意思表示错误之撤销与相对人的信赖保护

意思表示错误之撤销与相对人的信赖保护 朱广新 《中国法学》杂志社 编辑 关键词: 意思表示错误/信赖保护/信赖责任 内容提要: 意思表示错误之撤销而产生的赔偿责任在性质上属于信赖责任。信赖责任建立在受损的合理信赖之上,其构成要素为:显然的意图或事实、信赖行为、善意与可归责性。二者均具有信赖保护功能,信赖责任在思维重心与归责基础上明显不同于缔约上的过失责任。信赖责任的赔偿范围以信赖利益为限,当信赖利益大于期待利益时,以期待利益的数额为限。《民法通则》第61条和《法》第58条将意思表示错误之撤销而产生的赔偿责任规定为一种缔约上的过失责任,存在明显缺陷,非常不利于对相对人的信赖保护,应予以修正。 一、问题的提出 民法以普通民众为规范对象。常言道:人非圣贤,孰能无过?错误既然是人类难以避免之事,如何规范民事错误行为因而成为现代民法上的一个重要问题。德国民法规定,意思表示因错误和传达不实而作出时,表意人可撤销该意思表示;但须赔偿相对人或第三人因其信赖表示有效而遭受的损害。 one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 我国《民法通则》第59条与《合同法》第54条对民事错误行为也有明确规定,根据这些规定,当事人可以“重大误解”为由,撤销已作出的意思表示。但与众不同的是,上述法律并未明确规定撤销重大误解行为的后果,只是概括地规定,法律行为无效或被撤销的,有过错的一方当事人应向对方承担赔偿责任。 取法于欧陆的我国民法,对民事错误行为,为何不直接继受德国法的规则而要煞费苦心地另起炉灶,这早已不是什么新鲜的比较法课题了。就我国民法研究现状而言,尚需探讨的一个重要问题是:当事人一方以错误为由撤销已作出表示时,是否应对交易相对人或第三人因信赖其表示有效而遭受的损害给予赔偿,如应给予,其应满足怎样? 为对问题能够全面、深入的把握,本文首先从考察两大法系之相关规范模式入题,然后探讨信赖责任的构成与效果,最后分析我国现行法存在的问题及其解决办法。 二、意思表示错误之撤销的规范模式 关于意思表示错误,在各国立法史上,向来存在两种不同的规范理念,即意志论与表示论,或可以说是自由论与安全论。前者认为,根据私法自治原则,每个人可以其意志自由建构法律关系,如果建构法律关系的行为不是建立在无瑕疵的意志之上,那么,这种行为可以被视为一种不成功的建构行为,法律可将这种有瑕疵的意思表示规定为one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 无效。 [1]后一种观点则强调,一个公开表达其意思的人,应当承担自由表达的风险,这种风险即使源于其对环境的估计错误;因为,如果仅仅因为自己犯了错误就对合同的效力产生怀疑的话,会使交易安全遭受极大破坏。 [2]这两种理念主导了近现代以来有关民事错误的立法或判例。以德国、瑞士为代表的大陆法各国民法深受意志论的影响,在学说上发展出了关于意思表示瑕疵的丰富理论,在立法上确立了因错误而使法律行为无效或得撤销的一般规则;而以英国、美国为代表的普通法则采纳了表示论的法律思想,因而“,普通法的律师从来没有像大陆法律师那样关注表示意图被破坏的问题,也没有关于由于错误而撤销的一般规则。普通法更关注于对于合理地依赖当时情形下表示方意思表示的一方进行保护。” [3]也就是说,为保护交易安全,普通法在思考意思表示错误问题时,对表意人的单方意志一般是置之不理,而是将思维重点集中于意思表示受领人(相对人)的信赖保护上。 理念是抽象的、一般的,有时甚至是极端的,其目的在于以清晰的线条式的思维为人们提供一个把握、解决问题的宏观方向;至于对某种理念的实际贯彻,向来的立法总是以特例、特殊情况等立法技术来减缓理念性思维的极端与僵化。两大法系关于意思表示错误的立法或判例也同样如此。 one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 大陆法在坚持“错误者无意思”观念的前提下,为防止意思自治危及交易安全,摈弃“凡有错误、则可撤销”的极端立法思想,规定只有当错误符合“严重性”标准时,表意人才可撤销错误的意思表示。而英美法现在的做法则为“,如果一方当事人进行交易是基于对另一方当事人在谈判中的误述或虚假声明的合理依赖,则合同可以被撤销”。 [4] 两大法系有关意思表示错误的规范理念在它们各自的立法或判例上也得到充分展现。在大陆法中,只要错误是根本的或重大的,表意人即可撤销已作出的错误表示,法律或学说一般不考虑,错误是仅仅由表意人一方的原因造成的,还是因双方当事人共同的原因或相互的原因造成的;法律同时规定,表意人行使撤销权须对相对人给予适当赔偿。不同于大陆法,普通法中的错误在制度构造上被划分为两个类型,即错误(mistake)与虚假陈述(misrepresentation)。前者主要指非故意发生的错误,具体包括三种形态:双方错误、共同错误和单方错误 [5]。根据普通法,订约一方的错误原则上不能影响合同的有效性,只有当错误的发生引致双方当事人之间根本无一致的意思表示时,才能使合同无效。 [6]因此,非故意发生的错误不存在一方当事人的信赖保护问题。虚假意思表示刚开始主要是指有意发生的错误,根据表意人对虚假事实认识的轻重,虚假意思表示一般被分为欺诈性虚假意思表示和疏忽性虚假意思表示两种情况;判例后来又发展出无意的虚假意思表示。虚假意思表示的基本规则是,一方当事人在订约中故意、one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 过失或无意地给予对方当事人不真实的信息,诱使对方当事人订立合同时,信赖合同有效而遭受损害的当事人享有撤销合同的权利。 上述两种意思表示错误的制度架构,提出了一个相同的问题:在撤销错误意思表示之时,应如何保护相对人(第三人)的合理信赖,以维护交易安全?以下对此作进一步的分析。 (一)大陆法 总的看来,大陆法关于意思表示相对人(第三人)的信赖保护有两种不同的立法模式:德国式与瑞士式。 1.德国式。大陆法关于意思表示错误的规定,以德国民法最为详尽,我国台湾地区的民法继受了德国法的规定。 根据《德国民法典》第122条的规定,意思表示因错误和因传达不实而可撤销的,在应向他人进行表示时,表意人应向该他人,在其他情形,应向任何第三人,赔偿该他人或第三人因其信赖表示有效而遭受的损害,但不得超过该他人或第三人在意思表示有效时所具有的利益的数额。受害人明知无效或可撤销的原因,或因过失而不知(应知)的,不发生损害赔偿义务。“台湾民法”第91条的规定,意思表示因错误或传达错误而被撤销时,表意人对于信其意思表示为有效而受损one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 害之相对人或第三人,应负赔偿责任。但其撤销之原因,受害人明知或可得而知者,不在此限。 由上述规定可知:(1)错误行为的撤销权由表意人享有,在撤销错误的意思表示时,表意人无须考虑相对人或第三人对表意人的意思表示是否发生了信赖;相对人或第三人无过失地信赖意思表示的有效只是其获得赔偿的条件,而不是撤销的条件。此点充分彰显了“意志论”的规范理念。(2)表意人应对善意信赖的相对人或第三人负损害赔偿责任,该责任并不以表意人的过失为要件 [7],这说明,对相对人或第三人的信赖保护是德国、台湾民法中的重要思想之一,如王泽鉴先生所言,尊重表意人的意思自主、兼顾相对人的信赖保护及交易安全是德国、台湾民法中错误制度的基本原则。 [8](3)赔偿限于信赖利益,当信赖利益超过期待利益时,以期待利益为限。 但德国与台湾的规定也有所不同:《德国民法典》第119条第1款并没有规定因过失而造成的错误不能主张撤销,即是说,过失并不是限制表意人撤销权的理由;然而,根据台湾民法,表意人的无过失是其享有撤销权的必要条件。 [9] 在表意人不行使撤销权或不能撤销其错误的意思表示(有过失)时,信赖意思表示真实有效的相对人能否撤销对其不利的意思表示呢?以表意人之利益为关注重心的德国法对此有所忽视。 one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 2.瑞士式。《瑞士债务法》第23条与第26条规定,当事人因重大错误而订立合同的,不受合同约束;错误是因为撤销合同一方之疏忽造成的,撤销合同的一方应当赔偿因撤销合同给对方造成的损失,但对方当事人知道或者应当知道此错误的除外。由此规定可知,在瑞士,(1)不管其对错误之发生是否有过失,表意人均可撤销合同,该规则同于德国法、异于台湾法;(2)撤销权人只在有过失之情况下,才对相对人负担损害赔偿责任,也就是说,表意人承担的是一种过失责任,此与德国、台湾民法存在很大差异。 (二)英美法 在普通法中,当事人一方的行为如构成过失或无意的虚假意思表示,受害方可撤销意思表示,并可请求损害赔偿。英国《1967年虚假意思表示法》第2条第1款规定,一方当事人在对方对其作出虚假意思表示后签订合同并因此遭受损失的,尽管其意思表示不是欺诈性的,对方当事人应承担损害赔偿责任,除非其能够证明,其有合理的理由相信并在签订合同时也确实相信,其所为意思表示的事实是真实的。《美国侵权法重述》对过失与无意虚假意思表示的赔偿责任也有明确的规定,根据其第552条第1款的规定,在营业、职业、雇佣或其他有金钱利益的交易过程中,而提供作为他人交易之引导之不实消息者,如有怠于合理注意或无合理能力而取得或传达消息,就该他人之合理信赖该消息之金钱损失,应负责任。其第552C条第1款将无意的虚假one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 意思表示界定为:买卖、租赁或互易的一方当事人,为了诱使他方当事人信赖其说明而作为或不作为,就重要事实作出虚假意思表示的,即便其作出虚假意思表示没有故意或过失,也应就他人当事人合理信赖该虚假意思表示所遭受的金钱损失承担赔偿责任。 从上述规定看,在英美法中,(1)表意人承担的是一种无过失的赔偿责任 [10];(2)损害赔偿责任可以违约或侵权为由向法院提起;(3)强调表意人的诱使与相对人的信赖之间具有因果关系 [11]。 