard reception and no clear and specific expression, new < rule > will implement eight Central provisions of the spirit of the problem increased to "clean cheap self-discipline" chapter, clear to exceed the standard, beyond the scope of the reception or borrow machine eating and drinking etc. some in violation of the provisions of the spirit of the eight central relevant persons responsible for punishment, once the violation will be according to the < rule > severely punished, binding, enhanced significantly. One is to add Article 87, about to obtain illegal, hold, and the actual use of the sports card, golf ball cards and other consumer card. Illegal access to private clubs made the punishment provisions. The second is increase the Article 97, has made provisions of the disposition of illegal self pay or 17 spamming allowances, subsidies and bonuses. The third is added to the Article 99, on violation of super standard, beyond the scope of the reception or borrow machine eat and drink to make the provisions of punishment. The fourth is to increase the Article 101, on the management of conference activities in violation of the provisions made sanctions regulations. The fifth is the increased Article 102, for violation of office space management provisions made the punishment provisions. Six is to split the original < rule > Article 78, formed article 98, Article 100 of public Models of tourism, violate the provisions on the administration of the use of discipline of the bus through the list of made a more detailed provisions, apply more operational. Seven is increased the article 96, in violation of the relevant provisions of the, to participate in public funds to pay for dinner, high consumption of entertainment, fitness activities and public funds to buy gift, send gifts to make the provisions of the disposition. On the violation of the central provisions of the spirit of the eight, in addition to > < new regulations into "violation of honesty and self-discipline" misconduct outside, is different with the original < Regulations >, revised < rule > clearly defined not only to disposition of the directly responsible persons, but also dispose of collar Guide responsibilities. (2) increased trading rights, use of authority or position influence as relatives and close to profit violation of the terms of the < New Regulations > absorption < clean politics several guidelines > the relevant provisions spirit, increase the "negative list, including trading rights, the functions and powers or duties of influence as relatives and staff around profit. Increase Article 81" mutual use of office or authority ring for each other and their spouses, children and their spouses and other relatives, around 18 personnel and other specific relationship between the people to seek benefits engage in trading rights, given a warning or serious warning Sanctions; if the circumstances are relatively serious, giving removed from or placed on probation within the party post; if the circumstances are serious, shall be expelled from the party. Increase Article 82 "connivance, acquiescence to the spouse, children and spouse etc. relatives and staff around the effect of Party members and cadres personal authority or position for personal gain, if the circumstances are relatively minor, given a warning or a serious warning; if the circumstances are relatively serious, giving removed from or placed on probation within the party post; if the circumstances are serious, the given Expelled from the party. Party members and cadres of the spouses, children and their spouses does the actual work and get salary or although the actual work but to receive significantly beyond the same rank salary standard, Party members and cadres informed fails to correct, in accordance with the provisions of the preceding paragraph. "(3) about the gifts, gifts misconduct from handling practices in recent years, engaged in official cadres received gifts, gifts problems more prominent. This has seriously affected the image of Party members and cadres, damaged the relations between the party and the masses, and is a hotbed of corruption, is really necessary for this kind of behavior to be disciplined. < rule > no on accepting gifts, gifts, Card consumption behavior to engage in simple "one size fits all", but the difference between the different separately. One is in accordance with the provisions of Article 83, accepting may affect the impartial enforcement of the official gifts, gifts, consumer cards to depending on the seriousness of the case shall be given disciplinary sanctions. That is to say, for may affect the fair execution of business gifts, gifts, consumer cards are not allowed to accept. 19 is in accordance with the provisions of Article 83, accepting was significantly higher than normal ceremony is still exchanges of gifts, gifts, consumer card to disciplinary action. This is new regulations that daily life is purely reciprocity, accepting the same thing, boys , fellow friends gifts, gifts, shopping cards, although and fair execution of business has nothing to do, also want to as the case shall be dealt with, the situation is obviously beyond normal reciprocity ". The so-called" reciprocity ", one is emphasizes the reciprocal in protocol. In other words is you to me how, I to you how, not only does not go. The second is to significantly exceeded the normal local economy level, customs and habits, economic capacity of individual gifts, gift value. Specific sanctions to according to the processing of a variety of factors to consider, as appropriate. The third is the root according to the provisions of Article 84," to Engaged in public service personnel and their spouses and children, children's spouses and other relatives and other specific relationship presented Ming Xianchao normal reciprocity of gifts, gifts, consumer card, if the circumstances are relatively serious, given a warning until probation. "In accordance with the above provisions, gift giving significantly beyond the normal reciprocity, giver