DOC-地铁开挖引起的环境问题及补救建议外文翻译-环境工程

DOC-地铁开挖引起的环境问题及补救建议外文翻译-环境工程 毕业设计,论文,外文翻译 学 院: 理学院 专业班级: 环境工程0902班 学生姓名: 王旭 学生学号: 090704038 指导教师: 王新 提交时间: 2013年 3 月 19 日 指 导 教 师 评 语 毕业设计 医疗废物处理系统设计 ,论文,题目 Environmental problems caused by 原文题目 Istanbul subway excavation and suggestions for remediation 伊斯坦布尔地铁开挖引起的环境问题及补译文题目 救建议 文章来源 网络图书馆 指导教师评语: 指导教师: 评阅时间: 年 月 日 伊斯坦布尔地铁开挖引起的环境问题及补救建议 摘要: 许多地铁开挖引起的环境问题不可避免地成为城市生活的重要部分。这些问题可归类为开挖肥料的运输和储存、交通堵塞、噪音污染、震动、成堆的灰尘和泥浆以及物资不足。虽然这些问题引起很多困难，对于一个像伊斯坦布尔这样的城市，最亟待解决的问题是开挖的问题，因为其他一系列问题都是由此引起的。此外，这些问题受环境和地域限制并具有周期性，他们随工程项目开始和结束而出现和消失。最近，伊斯坦布尔有9 条地铁项目在施工，总长约有73km，另外，将有超过200km的地铁线会在不久的将来动工。 3正在施工的项目将产生约1200 万m 的工程垃圾。本文将分析由地铁建设带来的问题，主要是开挖废料的问题，并对补救办法提出建议。 关键词:环境问题 地铁开挖 废物处理 开挖废料 简介: 现如今，城市的大面积扩张要求交通设施快速增长。因此，全世界，特别是在人口超过30万-40万的城市，轨道交通逐渐被认为是最终的解决办法。正因如此，地铁和轻 轨上的大规模投资是必然的。整个轨道交通系统的建设包括地表建设、明挖隧道开挖、钻孔隧道开挖、地下建筑的改造和隧道建设项目。这些都会影响周围的环境并在自来水、天然气、排污和电话线等方面影响市民的日常生活。 地铁建设影响环境的一个原因是开挖产生的大量垃圾，而且大部分开挖垃圾都是泥土。工程垃圾的处理是关键，负责储存和回收利用这些工程废料的人员承受着非常大的压力，废物处理也因此成为一个单独的研究分支。关于这些垃圾的销毁、回收利用和储存的研究已经开展了很多:泥土(Vlachos 1975; Huang 等人 2001; Winkler 2005; Huang 等人 2006; Khan 等人 1987; Boadi and Kuitunen 2003; Staudt and Schroll 1999; Wang 2001; Okuda and Thomson 2007;Yang and Innes 2007 )、有机物(Edwards 等人 1998, Jackson 2006; Debra 等人 1991; Akhtar and Mahmood 1996; Bruun 等人 2006; Minh 等人 2006 )、塑料(Idris 等人 2004; Karani and Stan Jewasikiewitz 2007; Ali 等人 2004; Nishino 等人 2003; Vasile 等人 2006; Kato 等人 2003; Kasakura 等人 1999; Hayashi 等人 2000 )、油脂(Ahumada 等人 2004; Al-Masri and Suman 2003 )、耕地(Garnier 等人 1998; Mohanty 2001 )、放射性物质(Rocco and Zucchetti 1997; Walker 等人 2001; Adamov 等人 1992; Krinitsyn 等人 2003)。 目前，包括沙子、石头、砂砾、水泥、砖头、瓷砖在内的传统材料被建筑部门用作主要的建筑成分。所有这些材料都是从现有的自然资源中生产出来的，具有固有的特性，并因不断的开采而对环境造成危害。另外，建筑材料的价格正在逐渐上涨，在土耳其，近几年的建筑材料的价格一直在上涨。因此，为减轻环境破坏和减缓原材料价格的过渡上涨，在建筑工程中循环利用开挖废料和拆迁废料(DW)是非常重要的。一些国家的开挖废料(EW)和拆迁废料的回收利用率见表1(Hendriks and Pietersen 2000 )，土耳其的回 收利用率是10%。每年伊斯坦布尔会产生 1400万吨垃圾，其中包括7600万吨开挖废料，1600万吨有机材料，2700万吨拆迁废料(IMM 2007)。每年伊斯坦布尔约会产生3700万吨城市垃圾，然而垃圾的回收利用率却只有7%左右，垃圾处理厂建设完成之后，回收比率将上升到27% 。另一个问题的医疗垃圾，每年将倾倒9000吨医疗垃圾，目前处理医疗垃圾的方式是焚烧。城市垃圾的分类见图1。 国家 开挖废料占总废 开挖废料和拆迁废料 物的百分比(%) 的回收利用率(%) 25-50 80 丹麦 26 75 荷兰 36 65 日本 44 51 澳大利亚 19 50 德国 14 40 芬兰 40 英国 大于50 29 25 美国 25 25 法国 70 17 西班牙 30 10 意大利 15 8 巴西 30 7 挪威 表1 部分国家建筑垃圾浓度对比 图1 当前伊斯坦布尔城市垃圾的分布 本文论及伊斯坦布尔的环境问题，如隧道开挖产生的开挖废料、建筑拆迁产生的拆迁垃圾、生活垃圾，也涉及开挖垃圾的来源、材料属性以及使用替代材料的可能。 轨道交通系统研究 关于伊斯坦布尔交通系统的三个研究分别在1985 年、1987 年和 1997 年开展，第四个研究项目将于近期开展。《伊斯坦布尔交通总规划》表明，轨道交通系统将成为伊斯坦布尔交通网络的主要部分(IMM 2005)。除了目前的线路，根据Marmaray 项目，包括36km地铁、96km 轻轨、7km 有轨电车在内的总计205km 新轨道线路将建设完成。因此，轨道交通线路总长将超过250km。 地铁建设引起的环境问题 开挖废料的运输和储存 伊斯坦布尔几乎所有的土地都有人居住，因此，为了将对城市产生的破坏降到最低，包括地铁开挖和其他建筑工程引起的开挖废料的储存和回收利用显得非常重要。环境法2872条规定了开挖废料和建筑垃圾的采集、暂时储存、回收、重新利用、运输和销毁等方面，主要内容有: 1、垃圾必须从源头控制; 2、管理部门必须采取必要的措施以减少垃圾的不良影响; 3、开挖废料必需回收利用，特别是地下结构工程中的开挖废料; 4、开挖废料和建筑垃圾必需区分开来; 5、废料必需在源头分类，并按“选择性销毁”的原则形成一套完整的回收和销毁系统; 6、开挖废料或者建筑垃圾的责任人必须为处理垃圾提供必需的费用。 根据环境法规定，政府有责任在行政范围内规划一定的土地用来建设和运行垃圾回收处理系统，伊斯坦布尔环保局和垃圾回收公司是负责广泛开展开挖废料处理的主要部门。 垃圾堆放空间有限，很快就会堆满，目前却又没有任何有效可行的解决办法。除此之外， 目前的垃圾堆放区远离地铁建设的地方，这意味着满载的货车将挤进城市交通，并因低速和车轮、车身上掉落的污染物而引起交通堵塞，另外，这也将导致资金和人力的短缺。 3建设中的轨道交通线路产生的开挖废料约有 1200万m。所有隧道均采用新 3)% 公司名称 倾倒区 容量 (m 10,444,085 69.6 伊斯坦公司 凯梅尔布尔加兹 3,540,073 3.3 其他三家公司 各异的 13,984,158 93.3 靠欧洲一侧总计 1,011,486 6.7 安那托利亚一侧总计 各异的 14,995,644 100.0 总计 表2 伊斯坦布尔目前的垃圾倾倒区 开挖相关的另一个问题是，土压平衡法施工时机械和污泥区产生的废料不能直接倾倒，为使水能从中顺利排出并使用合适的处理设备，这些废料必须在合适的地方暂存。然而这仍然会导致污泥从卡车中流出并增加城市垃圾。 噪音污染和振动 地铁建设中会用到各种不同的机械设备，这些机械设备产生的噪声和震动严重影响了周围的环境。有些地区，施工操作距离居民楼近达5-6米，这种情况下，居民生活会受到严重打扰，直到施工结束都会是断难熬的日子。 当需要通过坚硬岩石时，钻孔爆破是一种常用工法。这种情况下，无论如何控制爆破，这一区域的居民都要忍受噪音和震动，有些人甚至感到害怕，认为发生了地震。在爆破区内，震动强度必须监测，为了把震动强度控制在可以接受的范围内，常采用延迟爆破。 为了最大程度的降低机械设备引起的震动和噪音从而降低爆破的影响，工作区会用围栏隔离起来。浅层爆破时，钻孔周边会用一块大的帆布包起来，围栏会用湿布填充。无论如何，这些防范措施只能减少不良影响，并不能完全消除。 灰尘和泥浆的形成 因季节不同，灰尘和泥浆同样破坏环境。在运输开挖废料特别是泥浆时，尽管采取了防范措施，卡车还是免不了要污染环境。施工区内产生的泥浆会从斜坡上滑落并覆盖地面。这样，即使道路频繁打扫，环境仍然会有所破坏。