直观地看,意思表示因错误而被撤销时,表意人应对信其意思表示有效而受损害的相对人或第三人负赔偿责任是各国一致的立场;稍有差异的是,在德国、台湾地区、英国和美国法上,表意人即使主观上无故意或者过失,也应承担赔偿责任,该责任是一种纯粹的无过失责任;而瑞士法则要求,只有撤销者存在过失时,才对因撤销给对方造成的损失负责。 上述比较具有孤立看问题的嫌疑,为此,尚须注意大陆法与英美法在对相对人信赖保护上存在两个重要差异:(1)在大陆法中,撤销权属于表意人,法律之所以要求表意人承担对相对人的赔偿责任,主要原因不是在于对相对人合理信赖的保护,而是藉着对相对人的信赖保护以尽量弥补撤销意思表示对交易安全造成的不良影响;在英美法上,撤销权属于受害人,即意思表示的受领人(相对人),表意人的赔偿责任主要在于保护交易中的合理信赖;(2)虚假意思表示中的虚假,是指事实的虚假,不包括意见、意图或者允诺的虚假或前后不一;大陆法虽one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 然不讨论错误的内容是否必须是一种事实,但根据常识,错误应限于事实。 《瑞士债务法》第26条的规定,广义上属于德国学者冯-耶林(Rudolfvon-Jhering)于1861年提出的缔约上过失。如此说来《,德国民法典》第122条所规定的损害赔偿责任是否也属于冯-耶林意义上的缔约上过失?如果说这种无过失责任不属于缔约上过失责任的范畴,其责任性质、基础又将如何界定? 三、保护相对人利益的责任基础——信赖责任 对上述问题,德国学者拉仑茨(KarlLarenz)的回答是,表意人承担的赔偿信赖损害的义务并不以其过错为条件,它是一种纯粹的信赖责任或表见责任,《德国民法典》第122条也因此不属于缔约上过失的情形。 [12]台湾学者陈自强认为,由“台湾民法”第88条第1款的但书可知 [13],因错误必须不是源于表意人的过失,第91条规定的赔偿责任,显然不以过失为要件;因此“,台湾民法”第91条所规定的损害赔偿责任,在性质上并不属于缔约上过失,而是一种信赖责任。 [14]在拉仑茨与陈自强的观念中,信赖责任和缔约上过失责任显然是两个不同的法律概念或责任形态。自冯-耶林以来,大陆法对缔约上过失责任的概念、构成及效果等问题已形成较为稳定的认识,缔约上过失概念也因此成为分析缔约过程中损害赔偿问题的范式;然而,one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 何为信赖责任,其具有怎样的构成要件和法律效果,其与缔约上过失责任存在哪些不同,诸如此类的问题,却使人感到特别陌生,上述两位学者对此等问题均未予以展开说明。 (一)信赖责任的含义与构成 信赖责任是一种因合理信赖受到损害而引起的责任形态。在大陆法上,信赖责任时常被称为权利表见责任,此种责任形态,并非没有激起学者们的探究偏好。德国另一位著名民法学家卡纳里斯(Canaris)于1971年出版的《德国私法上的信赖责任》一书对信赖责任进行了专题研究。在卡纳里斯看来,为满足信赖保护的需要,法律制度或规范不仅需要一定的原因(如果信赖不是盲目的),而且需要倚赖一个客观基础;因此,因权利表见责任产生的请求权所需要的第一个要件是,须存在“信赖事实”(Vertrauenstatbestand)。除此之外,信赖保护尚需其他前提条件,对信赖他人的人而言,法律有特别的要求,如,轻率的信赖得不到法律保护,即轻信他人的人法律是不给予保护的;同时,内在的信赖通常不足以表示会对法律规范产生一定影响,信赖须以“信赖投资”(Vertrauensinvestition)或“安排”的方式予以客观化。最后,权利表见责任原则上还须与可归责性思想 (GedankenderZurechenbarkeit)紧密相连。“对形成典型意义上的信赖责任而言,信赖事实,应受保护的信赖,信赖投资以及可归责性因此成为一般前提条件。” [15] one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 不同于大陆法,对交易安全价值给予特别强调的普通法,不仅明确指出,如缔约一方的允诺或意思表示引起缔约另一方的信赖行为并进而对其造成损害时,表意人或允诺者所承担的是一种以信赖为基础的允诺责任(reliance-basedpromissoryliability); [16]而且还对该责任的构成要素有明确、深入的探讨 [17]。仅就虚假陈述引起的信赖责任而言,学说或判例在认定该责任是否存在时,一般认为下列因素必不可少:一方当事人作虚假意思表示(misrepresentation),对方当事人信赖(relyon)了虚假的意思表示,信赖方因信赖(reliance)改变了地位(alterationofposition)并因此遭受了损失(damage)。 [18] 概括两大法系关于信赖保护的规范样式,信赖责任一般须具备下列要素: 1.显然的意图或事实。信赖保护要考虑的首要因素是,当事人一方对另一方的相信或依赖基于何种理由会发生。英美法强调一方当事人须向另一方作出了肯定、明确的允诺、事实陈述等,大陆法要求须存在显然的事实或表见的事实,概括而言,信赖责任须以显然的意图或事实为前提。