constitute the discipline. (4) on illegal trading of stocks or of other regulations of securities investment < > Article 88 is engaged in punishment regulation of camp and activity in violation of the relevant provisions on. Among them, 3 will" buying and selling stocks or in other securities investment "column as one of disciplinary cases Out. First need to be clear, > < regulations did not change the provisions of the Ordinance. The ordinance of the provisions of the second paragraph of Article 77 provisions "who, in violation of the provisions of the sale of stocks" is one of the violation, and at the beginning of the first paragraph of this article "violation of 20 against the relevant provisions of the" textual representation of the repeat revision. In, just from the legislative technique removed the "personal" in violation of the provisions, content and not to change the original provisions. Need to clear is, "buy or sell a stock or of other securities investment" refers to violation of the relevant provisions refers to in April 2001, the Party Central Committee, the State Council promulgated the On the work of the party and government organs staff's personal investment in securities if dry provisions >. According to the provisions of Article 3, use of work time, office facilities, the sale of stocks and securities investment fund belongs to illegal behavior. The fourth question, about the violation of the masses of the disciplinary actions < new regulations > would violate public discipline behavior of a single set of a class of restored "three rules of discipline and eight note" in the discipline of the masses of excellent traditional. < New Regulations > Chapter 9 "to violate the masses of disciplinary action", mainly the destruction of the party's close ties with the masses of misconduct made provisions on disciplinary; enrich and perfect the super standard, beyond the scope of Xiang Qun < All to raise fund and labor, in for involving the public affairs deliberately, chinakayao, in social security, policy support, disaster relief funds and materials and other matters assigned any kind and affectionate friends, obviously unfair acts against the interests of the masses of the disciplinary terms; increase the terms not in accordance with the provisions of the public party provided, government, factory and village (neighborhood) provided etc. violation of the people's right to know the behavior of the discipline. The fifth issue, on the violation of work discipline violation of work discipline added "negative list, including Party organizations carry out strictly Main responsibility for poor discipline terms. (1) the new party organization comprehensive strictly the main responsibility of the party does not fulfill the 21 or perform poor disciplinary terms < New Regulations > has a lead people to pay attention to the new terms, that is, in chapter ten "on the violation of work discipline behavior punishment" increase in the one hundred and fourteenth "party fail to perform comprehensive strictly the main responsibility of the party or to perform comprehensive strictly the main responsibility for administering the ineffective, resulting in serious damage or serious adverse effects, to the person directly responsible and the responsibility of leadership and give a warning or serious warning. The situation is serious, giving removed from their party posts or on probation Punishment. "Here the changes. For the first time, the main responsibility write < rule >. (2) new shall report does not report or false reporting discipline shall increase the 117 bar" in the higher level units to check to inspect the work or report to the parent unit, work report of shall report the matters do not report or do not report, cause serious damage or serious adverse effects of, to the person directly responsible and the responsibility of leadership, to give warning or a serious warning; if the circumstances are serious, giving removed from their party posts or placed on probation. "For example, during the tour visits to the region, the unit Members the obligation to the inspection teams to reflect the true situation, to conceal not reported or intentionally to the inspection teams to provide false information, causing serious damage or serious adverse effects of, the person directly responsible and the responsibility of leadership should be in accordance with the provisions of < rule > Article 117 to give the appropriate punishment. (3) the new not granted in accordance with the provisions of punishment, not according to the provisions of the implementation of disciplinary measures 22 violation of the provisions of Article 115 "Party organizations have one of the following circumstances, the direct leadership responsibility. Probation: members were sentenced punished, in accordance with the provisions give disciplinary action or in violation of state law Rules of behavior should be given disciplinary punishment and dispose of; disciplinary punishment by decision or complaint review the decision made, not in accordance with the provisions of the implementation decisions on punishment of the party, position, rank, and the treatment of the matters; Party members subject to disciplinary action, not in accordance with the cadre management authority and organizational relationships of by dispose of Party members to carry out education and supervision of daily management. "What needs to be pointed out is," cliff "demoted with cars, housing, secretary problem, implementation is not a discipline and party posts and ranks treatment by the organization department is responsible for the implementation, with cars, housing by the logistics department is responsible for the implementation of, Ji Commission responsible oversight responsibilities. The six questions, about the acts violating the discipline of life "in violation of discipline of life behavior punishment", mainly to "four winds" problems and a serious violation of social morality, family virtue acts of