从垃圾倾倒区开出的卡车在车轮和车身冲洗干净之前，因为非常泥泞而不准开进大道，尽管如此，也无法完全避免在卡车行进过程中有泥浆从车轮里掉出。 基础设施的破坏 由于在开挖期间电话线、天然气管道、电力管道、供水管道以及其他基础管线将被迫切断并移位，对基础设施的破坏也成为市民将要面对的一个重要问题。这些管线移动期间，基础服务有时会中断。有些系统不允许其他人介入操作，要求自己独自操作运营，由于各个运营商单独行动，服务的中断会被拖长。 对周边建筑物的破坏 地铁建设会引起周边地区的地基变形，我们要连续监测这些地基变形并努力 把变形量保持在可控的范围内。然而，有些变形还是会演变出其他更大的破坏，包括周边建筑的裂缝、甚至倒塌。伊斯坦布尔的每条隧道开挖都会引起上述问题，这些问题在浅埋隧道施工时更为常见。正因如此，虽然人们最后的损失得到了补偿，但他们全部的生计和生活方式却回不来了。例如，在伊斯坦布尔地铁第一阶段开挖期间发生塌方，导致5人死亡。毋庸置疑，再多的钱也无法和人的性命相提并论。 环境问题的补救措施建议 就隧道开挖引起的环境问题，包括交通堵塞、噪音污染、震动、灰尘、污泥以及周边建筑物的变形，在此提出几条可能的解决办法: 1、大城市中，轨道交通系统对于城市交通体系非常重要。但是，有轨电车不应被当作一种可行的轨道交通方式。因为它的运输能力太低(大约只有地铁运输能力的1/3);同时，有轨电车和其他轮式运输工具占用同样的交通线路，也就是说，有轨电车和常规交通工具占用相同的空间，却又不会有明显的优势。 2、地铁建设面临的最大问题是不能及早地建设地铁线路，许多大城市的经历都证明了这点， 包括建成地铁线路总长500km以上的伦敦、巴黎、莫斯科、柏林。可是，伊斯坦布尔现在的地铁线路总长只有8km。在城市不十分拥挤的时候建成地铁线路，城市建设面临的许多问题现在就不会存在了。目前，管理部门必须尽力减少下一代可能面临的问题。 3、所有在地面建成的轨道交通形式都会对该地区的居民生活造成严重影响，此外，这些工程的建设会产生噪音和垃圾。世界上很多地方的轨道交通线路完全在地下建设，这会有两个优点:第一，由于工程建设在地下进行，将对基础设施的破坏降到了最低，并让工作环境更为舒适;第二，因为所有的施工和运营都在地下，环境将会受到极小的破坏。 4 、在地铁建设开始之前，对于线路上会遇到的基础设施和已有建筑必须勘察清楚。另一方面，这些因素也会引起一些问题，包括工程建设有时必须中断直到周围环境恢复稳定。例如，在伊斯坦布尔地铁线Taksim –Yenikapi 区间建设第二阶段，Halic桥无法开工建设就是因为需要保护古城墙。 5、相关基础设施间缺乏协调是一个很严重的问题，因此，成立一个专门统筹管理迁移天然气管道、电话线路、污水系统和供电管道的机构，将极大的加快这些管线的迁移并避免由于缺乏协调而导致的意外和不便。 6、为了增加轨道交通系统建设和运营中的利益，项目计划必须连续不断进行修订，这也是伊斯坦布尔地铁建设面临的一个主要问题。从最近一个地铁项目——Karakoy 隧道于1876年竣工运营到现在(Ocak 2004 )，伊斯坦布尔用了110 年的时间重新开始地铁建设。从今以后，地铁建设必须稳定、持续地进行。1935 年的时候，每天可以运输31400名乘客;20 世纪50年代，有轨电车线路总长达 130km(Kayserilioglu 2001 )。然而，当1961 年无轨电车 出现之后，为了给私人车辆让路，欧洲一侧以及1966 年所有的安那托利亚一侧的有轨电车线路都被拆除了(Kayserilioglu 2001 )。 结果与讨论 TBM工法和传统的隧道施工方法因为地铁线路、排污管道和供水管道等的建设，在伊斯坦布尔得到广泛使用。由于建筑材料检测不，岩石中产生的废料很少被用作建筑材料。尽管如此，人们仍然认为废料会有所用途。如果这种回收方式可以实现，对在经常需要使用骨料的隧道施工中节约成本意义重大。对比骨料规格，我们可以发现，硬岩TBM 掘进机产生的废料可以用在人行道和结构混凝土等工程项目上(Gertsch 等人 2000) 。由隧道钻孔设备产生的岩石废料粒径(125mm 以内)比传统施工方法产生的废料粒径要小。垃圾大小均一(30-40cm以内)并可以经过处理使用于多种传统施工方法，也让垃圾的再次利用变得更为常见，可以当做建筑材料使用。隧道开挖产生的废料，57%来自于传统施工方法，33.5%来自于TBM工法，剩下的来自土压平衡盾构施工和软土TBM施工。与土压平衡法和软土盾构产生的废料不同，TBM法产生的废料里含有淤泥和化学材料。 平均每年伊斯坦布尔会产生760万吨开挖废料，其中的 13.8%是黏土和填充物，剩下的都是岩石。只要和当地标准相符，岩石废料适合在道路工程、填充物、路面斜坡中用作防侵蚀和基础材料(TS706，TS1114 )。沙子和泥土根据当地标准规定，具有用作工业原材料的性能。对于这些废料的其他潜在用途，我们应该做更多的研究。隧道开挖产生的岩石材料只有10%会被估 3价，而大部分的泥土约70000m 会被回收再利用。 一般来说，在地铁建设开始之前就要制定回收利用废料的计划，制定的计划要确定会产生哪些废料以及收集、回收、再利用时要采用的方法，还要清楚规划出临时堆积、存储的区域，废料管理计划通过减少有用、没用的废料数量来引导建设活动变得更为环保。当废料从垃圾填埋区得以转移，对环境和经济有如下优点(Batayneh 等人 2007): 1、 保护原材料; 2、减少垃圾处理的费用; 3、材料得到充分有效地利用。 为了使开挖废料得到有效的回收和利用，必须让其保持清洁并对其分类;为了避免因为处理不当引起的材料损失，需要进一步研究废料的储存方法;另外，在工程开始之前就应该确定材料需求。为了完善废料管理计划，对于可能产生的可用、不可用的开挖废料的种类和数量要有准确的评估。详细地罗列出所有可能的废料种类，对于决定每种不同的废料采用何种处理方式有着重要的指示作用。施工的整个过程中，减少、再利用、回收开挖废料都要采用明确的方法。图2中的流程图包含有开挖废料管理计划的建议。 本文主要论及穿越岩石和土层时地铁隧道开挖产生的开挖废料。TBM工法和传统隧道施工方法产生的废料可以成功地用在许多工程和专业应用上，包括混凝土、防侵蚀、道路工程、填充物、地基材料和公路边坡。为了最大限度地降低开挖料对环境和居民的不良影响，必须在源头加以控制，环境法规定的强制性法令也有着非常重要的作用。由土压平衡法的机械使用产生的泥浆和泥土必须得到再利用，泥浆和沙子可能分离也让其回收利用变得可能并能最小化对环境的破坏。 为了保证环境、经济和社会的正常发展，废物回收管理计划应在每一个工程开始之前制定完成。建筑工业是伊斯坦布尔一个最大的污染来源，因此废物管理是建筑工业面临的一个重要问题。综合不同的开挖项目、建筑施工、爆破和其他国内活动，伊斯坦布尔每年会产生1400万吨垃圾，由于需要大面积的土地来存放垃圾和安置处理设备等原因，这对环境和经济造成了巨大问题。这些垃圾包括开挖废料(760万吨)、拆迁废料(270万吨)和城市生活垃圾(370万吨)，其中城市生活垃圾只占7% ，而开挖废料和拆迁废料的后收率低于10%(IMM 2007)。 检查岩土工程确保开挖废料的有效利用率 现场评估材料的采购和储存过程 为每一种岩性类型选择一种使用 岩石材料 土壤，填充物，粘土 依照类型和尺寸进行分类 依照类型进行分类 合适 不合适 不合适 合适 研究废物处置方案 用作 用作 混凝土 沙土 填料 粘土 道路构筑物 其它原材料 海滩侵蚀控制 道路边坡 其它原材料 图2 开挖废料管理计划流程图 (此页不装订) 撰写要求 1(译文中文字数不少于3000字。要求完整地翻译一篇外文文献～或原著中某完整的章节。严禁译文在达到3000字就戛然而止。中文译文中应当包括原文中已有的有关作者、出版者的信息,中文译文中应当包括原文中的图、表、等有关内容,可以扫描、拷贝过来,。严禁使用翻译软件直接翻译。 2. 封面的“提交时间”为毕业设计第四周周一至周五之间的某个日期。 3. 原文可以按其原有格式打印～也可转换成WORD文档重新排版。 4(译文字体设置:大标题用小三号宋体,加粗,～小标题用四号宋体,加粗,～正文内容用小四号宋体、行间距及段落可自行设置～或参考论文撰写规范要求设置。 5. 页面设置,模版已设置完毕,:页边距上下各3.8厘米、左右各3.2 厘米～ 页眉2.8厘米～页脚3.0厘米～左侧装订～装订线0.6厘米。 6(文章来源填写摘录原文所在的著作、教材、论文集、期刊、报刊等名称。 7. 指导教师评语:按照学校的标准填写。即:“指导教师对学生外文翻译要 有评语～要针对翻译资料与题目的相关性、翻译量和翻译的准确性等方面进 行概述性评价。” 8. 指导教师评语一律手写。 9.评阅时间签到毕业设计第五周之内～且在封面“提交时间”之后。 10(原文、译文一律用A4纸打印～左侧装订～装订次序为封面、指导教师评 语、中文译文、外文原文。 11. 