所谓显然的意图,是指依据社会一般观念或理性人的认识程度,当事人一方的允诺导致对方当事人认为他想这样行事而不是那样行事;换言之,在承诺者看来,允诺者的意图具有显然的外部迹象,这种外部迹象使承诺者认为它充分传达出了允诺者的内在想法。one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 基于此“,显然的意图(apparentintent)应被相信为真实的意图(realintent),由此产生的期待像恰如存在一个真正的意图时应得到法律保护的期待那样”。 [19]在形式上,显然的意图或事实只要求意图或事实在客观上呈现于外界即可。 2.信赖行为。信赖行为是指当事人一方相信由他人引出的显然的意图或事实后所采取的具体行动。信赖行为在英美法上通常被称为地位的改变、受损的信赖或损害,在大陆法上,德国法将它称为一种信赖投资或安排。仅有内在的确信而无实际付出,难以符合该要件。 3。信赖人须为善意。法律虽不苛求人与人之间应诚实守信,但绝不鼓励轻信或盲从。信赖保护原则不是要在当事人之间提倡忠实与厚道的伦理精神,而是要制止当事人一方在交易中遭受不测损害。对大陆法上的权利表见责任以及英美法上虚假陈述责任而言,信赖保护原则具有鲜明的经济功能,即,它能通过消除商业交易上不必要的顾虑或风险,对当事人产生一种行为激励作用,从而加速经济的流转。基于此,信赖人必须是善意的:不知事实真相或不知道允诺者会背弃其允诺。 4.可归责性。可归责性强调显然的意图或事实之产生可归咎于当事人一方,德国法对此的强调最为显著。英美法采取理性人的标准来认定可归责性之有无,即,允诺者是否明知或应知其允诺或事实陈述会唤起对方的信赖行为,如明知或应知则应承担责任。与同样作为责任归咎基础的“过失”概念相比,“可归责性”基本上脱离了主观评one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 价意蕴,突出强调显然的意图或事实对信赖行为的引出所具有的“诱因”作用。 (二)信赖责任和缔约上过失责任的根本区别 明白了信赖责任的构成,则不难将信赖责任和缔约上过失责任作一概括的区分。关于缔约上过失,学界讨论甚多,众说纷纭中,拉仑茨的分析相当精辟,即:“如缔约上过失一语所示,此为有责违反义务行为所负之责任,故为过失责任。学说判例所以创设此种不具有诉请履行性之给付义务,其目的乃在保护相对人之信赖利益。依此观点,缔约上过失制度结合了过失责任原则与信赖责任原则二种思想。” [20]此分析揭示了,缔约上过失责任虽也旨在保护相对人的信赖利益,但其与信赖责任也存在显然区别,具体看,二者的区分主要体现于以下两点。 1.思维重心不同 信赖责任与缔约上过失责任虽然均以保护缔约一方当事人的损失(主要是信赖损失,但不全是)为制度建构或思考的逻辑起点,但在责任构成的思维取向上,二者却存在显著差异。对信赖责任而言,缔约一方当事人是否存在受损的信赖是其考虑的首先问题,基于此,它一般展开如下思维路线:缔约一方当事人的意思表示是否激起了缔约另一方当事人的合同将被订立的假定,如果激起了假定,该假定是否创one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 造或强化了缔约另一方当事人的确信,如有确信,该确信是否引发了信赖行为,在信赖行为被引出之情况下,允许缔约另一方当事人背弃意思表示是否公平;因此,在信赖责任体系中,信赖既是法律思维的逻辑起点,又是认定责任是否存在的重点,信赖因而也成为信赖责任制度中被详加讨论的一个核心概念。缔约上过失也是以损害为责任建构的逻辑起点,但其思考的重点却不在于信赖,而在于过失,因对过失采取了客观主义的判断标准,因此,由过失之概念又衍生出前合同义务之概念,如注意义务、保护义务、照顾义务等,缔约一方当事人违背这些义务则意味着责任的承担 [21];因此,对缔约上过失而言,前合同义务是一个核心概念,是此法律思维的必不可少的工具,只要翻看一些论述缔约上过失责任的教科书或专题,可明显地发现这种事实。 2.归责原则不同 信赖责任因将思维重点定位在受害人的合理信赖上,因此,它在很大程度上跳出了从致害人角度,尤其是从致害人的主观上寻找责任依据的思维窠臼,带有强烈的客观归责的色彩 [22]。缔约上过失责任的归责原则是致害人的过失,这与侵权行为法中的归责原则区别不大。虽然,过失的判断标准被客观化了,但是,单纯从致害人角度认定责任的思维方式并没有改变,致害人的主观状况仍然是法官在认定责任上必须思考的一个重要问题。 one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 对于撤销错误意思表示引起的赔偿责任来说,其之所以是信赖责任而不是缔约上过失责任,原因在于,以过失之有无作为分配表意人与相对人之间交易风险的标准缺乏起码的合理性;人类生活为,在两人之间的人际往来中或市场交易中,一方当事人在社交或磋商之际,无法评判另一方当事人是否对交易或交往的事实具有主观的过失,相对人不是因表意人有或无过失而决定是否对表意人作出的意思表示产生信赖,对他/她而言,只有表意人外化的意思——客观的行为才是其决定自己相应行为的条件,是其对表意人产生合理信赖的基础。