misconduct made provisions on disciplinary, an increase of extravagant life, contrary to the social public order and good customs disciplinary terms. Worth mentioning is, > < Regulations in Article 150 about "adultery" "mistress (Cardiff) formulation in the new < rule > is removed, to expand the scope of Article 127 provisions" and others hair improper sexual relations, let face disciplinary action Wider more strict. Four, and earnestly do a good job in the < code > and < rule > implement system of life lies in execution. < code > and < Regulations > is 23 Party organizations at all levels of a strong constraint and all Party members follow. Learning and implementing the < code > and < rule > is party committees (party), commission for discipline, discipline inspection group), the majority of Party members and cadres of the common responsibility, must party caught together, the party one execution. () Party committees (party) and play and implement comprehensive strictly the main responsibility, pays special attention to the two party regulations learning cross penetration. One is to Adhere to the party constitution is fundamental to follow, and resolutely safeguard the authority of the Party Chapter. The second is to adhere to the problem oriented, to strictly political discipline and political rule moments in the first place. The third is to adhere to the discipline and rules quite in front must not allow the bottom line to break the discipline. The fourth is to seriously organize the study of propaganda and education, in the city party members to create a disciplined, about the rules of the strong atmosphere. (II) Commission for Discipline Inspection at all levels (Discipline Inspection Group) to an important basis for the revised two party regulations as, adhere to easily blame, strengthen supervision and enforcement And early method in combining Ji, increase accountability efforts. One is to two regulations within the party important basis, adhere to the party constitution duties, with strict discipline to maintain the constitution authority. The second is to adhere to high standards and keep the bottom line, adhere to Ji Yan in law and discipline, the discipline and rules quite in front, grasping grasping small, easily blame, comprehensive use of supervision and discipline of "four kinds of form" in the discipline embodies the strict requirements and care for the discipline, tighten up, Yan. According to discipline in accordance with regulations to carry out disciplinary review. Increase the violations punishment, clues can initiate an investigation on the trial of cases According to the discipline on the provisions of the proportion of processing and control manager maintains discipline. To focus on investigating non convergence, don't accept hand serious disciplinary violations at the same time, pay more attention to the general review of discipline 24 behavior, and gradually increase the lighter punishment. Four is to illuminate two party regulations, combined with the local district of the Department of party conduct Lianzheng to relevant laws and regulations system clean, timely research proposes to establish, change, waste release opinion, avoid conflict, and the fasten system of cage, and gradually formed not rot, not rot, not want to rot system and working mechanism. (3) the leadership of the party members and cadres should play an exemplary role. The rate of higher consciousness of the front of the Ordinance to lead practice self-discipline norms, leading to maintain discipline of seriousness and authority. One is the above rate, demonstration and guidance, take the lead in learning and mastering the < code > and < > the requirements and regulations, do the deep understanding, learning to use. The second is to play an exemplary role in abiding by discipline rate, take the lead in practicing self-discipline norms, firmly establish before the discipline are equal, the system has no privilege, discipline is no exception, and consciously do standards, require more strict measures more practical. Third is to consciously accept supervision, conscientiously participate in the democratic life and debriefing honesty responsibility, such as Real to the party organization to report personal matters, and to accept the supervision of the work and life of the normal, habits under the supervision of the exercise of power, to carry out the work. The fourth is to set an example for the strict enforcement of discipline. Leading cadres should take the lead in the maintenance of discipline of seriousness and authority, to dare to seriously, dare to struggle, dare to offend people, for misconduct not laissez faire, but do not indulge, not tolerate to ensure the party constitution of party compasses party put in place. (4) the majority of Party members and cadres to set high standards and hold the bottom line, consciously abide by the < code > and < rule >. One is to control the < standard > and < 25 cases >, tight Close connection with their own thoughts, practical work and life, efforts to solve the problems, to enhance the study and implement of the effectiveness and pertinence. The second is to establish a high standard and hold the bottom line, consciously in the self-discipline pursuit of high standards, strictly in the party away from the red line discipline, discipline, about the rules and know fear, distrust, the formation of the honor system, comply with the system, safeguard system of good habits. Regulations and discipline regulations of < < New Revision of the Communist Party of China clean fingered self-discipline criterion > and < Chinese Communist Party Disciplinary Regulations > is the Party Central Committee in the new situation to promote the comprehensive strictly root of the lift, the regulations of the party construction of keeping pace with the times. We should study and implement the Standards > and < > as the primary political task, adhere to the party constitution duties, adhere to the discipline of, Ji Yan in law, the full