外文翻译上交到教师所在系,室,时间最迟为毕业设计第六周周三。 Environmental problems caused by Istanbul subway excavation and suggestions for remediation Ibrahim Ocak Abstract: Many environmental problems caused by subway excavations have inevitably become an important point in city life. These problems can be categorized as transporting and stocking of excavated material, traf,c jams, noise, vibrations, piles of dust mud and lack of supplies. Although these problems cause many dif,culties, the most pressing for a big city like Istanbul is excavation, since other listed dif,culties result from it. Moreover, these problems are environmentally and regionally restricted to the period over which construction projects are underway and disappear when construction is ,nished. Currently, in Istanbul, there are nine subway construction projects in operation, covering approximately 73 km in length; over 200 km to be constructed in the near future. The amount of material excavated from ongoing construction projects covers 3approximately 12 million m. In this study, problems—primarily, the problem with excavation waste (EW)—caused by subway excavation are analyzed and suggestions for remediation are offered. Keywords: Environmental problems Subway excavation Waste management Introduction Nowadays, cities are spreading over larger areas with increasing demand on extending transport facilities. Thus, all over the world, especially in cities where the population exceeds 300,000–400,000 people, railway-based means of transportation is being accepted as the ultimate solution. Therefore, large investments in subway and light rail construction are required. The construction of stated systems requires surface excavations, cut and cover tunnel excavations, bored tunnel excavations, redirection of infrastructures and tunnel construction projects. These elements disturb the environment and affect everyday life of citizens in terms of running water, natural gas, sewer systems and telephone lines. One reason why metro excavations affect the environment is the huge amount of excavated material produced. Moreover, a large amount of this excavated material is composed of muddy and bentonite material. Storing excavated material then becomes crucial. A considerable amount of pressure has been placed on of,cials to store and recycle any kind of excavated material. Waste management has become a branch of study by itself. Many studies have been carried out on the destruction, recycling and storing of solid, (Vlachos 1975; Huang et al. 2001; Winkler 2005; Huang et al. 2006; Khan et al. 1987; Boadi and Kuitunen 2003; Staudt and Schroll 1999; Wang 2001; Okuda and Thomson 2007; Yang and Innes 2007), organic (Edwards et al. 1998, Jackson 2006; Debra et al. 1991; Akhtar and Mahmood 1996; Bruun et al. 2006; Minh et al. 2006), plastic (Idris et al. 2004; Karani and Stan Jewasikiewitz 2007; Ali et al. 2004; Nishino et al. 2003; Vasile et al.2006; Kato et al. 2003; Kasakura et al. 1999; Hayashi et al. 2000), toxic (Rodgers et al. 1996; Bell and Wilson 1988; Chen et al. 1997; Sullivan and Yelton 1988), oily(Ahumada et al. 2004; Al-Masri and Suman 2003), farming(Garnier et al. 1998; Mohanty 2001) and radioactive materials (Rocco and Zucchetti 1997; Walker et al. 2001; Adamov et al. 1992; Krinitsyn et al. 2003). Today, traditional materials, including sand, stone, gravel, cement, brick and tiles are being used as major building components in the construction sector. All of these materials have been produced from existing natural resources and may have intrinsic distinctions that damage the environment due to their continuous exploitation. In addition, the cost of construction materials is incrementally increasing. In Turkey, the prices of construction materials have