因此,在认定意思表示错误之撤销而引起的赔偿责任时,必要条件为,表意人作出了意思表示(客观上),相对人对表意人的意思表示产生合理信赖,相对人因信赖造成了损失。在这三个条件中,合理信赖是核心要素,是分配交易风险的核心要素。基于此分析,意思表示错误之撤销而引起的赔偿责任应是一种与错误人的过失不存在必然联系纯粹的信赖责任,而不是一种缔约上过失责任。 (三)因错误引起的信赖责任的特别问题 对意思表示错误之撤销而引起的信赖责任而言,如受害人明知或可得而知意思表示撤销的原因,则谈不上对其的信赖保护。所谓明知撤销的原因,是指相对人虽然知道意思表示有错误,但不知表意人的真意如何;所谓可得而知,指一般有理性的人,处于与相对人相同情形下,将知道意思表示有错误,而有查证的必要,因错误显然,相对人却one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 仍然不知,无信赖保护之必要。另须注意的是,如果因撤销相对人的——虽然是无过错的——行为促成了表意人发生错误的,表意人的赔偿义务还可根据共同过失的规定而减轻或消灭。德国学者拉伦茨认为,如果表意人发生的是表示错误,而受领人认识到或应该认识到表意人所指的内容,那么表示就在表意人所指的意义上发生效力(共同主观意思);如果表意人发生性质错误,而行为相对人认识到了这一错误,那么通常他必须根据“诚实信用”的准则,向表意人指出他的错误。行为相对人怠于指出,反而恶意利用表意人的错误为自己谋取利益的,表意人不仅可因性质错误撤销表示,还可根据恶意欺诈的规定撤销其表示。在恶意欺诈情形下,不存在对表意人进行信赖保护的问题。 [23] 对意思表示因错误而引起的信赖责任而言,还必须注意该责任建立的另一种法律政策考虑。私法自治赋予个人充分的自由,但同样作为近现代私法之精神支柱的个人责任则要求个人必须为自己自主选择的结果负责。就意思表示而言,个人可基于其需求单独或者向特定的相对人自由作意思表示,根据个人责任,个人应就其自由行使意思表示而产生的不利后果负责。因此,当事人即使在意思表示发生错误时,也应承担错误给其造成的后果。特别是,当当事人自由表示其意思时,如该意思表示已被相对人受领或虽未被相对人受领但已经对其产生一定的实质影响时,法律更应当考虑如何在一方当事人的自由与对方当事人的安全之间寻求适当的平衡,此时,如对自由不加以适当的限制,必将使对方当事人处于交易不确定的危险之中。因此,对于意思one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 表示因错误而撤销之法律后果而言,任何规范模式在设计之初,无不应认真权衡自由与责任、自由与安全之间的微妙关系,怎样在这些法律价值之间找到一个均衡点,对立法者来说并非易事。选择哪种模式很大程度上受立法者所处时代的法学思潮、法律政策的影响。德国学者梅迪库斯(Dieter Medicus)认为:“这方面存在着多种可能性,而在法律政策上,没有哪一种具有不言而喻的优先性。作为区别的标准,可考虑下列因素:表意人对其错误是否具有过错,错误对表示受领人来说是否具有可识别性,受领人在信任意思表示的存续性时付出了多大代价。” [24]德国民法制定之时,冯?耶林提出的对信赖利益应当给予保护的观点已得到学界的普遍赞同,因此,虽然说意思表示因错误而撤销所产生的信赖责任不属于耶林所言的“缔约上过失”的范畴,但对信赖利益予以保护不能说不受冯?耶林思想的影响。 (四)信赖责任的法律效果 信赖责任的法律效果,依据信赖保护的必要性与程度,大致可分为两种:第一种是使值得信赖保护的人,处于如同其所信赖的对象(权利外观)确实存在的姿态,最典型的例证是表见代理责任,善意第三人可主张履行利益;第二种是使其处于如同未曾信赖过的状态,填补其因信赖所遭受的损害,该损害通常称为信赖利益或消极利益的损害。意思表示因错误而撤销所引发的损害赔偿属于第二种信赖责任,撤销one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 权人应使被害人的整体财产状态处于如同未曾信赖意思表示有效的状态。 [25] 在信赖责任中,赔偿义务人为撤销意思表示的表意人,权利人为信赖意思表示有效而受损害的相对人或第三人。相对人是指有相对人意思表示的受领人,第三人并非任何因意思表示撤销而受有损害的人,而是指意思表示虽无受领人但因该意思表示而受损害的人,例如,甲欲丢弃A物,误取B物抛弃,乙以无主物先占而取得B物所有权。甲撤销其意思表示时,得向乙请求返还其物。 信赖责任的赔偿范围以信赖利益或消极利益为限,即,要求撤销人使相对人或第三人处于行为未发生时其应处于的状况。但当信赖利益大于履行利益,如,撤销相对人为了履行合同而已支出的费用,大于他从该行为中可能赚取的利润。在此情况下,德国法明确规定,撤销相对人请求赔偿的信赖损害,只能以履行利益的数额为限;台湾法虽无明文规定,但通说采德国法之做法。法律这样规定的原因,在于没有理由使相对人通过撤销,反而在经济上比其在被撤销的行为有效时的情况更好。 