implementation of supervision and discipline accountability responsibilities for coordination and promotion "four overall" strategic layout in XX District vivid practice to provide a strong guarantee. - Si Jian Wu, and effectively enhance the implementation of the implementation of the < code > < > The consciousness of General Secretary Xi pointed out that the party is in charge of the party, to manage the party; strictly, it can cure good party. Criterion > and < rule > keep pace with the times is our party to form a new potential strictly rules, to deepen understanding of the ruling law, is a comprehensive strictly, and strengthen the supervision within the party important grasper. Criterion > closely linked to the theme of self-discipline, self-discipline intensity-modulated, focusing on morality, for the majority of Party members and cadres set to see, feel the high standard, show the Communists noble moral sentiment; District Ordinance < < rule > the constitution of discipline integration into a political discipline, organization and discipline, honesty and discipline, discipline of the masses, work discipline, discipline, emphasize discipline, focusing on established rules, to draw the party organizations and Party members do not touch the bottom line. Party committees (party) to effectively strengthen the study and publicize the implementation of the < code > and < rule > the organization and leadership of criterion > and < > a full range, multi angle, deep publicity, the formation of study and publicize and implement the boom, in order to consolidate the development of good political environment to create a positive environment and atmosphere. The majority of Party members and cadres to strict requirements, the < rule > and < Ordinance cases > as a guide to action and behavior criterion, adhere to the moral standards and discipline of the bottom line, to maintain the discipline of worship and awe, learning, compliance, and maintain party discipline and rules of the model. The discipline inspection and supervision organs and cadres to the < code > and < > as the deepening of the "three", and strengthen supervision and discipline of accountability is important to follow correctly grasp the use of supervision and discipline of "four types", promote the comprehensive strictly in new roots. Strict discipline, adhere to the discipline and rules quite in front of the enterprise in the implementation of expensive to implement to execute. The discipline inspection and supervision organs to implement the < code > and < Efforts to investigate cases > as an opportunity, adhere to the party should manage the party strictly, serious performance of their duties to promote two regulations implementation. Change discipline concept. From the simple "investigation of illegal" to a comprehensive "stare at violate discipline"; from the business case to prosecute the big cases and timely solve the signs of tilt to. From the orientation to the normal supervision; from the tube "minority" to resist the "most". Guide Party members and cadres to seriously implement the < code > and < rule >, consciously abide by the political, organizational, honest people, work, life six discipline. Urge the leadership cadres sent to play an exemplary role, take the lead in strictly enforced. Relaxation and rest Strong wind is Su Ji, closely linked to the "four winds" prone to multiple, the masses reflect the strong important nodes and, glued to the four winds "new form, new trends, seriously investigate and deal with violations of the central eight provisions of the spirit, to increase the bulletin exposure intensity, the formation of Chajiu" four winds "loudly, continue to release and discipline must be strict signal. At the same time, extended supervision tentacles, through the development of the rural and fishery party conduct Lianzheng construction inspection, issued in a timely manner, Chajiu occurred in grassroots side of corruption and unhealthy, and earnestly safeguard the interests of the masses and social stability. The creativity and discipline. Grasp and make good use of the supervision and discipline of" four types ", to ensure the Promoting clues to lots of discipline and the law of the vacuum tube, strict together. Not only to the "less" and "very few" thorough investigation severely punished, but also the "most" to maintain zero tolerance trend through layers of conductive pressure, let the discipline about the rules for each party members and cadres consciously follow. At present, it is necessary to implement the "list" management, strictly follow the clues to the disposal of five standards, make the classification of disposal, dynamic cleanup. Zadok Party committees at all levels to implement the main responsibility, comprehensive use of disciplinary action and tissue processing and other means to effectively curb the commonplace, used to see do not blame the "small problem", not because of "practice" and "exception". Prominent Discipline characteristics, the problems of violation of discipline and rules into the focus of supervision and discipline and disciplinary review. At the same time, increase case double check the intensity, the serious problems of discipline violations or "four winds" ban but not absolutely, not only to be held directly responsible, but also held leadership responsibility; not only to pursue studies the main responsibility of the Party committee, and to pursue Commission for Discipline Inspection and supervision responsibilities and promote accountability to become the new norm. The implementation of supervisory responsibility. Maintain < code > and < rule > the seriousness and authority of the discipline and rules and truly become the party's ruler. Discipline as supervision within the party the specialized agency, we must strengthen the responsibility to act, adhere to the Impartial discipline accountability, earnestly will be strict discipline, discipline must be punished, and severely punish the acts in violation of rules and regulations.