increased over the last few years. Therefore, it is very important to use excavation and demolition wastes (DW) in construction operations to limit the environmental impact and excessive increase of raw material prices. Recycling ratios for excavation waste (EW) and DW of some countries are in shown Table 1 (Hendriks and Pietersen 2000). The recycling ratio for Turkey is 10%. Every year, 14 million tons of waste materials are generated in Istanbul. These waste materials consist of 7.6 million tons EW, 1.6 million tons organic materials and 2.7 million tons DW (IMM 2007). Approximately, 3.7 million tons of municipal wastes are produced in Istanbul every year. However, the recycling rate is approximately equal to only 7%. This rate will increase to 27%, when the construction of the plant is completed. Medical wastes are another problem, with over 9,000 tons dumped every year. Medical wastes are disposed by burning. Distributions of municipal wastes are given in Fig. 1 Country Concentration of CW CW and DW in total waste (in%) recycled (in%) Denmark 25-50 80 Netherlands 26 75 Japan 36 65 Australia 44 51 Germany 19 50 Finland 14 40 United Kingdom over 50 40 USA 29 25 France 25 25 Spain 70 17 Italy 30 10 Brazil 15 8 Norway 30 7 Table 1 Comparison of a few countries’ construction waste concentration Fig. 1 Current status of municipal waste distribution in Istanbul In this study, environmental problems in Istanbul, such as EW resulting from tunnelling operations, DW resulting from building demolition and home wastes, are evaluated. Resources of EW, material properties and alternatives of possible usage are also evaluated. Railway system studies Three preliminary studies concerning transportation in Istanbul were conducted in 1985, 1987 and 1997. A fourth study is currently being conducted. The Istanbul Transportation Main Plan states that railway systems must constitute the main facet of Istanbul’s transportation net-work (IMM 2005). In addition to existing lines, within the scope of the Marmaray Project, 36 km of metro, 96 km of light rail, and 7 km of tram, with a total of 205 km of new railway lines, must be constructed. Consequently, the total length of railway line will exceed 250 km. Environmental problems caused by subway excavations Transporting and storing excavated material Almost all land in Istanbul is inhabited. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to store and recycle excavated material obtained either from metro excavations or other construction activities, causing minimal damage and disturbance to the city. The collection, temporary storage, recycling, reuse, transportation and destruction of excavated material and construction waste are controlled by environmental law number 2872. According to this law, it is essential that: 1. Waste must be reduced at its source. 2. Management must take necessary precautions to reduce the harmful effects of waste. 3. Excavated material must be recycled and reused, especially within the construction infrastructure. 4. Excavated material and construction waste must not be mixed. 5. Waste must be separated from its source and subjected to ―selective destruction‖ in order to form a sound system for recycling and destruction. 