四、我国的现行立法的问题与修正之道 如本文开篇所言,《民法通则》与《合同法》虽对意思表示错误作出了明确规定,但却未具体规定撤销错误意思表示的法律后果,只是对法律行为无效或被撤销的后果作了统一规定。以《合同法》为例,one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 根据该法第58条的规定:“合同无效或者被撤销后,因该合同取得的财产,应当予以返还;不能返还或者没有必要返还的,应当折价补偿。有过错的一方应当赔偿对方因此所受到的损失,双方都有过错的,应当各自承担相应的责任。”从体系解释的方法论看《,合同法》第58条可适用于合同无效或被撤销的所有情况(《合同法》第47条至54条的规定),当事人一方因重大误解撤销合同时(《合同法》第54条),其撤销之后果自然适用第58条的规定。从上述规定看,合同无效或被撤销之后果为返还财产与赔偿损失。对于返还财产,其在性质上属于不当得利之返还,为学界之通说,在《民法通则》第92条对不当得利作出统一、明确规定之情形下,其实已无必要再对返还财产作重复性规定,对此本文不再多言。对于“赔偿损失”,学界主流观点认为,其性质属于缔约上过失责任。 [26]并且认为,“当事人之所以要为合同无效或者被撤销而产生的损失负责,是因为其主观上对合同的无效或者被撤销以及因此带来的损失存在过错”。 [27]如把该观点用之于重大误解之撤销,可导出下列两点结论:第一,合同当事人一方在订立合同时,即使对其重大错误行为有过错,其也可撤销已订立的合同,但要对给对方所造成的损失负赔偿责任;第二,合同当事人一方在订立合同时,如因重大误解撤销合同时,如果其对该重大误解无过错,对方当事人即使遭受损失也不能要求撤销行为人给予赔偿。 在大陆法中,上述结论之一并不令人感到陌生。 one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 在瑞士,联邦法院根据《瑞士债务法》第26条的规定推论出,错误方因自己的疏忽须赔偿给对方造成的损失,该疏忽并不禁止其撤销意思表示;德国也有同样的观点,因为《德国民法典》第119条并没有明确指出错误一方的过失排除撤销权。 [28]对此问题,与众不同的立法例,当属“台湾民法”第88条第1款之规定,根据该规定,表意人因自己之过失不知意思表示错误的,不得将其意思表示撤销。如何理解此所谓“过失”,其是指重大过失、抽象轻过失或者是具体轻过失?台湾学者对此一直未有定论,多数人认为应理解为抽象轻过失,这样较能兼顾意思自主与交易安全,但实务上却无采抽象轻过失的判决。 [29]也许就是因为有第88条第1款但书的限制,台湾法院关于错误的判决,数量上屈指可数,能成功以错误撤销的案例,也不多见,与德国的情形,有天壤之别 [30]。权衡上述两种立法例,为不至于过分限制意思表示错误制度之适用,德国、瑞士的规定应比较可取,我国法律对此问题的规定与德、瑞一致,应当维持。 如果说结论之一还算可取的话,而结论之二就不那么合理了。根据大陆法意思表示错误的一般理论,意思表示错误根据表意人对错误的主观认识,一般被划分为:故意的意思表示错误和非故意的意思表示错误,前者又可分为,真意保留和虚伪表示,后者就是通常所说的错误。在我国的立法、学说或判解中“,过错”是指故意与过失,过失一般又被分为重大过失和轻过失 [31]。由于《民法通则》和《合同法》对真意保留均无明文规定,只是规定了与虚伪表示比较类似的“恶意串通”,因此,对意思表示错误来说《,合同法》第58条所规定的“过one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 错”在规范目的上应仅指“过失”。这就意味着,只有当表意人对意思表示错误存在过失时,相对人才享有要求损失赔偿的权利。由此可见,意思表示错误之撤销所产生的赔偿责任在我国法律上是一种缔约上过失责任,此与瑞士法的规定一致,与德国和台湾的规定存在显著区别。 法律不要求错误人承担信赖责任的事实充分表明,立法者在表意人与相对人的利益衡量中,注重的是对表意人自由意志的维护,而不是以交易安全为指向的对相对人信赖的保护。尊重表意人的自主意思并兼顾相对人的信赖保护及交易安全是德国、台湾民法中错误制度建构的基础;这种洞悉人性弱点、彰显人文关怀而又顾及交易安全的立法,情理兼顾,无可挑剔。在注重信赖保护的现代社会,我国现行法却选择了尊重表意人的自由、全然不顾相对人信赖保护的立法模式,该立法明显落伍于现代社会的发展需要。前文分析充分显示,在认定意思表示错误之撤销而引起的赔偿责任时,相对人的合理信赖是核心要素,表意人的过失与责任构成间并不存在必然联系。鉴于此,未来制定民法典时,应当对现行法予以必要修正,具体做法是,采纳德国之立法例,对意思表示错误之撤销所引起的赔偿责任单独予以规定。 注释: one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, [1] 〔德〕梅迪库斯.德国民法总论〔M〕.邵建东.北京:法律出版社,2001.9564. [2] 〔德〕海因-克茨.欧洲合同法〔M〕.周忠海,等.北京:法律出版社,2001.p250. [3] 〔德〕海因-克茨.