6. Producers of excavated material or construction waste must provide required funds to destroy waste. According to environmental laws, municipalities are responsible for ,nding areas within their province limits to excavate and operate these systems. Both the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality Environmental Protection and Waste Recycling Company are the foundations that actively carryout all operations regarding excavated material. Since dumping areas have limited space, they are quickly ,lled, without any available plausible solution for remediation. In addition, existing dumping areas are far away from metro excavation areas. This means that loaded trucks are competing with city traf,c, causing traf,c congestion with their low speed and pollutants dropping off their wheels or bodies. Furthermore, this results in a loss of money and labour. The approximate amount of excavated material from ongoing railway 3excavation will be equal to 12 million m. All tunnels have been excavated with new Austrian tunnelling method (NATM), earth pressure balance method (EPBM), tunnel boring machine (TBM), and cut and cover method. Existing dumping areas in Istanbul are listed in Table 2. It can be seen that existing dumping areas can only accommodate material excavated from the metro construction. Another important matter according to Table 2 is that 93% of existing dumping areas are on the European side of Istanbul, with 88% of them in Kemerburgaz. Thus, all excavated material on the Anatolian side must cross over European site every day for a distance of approximately 150 km. Every day, on average, 3,000 trucks carry various types of excavated material to Kemerburgaz from other parts of Istanbul. This leads to a waste of time and increased environmental pollution. 3)Name of firm Dumping Capacity (m % area Istac company Kemberburgaz 10,444,085 69.6 Three others companies Various 3,540,073 3.3 Total of European side 13,984,158 93.3 Total of Anatolian side (six companies) Various 1,011,486 6.7 Total 14,995,644 100.0 Table 2 Existing dumping areas in Istanbul Another problem related to excavation is that the materials, obtained from EPBM machines and muddy areas, cannot be directly sent to dumping facilities. They have to be kept in suitable places, so that water can be drained off from the material and then sent to proper facilities. However, this causes muddy material to drop from trucks, causing increased litter in cities. Traf,c jam Since most of the railway constructions are carried out in the most densely populated areas, city traf,c must be closed and redirected during the construction. In most cases, an entire area must be closed for traf,c. For example, Uskudar square is now closed due to the Marmaray project and most bus stops and piers have been moved to other locations. With cut and cover constructions, the case becomes even more complicated. In this case, an entire route is closed to traf,c because cut and cover tunnels are constructed across streets. In order to ensure that machine operation and construction can continue uninterrupted and to minimize the risk of accidents to the people living around the construction zone, streets are either totally closed to traf,c or traf,c is redirected. This causes long-term difficulties. For example, shop owners on closed streets have dif,culties reaching their shops, stocking and transporting their goods and retaining customers. Noise and vibration For metro excavations, a lot of different machines are used. These machines seriously disturb the environment with their noise and vibrations. In some regions, excavation may be as close as 5–6 m away from inhabited apartment blocks. In such cases, people are disturbed as excavation may take a signi,cant period of time to be completed. Drilling–blasting may be needed in conventional methods for drilling through hard rock. In this case, no matter how controlled the blasting is, people who are living in the area experience both noise and vibrations. Some become scared, thinking that an earthquake is happening. In blasting areas, the intensity of vibrations is measured. In order to keep them within accepted limits, delayed capsules are used. In order to minimize vibration and noise caused by machines and to reduce