欧洲合同法〔M〕.周忠海,等.北京:法律出版社,2001.p251. [4] 〔德〕海因-克茨.欧洲合同法〔M〕.周忠海,等.北京:法律出版社,2001.p251. [5]共同错误,是指当事人双方就同一事实发生了相同的认识错误;双方错误,是指当事人双方所指的标的物并不一致;单方错误,指一方当事人发生了错误,对方当事人知道或应知道该错误,却保持沉默地签订了合同。参见何宝玉《:英国合同法》,中国政法大学出版社1999年版,第450,475页;王军编著:《美国合同法》,中国政法大学出版社1996年版,第157,171页。 [6]杨桢.英美契约法论〔M〕.北京:北京大学出版社,2003.p171. [7]表意人如为故意时,则构成意思表示中的真意保留,在大陆法 中不属于错误的范畴。 one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 [8]王泽鉴.民法总则〔M〕.北京:中国政法大学出版 社,2001.p371. [9]王泽鉴.民法总则〔M〕.北京:中国政法大学出版 社,2001.p382. [10] SeeTreitel,ThelawofContract,9thedition,Sweet&Maxwell,1995,p .314. 英国著名合同法学者特瑞特尔(Treitel)认为,《1967年虚假意思表示法》第2条第1款规定的责任远非“绝对的”,因为,根据该款的结束语,陈述者可通过证明他相信他陈述的事实的真实性不是轻率形成的来逃避责任。从此方面看,该条款的赔偿责任“本质上是建立在过失之上的”。See Treitel,The law of Contract,9the dition,Sweet & Maxwell,1995,p.324. [11]虚假意思表示的相对人必须已经信赖了表意人作出的虚假意思表示。 [12] 〔德〕卡尔-拉仑茨.德国民法通论(下册)〔M〕.王晓晔,等.北京:法律出版社,2003.p527. one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, [13] “台湾民法”第88条第1款规定,意思表示之内容有错误, 或表意人若知其事情即不为意思表示者,表意人得将其意思表示撤销 之。但以其错误或不知事情,非由表意人自己之过失者为限。 [14]陈自强.民法讲义?契约之成立与生效〔M〕.北京:法律出版 社,2002.p212. [15] Claus-Wilhelm Canaris,Die Vertrauenshaftung im Deutschen Privatrecht,C.H.Beck’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung,1971.p491. [16] John Cooke,DavidOughton:The Common Law of Obligations,Third Edition,Butterworths,2000.p90. [17]如美国《合同法重述》第90条规定的赔偿责任。See Peter Benson,ed.,The Theory of Contract Law,Cambridge University Press,2001,p.174. [18] Spencer Bower,Turner and Handley:Actionable Misrepresentation, Butterworths,2000.p2-3. [19] P.S.Atiyah,The Riseand Fall of Freedom of Contract,Clarendon Press:Oxford,1979.p459. one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, 文章来源:中顾法律网 上网找律师 就到中顾法律网 快速专业解决您的法律问题 [20] 〔德〕卡尔-拉仑茨.德国法上损害赔偿之归责原则〔A〕.王泽鉴.民法学说与判例研究(第5卷)〔C〕.北京:中国政法大学出版社,1998.p273-274. [21]王泽鉴先生明确指出“,culpaincontrahendo制度是建立在先契约义务(VorvertraglichePflicht)的概念之上”。参见王泽鉴:《民法学说与判例研究》,第1卷,中国政法大学出版社1998年版,第95,96页。 [22]信赖责任构成要素中的可归责性其实也是从致害人角度思考责任之有无的一个要素,但是,如前文所言,可归责性主要强调受害人的合理信赖必须导源于致害人,致害人的主观是一个考查因素,但并不是一个必不可少或重要的因素。 [23] 〔德〕卡尔-拉仑茨.德国民法通论(下册)〔M〕.王晓晔,等.北京:法律出版社,2003.p527-528. [24] 〔德〕梅迪库斯.德国民法总论〔M〕.邵建东.北京:法律出版社,2001.p565. [25]陈自强.民法讲义?契约之成立与生效〔M〕.北京:法律出版社,2002.p213. one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income, [26]王利明,崔建远.