the effects of blasting, working areas are surrounded by fences. Super ,cial blasting shaft rims are covered with a large canvas and fences are covered with wet broadcloths. However, these precautions can only reduce negative effects; they cannot totally eliminate them. The formation of dust and mud Depending on the season, both dust and mud disturb the environment. During removal of excavated material, especially muddy material, trucks may pollute the environment despite all precautions taken. Mud that forms around the excavation area may slide down the slope and cover the ground. In this case although roads are frequently cleaned, the environment is still disturbed. Trucks, which travel from dumping areas to areas that are muddy cannot enter traf,c until their wheels and bodies are washed. However, this cannot prevent the truck wheel from dropping mud on the roads while on move. Interrupted utilities Interrupted utilities are also one of the most crucial problems facing citizens during excavation projects due to the fact that telephone, natural gas, electricity, water, and infrastructure lines must be cut off and moved to other areas. During the transfer of these lines, services may remain unavailable for some time. Some institutions will not allow others to do this and carry out operations themselves. With so many providers conducting individual moves, services may be interrupted for an extended term of time. Damage to neighbouring buildings Metro excavations cause deformations around the excavation area. These deformations are continuously checked and efforts are made to keep them under control. However, some deformations may become extensive; including cracks or even collapses of neighbouring buildings. Every metro tunnel excavation in Istanbul causes problems as mentioned earlier. These kinds of problems are more frequent in shallow tunnels. In such cases, although people’s financial losses are compensated, their overall livelihood and way of life is compromised. For example, in a landslip during the ,rst stage of the Istanbul Metro excavation, ,ve people died. Obviously, no amount of money can compensate the death of a person. Suggestions for remedying environmental problems Environmental problems that arise during tunnel excavations include traf,c jams, noise, vibrations, dust, mud and deformation of surrounding buildings. Some possible solutions are recommended as listed below: • In big cities, railway systems are crucial to city transportation. However, a tram should not be considered as a viable railway system due to its low transportation capacity (approximately 1/3 of the metro). At the same time, a tram uses the same route as wheeled transportation devices. Therefore, trams occupy the same space as regular traf,c and do not offer substantial advantages. • The most crucial problem facing metro excavations is not providing railway lines in a timely manner. Proof of this exists in big cities, including London, Paris, Moscow or Berlin, where metro lines of over 500 km exist. However, in Istanbul, there are only 8 km of metro line. Had the metro been built earlier when the city was not overcrowded, many problems facing the city would not currently exist. Now, of,cials must do their best to reduce troubles that future generations are likely to face. • Any kind of railway construction carried out above the ground causes serious problems to people living in the area. In addition, these kinds of construction cause both noise and litter. All railway lines are constructed completely underground in many parts of the world. This has two advantages; ,rst, since excavation is carried out underground, it causes minimal interruption in utilities and provides a more comfortable area to work. Thus, the environment is exposed to very little damage because all operations are carried out underground. • Before beginning metro excavations, the route must be carefully examined for weaknesses in infrastructures and existing historical buildings. Otherwise, these elements cause problems, including interruptions in excavation when work must stop until the environment is stabilized. An example of this is that during the second stage of the Taksim–Yenikapi route of the Istanbul Metro, the construction of the Halic Bridge could not be started due to historical ramparts. • A lack of coordination among related institutions providing utility services is a major problem. Therefore, founding of an institution that strictly deals with relocating natural gas lines, telephone lines, sewer systems, and electricity will de,nitely accelerate the transfer of energy lines and avert accidents and inconveniences caused by this lack of coordination. • In order to increase bene,ts of railway systems both in construction and operational stages, projects must be continuously revised from time to time. This is the main problem facing Istanbul metro excavations. It has taken 110 years to restart metro projects in Istanbul, with the last project, the opening of the Karakoy tunnel, established in 1876 (Ocak 2004).From this time onward, initiated projects must have been stable and continuous. In 1935, 314,000 passengers were travelling daily. In the 1950s, the total length of tram lines reached 130 km (Kayserilioglu 2001). However, as the trolleybus was introduced in 1961, all tram lines on the European side, and in 1966, all lines on the Anatolian side were removed in order to make way for private vehicles (Kayserilioglu 2001). Results and discussion TBM and classic tunnel construction methods are widely used in Istanbul for different purposes, like metro, sewerage and water tunnels. Waste from rock is rarely used as construct ion material as the suitability of the material for this purpose is not well examined. However, it is believed that the muck may be used for some applications. If this suitability is realized, cost savings may be signi,cant for tunnel construction, where the use of aggregate is a common requirement. A review of standard construction aggregate speci,cations indicates that hard rock TBM waste would be suitable for several construction applications, including pavement and structural concrete (Gertsch et al. 2000). Size distributions of waste materials produced by tunnel boring machines are less (up to 125mm) than the waste materials produced by using classical construction methods. Muck size distribution is uniform, generally larger (up to 30–40 cm) and can be changed to meet a wide range of classical construction methods, making the reuse of waste more common. The waste product is used as construction materials. Fifty -seven percent of EW generated during tunnel excavations result from classical tunnel construction, 33.5% from TBM, while the remaining percentage stems from EPBM and slurry TBM. Different from TBM waste materials generated by EPB and slurry, TBM include mud and chemical materials. The annual quantity of EW generated in Istanbul is approximately 7.6 million tons. 13.8% of this total is clay and ,ll. The rest is composed of rock. Rock material can be properly used in roadway structures, ,llings, road slopes, for erosion control and as a sub-base material, as long as it conforms to local standards (TS706, TS1114). Sand and clay have properties appropriate for use as raw materials for industrial use, depending on local standards. More studies should be completed to determine other potential uses for this material. Only 10% of rock material generated during tunnel excavation can be