合同法新论•总则(修订版)〔M〕.北京:中国政法大学出版社,2000.p314-315. [27]崔建远.新合同法原理与案例评释(上)〔M〕.长春:吉林大学出版社,1999.p222-223. [28] 〔德〕海因-克茨.欧洲合同法〔M〕.周忠海,等.北京:法律出版社,2001.p269. [29]王泽鉴.民法总则〔M〕.北京:中国政法大学出版社,2001.p382. [30]陈自强认为, “我们(台湾)关于错误规定,最具本土色彩的,应是(民法)第88条第1项(款)但书的规定”。参见陈自强:《民法讲义?契约之成立与生效》,法律出版社2002年版,第208页。 [31]不同于大陆法的其他国家或地区,我国现行立法对过失无抽象轻过失与具体轻过失的区分。 出处:《法律科学》(西北政法学院学报)2006年第4期 one good, one not. (B) in order to tailor aid measures. After identification of the poor, to tailor aid measures of poverty for poverty alleviation. Focus on "five to the village to" infrastructure to the village to households and industry support to the household, education and training to the village to the village families, renovate rural village households, twinning support to village households. Through villages, analytical grasp of poverty causes door-to-door implementation support responsible, supporting projects and help to fund. According to deficiency what fill what principles, "should be agricultural is agricultural, and should be workers is workers, and should be tour is tour, and should be business is business", developed more precision of poverty programme, put "sent dish door" into let masses "see single order", ensure a households a this Taiwan account, and a households a poverty plans, and a households a helping measures, put poverty funds, and project, and material, implementation to specific village, and specific households, and specific people, real helped points Shang, and help to root Shang. File in the County, 11 out of poverty is presented here, some form of further stressed. In industry poverty aspects, to relies on I County of fruits and vegetables canned and honeysuckle two big industry, play agricultural processing enterprise in funds, and technology, and sales, and employment, aspects of advantage, through "enterprise + base + poor", mode, guide poverty village, and poor development quality forest fruit, and Chinese herbal medicines, and mushroom, and facilities vegetables, and flower seedlings, features industry, absorb poverty labor employment increase, effective increased poor business sex income and workers income,