evaluated. A large 3percentage of soil material, nearly 70,000 m, can be recycled. Generally, for any subway construction project, plans for recycling waste materials should be implemented prior to work commencement. These plans should identify which types of waste will be generated and the methods that will be used to handle, recycle and dispose these materials. Additionally, areas for temporary accumulation or storage should be clearly designated. A waste management plan directs construction activities towards an environmentally friendly process by reducing the amount of used and unused waste materials. Environmental and economic advantages occurring when waste materials are diverted from land,lls include the following (Batayneh et al. 2007): 1. The conservation of raw materials 2. A reduction in the cost of waste disposal 3. An ef,cient use of materials. EW materials must be kept clean and separate in order for them to be ef,ciently used or recycled. Storage methods should be investigated to prevent material from being lost due to mishandling. In addition, orders for materials should be placed just before work commences. To complete a waste management plan, an estimation of the amount and type of usable and unusable EW materials expected to be generated should be developed. Listing all expected quantities of each type of waste will give an indication of what type of management activities are appropriate for each speci,c waste material. At each stage of excavation, speci,c ways to reduce, reuse or recycle produced EW should be implemented. The ,ow chart in Fig. 2 includes suggestions for an EW management plan. This paper focuses on EW produced by metro tunnel excavation through hard rock and soil. TBM and classical tunnelling wastes can be successfully used in many construction and speciality applications, including aggregates, erosion control, roadway structures, ,ll, sub-base material and road slopes. In order to minimize negative effects caused by excavated material both on the environment and on people, it must be reduced at its source. Including forcible decrees through the acceptance of environmental laws would also be useful. Soil and clay material, excavated through the use of EPBM machines, must be reused. It is possible to separate clay and sand, making its reuse possible and minimizing harmful environmental effect. Waste and recycling management plans should be developed for any construction project prior to commencement in order to sustain environmental, economic, and social development principles. Waste management is a critical issue facing the construction industry in Istanbul as the industry is one of the biggest generators of pollution. During different excavation projects, construction, demolitions and domestic activities, Istanbul produces about 14 million tons of solid waste each year, posing major environmental and ecological problems, including the need for a large area of land to be used as storage and disposal facilities. This waste consists of EW (7.6 million tons), DW (2.7 million tons) and municipal waste (3.7 million tons). The recycling rate of municipal waste is only 7%. The recycling rate of EW and DW is below 10% (IMM 2007). Examine lithology of project to ensure efficient of EW Evaluate materials ordering and storage procedures on site Chose a strategy each type of lithology for use Rock materials Soil, fill and clay Classification according to type and Classification according to type dimension Suitable Not suitable Not suitable Suitable Fig. 2 Flow chart for EW management Use as Investigate waste disposal Use as Aggregates options Sand Fill material Clay Roadway structures Other raw materials Beach erosion control Road slopes Other raw materials Municipal landfill